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Phytoestrogen Content of Cereals and Cereal-Based Foods Consumed in the

UK
Gunter G. C. Kuhnle a; Caterina Dell'Aquila a; Sue M. Aspinall a; Shirley A. Runswick a; Angela A. Mulligan b;
Sheila A. Bingham a
a
MRC Dunn Human Nutrition Unit, Cambridge, England b EPIC, Department of Public Health and Primary
Care, Institute of Public Health, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England

Online Publication Date: 01 May 2009

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 Nutrition and Cancer, 61(3), 302–309
Copyright © 2009, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0163-5581 print / 1532-7914 online
DOI: 10.1080/01635580802567141

Phytoestrogen Content of Cereals and Cereal-Based Foods

Consumed in the UK
Gunter G. C. Kuhnle, Caterina Dell’Aquila, Sue M. Aspinall,
and Shirley A. Runswick
MRC Dunn Human Nutrition Unit, Cambridge, England

Angela A. Mulligan
EPIC, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Institute of Public Health,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England

Sheila A. Bingham
MRC Dunn Human Nutrition Unit, Cambridge, England
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009

diovascular disease (4), and cancer (5). Although mechanisms

Dietary phytoestrogens may be involved in the occurrence of
chronic diseases. Reliable information on the phytoestrogen con-
tent in foods is required to assess dietary exposure and disease risk
in epidemiological studies. However, there is little information on
isoflavone, lignan, and coumestrol content of cereals and cereal-
based foods, leading to an underestimation of intake. This is the
first study of phytoestrogens (isoflavones: biochanin A, daidzein,
formononetin, genistein, glycitein; lignans: matairesinol, secois-
plariciresinol; coumestrol) in a comprehensive selection of 101
cereals and cereal-based foods—including breads, breakfast ce-
reals, biscuits, pasta and rice—consumed in the UK using a sensi-
tive LCMS technique with 13 C-labelled internal standards. Phyto-
estrogens were detected in all foods analyzed; bread contained the
highest amount of phytoestrogens—many as isoflavones—with an
average content of 375 ± 67 µg/100 g wet weight (excluding soya-
linseed bread with 12,000 µg/100 g). Most other foods contained
less than 100 µg/100 g, many as lignans. Our study shows that all
foods analyzed contained phytoestrogens, with the highest amount
found in breads, making them one of the main sources of dietary
phytoestrogens in the UK. These results will allow a more accurate
estimation of exposure to dietary phytoestrogens.
INTRODUCTION
Cereals and cereal-based foods are part of the staple diet in
most societies and are consumed by more than 90% of the
adult population in the UK (1). The consumption of cereal
products—in particular, whole grain—has been associated with
a reduced risk of Type 2 diabetes (2), hypertension (3), car-
Submitted 23 May 2008; accepted in final form 4 September 2008.
Address correspondence to Gunter G. C. Kuhnle, MRC Dunn
Human Nutrition Unit, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Hills Road,
Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK. Fax: +44 (0) 1223 252765. E-mail:
ggck2@cam.ac.uk
for the beneficial effects of these foods remain to be eluci-
dated, they have been attributed to individual components such
as antioxidants, fiber, and other phytochemicals such as lig-
nans (5,6). Lignans are structural plant components (7) that can
be converted into enterodiol and enterolactone by mammalian
gut microflora (8). These compounds—as well as isoflavones,
which are also found in cereals (9)—are bioactive as phyto-
estrogens because of their structural and functional similarity to
17β-estradiol (10). Dietary intake of phytoestrogens has been
shown in recent studies to have beneficial health effects with
regard to cancer (11–14), cardiovascular disease (13,15), osteo-
porosis (13,16) menopausal symptoms (13,17), male infertility
(18), and obesity and Type 2 diabetes (19).
However, increased levels of endogenous sex hormones are
generally associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in
women (20), and recent studies have shown an increased risk for
breast cancer associated with high exposure compared with low
exposure (21,22). Previously, strong gene-nutrient interactions
between phytoestrogens and polymorphisms of the estrogen re-
ceptor (ESR1 and NR1I2) (23,24), the sex-hormone binding
globulin (SHBG) (25), CYP17 (26), and probably aromatase
(CYP19) (27) have also been shown. As a result of their bioac-
tivity, there are concerns that phytoestrogens increase the risk
of recurrence and stimulate tumor growth—and as these com-
pounds can act either as estrogens or antiestrogens, there are
concerns surrounding the use of phytoestrogen supplements in
breast cancer patients (28,29). The UK Committee on Toxic-
ity recommended more research into the health effects of these
compounds because of the ambiguity of previous results (30).
To investigate dietary exposure to phytoestrogens, urinary
and plasma biomarkers can be used and have been used suc-
cessfully in previous studies (21,23,31–33). However, this is
not always possible, in particular in large cohorts or for the

302
 PHYTOESTROGEN CONTENT OF CEREALS CONSUMED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
determination of exposure of the population, and intake has to
be estimated using dietary data. For this reason, accurate in-
formation on dietary phytoestrogens is crucial to determine ex-
posure and investigate health effects further. However, despite
several studies analyzing phytoestrogens in food, there is still
insufficient information, and exposure is likely to be underesti-
mated (34), in particular since many studies have focused only
on a few compounds. In particular, for cereals and cereal-based
foods, very little information is available.
Previously, we have developed a robust and sensitive
LC/MS/MS method incorporating stable 13 C3 standards to de-
termine urinary and plasma phytoestrogen concentrations as
biomarkers of intake to assess cancer risks and interaction with
gene variants (35). Adapting this method for the analysis of
food samples, we have investigated the isoflavone (biochanin
A, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, and glycitein), lignan
(matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol), and coumestrol content
in more than 100 cereal-based foods such as breads, break-
fast cereals, biscuits, pasta, and rice available in the UK.
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009
These data will allow a more accurate determination of di-
etary phytoestrogen exposure and investigation of their effects in
vivo.
EXPERIMENTAL
Chemicals
Biochanin A, daidzein, genistein, glycitein, formononetin,
secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, and coumestrol were pur-
chased from Plantech (Reading, Berkshire, UK). 13 C3 -biochanin
A, 13 C3 -daidzein, 13 C3 -genistein, 13 C3 -glycitein, 13 C3 -formon-
onetin, 13 C3 -matairesinol, 13 C3 -secosiolariciresinol, and 13 C3 -
enterolactone were obtained from Dr. Nigel Botting (University
of St Andrews, Fife, UK) (36–39). β-glucuronidase (from Helix
Pomatia), β-glucosidase (from almonds), and cellulase (from
Trichoderma reesi) were purchased from Sigma (Poole, Dorset,
UK). Water, methanol, acetic acid, and ammonia were purchased
from Sigma and Fisher Scientific (Loughborough, Leicester-
shire, UK). To inhibit losses of target compounds by adsorption
to glassware, only silanized glassware was used.
Sampling
Samples of each food were purchased from at least 5 dif-
ferent food outlets (where possible) in Cambridgeshire, UK. If
possible, the foods bought at each outlet were from different
manufacturers, varieties, countries of origin, and/or batch num-
bers. Each sample was weighed, prepared, and a representative
portion (approximately 35 g dry weight) was taken from each of
the 5 samples. The samples were frozen (−20◦ C), freeze-dried
if necessary (BOC Edwards, Crawley, Sussex, UK), and stored
at −20◦ C until analysis. For analysis, samples of each food were
pooled (equal amounts), mixed, weighed, and processed as de-
scribed below.
303
Analysis
Samples were analyzed as described previously (40). Briefly,
approximately 100 mg freeze-dried food was extracted 3 times
with 2.0 ml 10% methanol in sodium acetate (0.1%, pH 5)
and deconjugated with a hydrolysis reagent consisting of pu-
rified helix pomatia juice (β-glucuronidase), cellulase, and β-
glucosidase. Deconjugated samples were then extracted using
Strata C-18E SPE cartridges (50 mg/ml; Phenomenex, Mac-
clesfield, Cheshire, UK), dried, reconstituted in 40% aqueous
methanol, and analyzed using LC/MS/MS. Analysis was per-
formed on a LC/MS/MS system consisting of a Jasco HPLC
system (Jasco, Great Dunmow, UK) using a diphenyl column
(Varian Pursuit, 3 µm, 150 × 2 mm; Varian, Oxford, Oxford-
shire, UK) and a Waters Quattro Ultima triple quadrupole MS
instrument (Waters, Manchester, UK) fitted with an electro-
spray ion source in negative ion mode and a LC/MS/MS sys-
tem consisting of a Agilent 1100 CapHPLC System (Agilent,
Wokingham, Berkshire, UK) and an ABI 4000 QTRAP mass
spectrometer (Applied Biosystems, Warrington, Cheshire, UK)
fitted with an electrospray ion source in negative ion mode.
Compounds were quantified using corresponding 13 C3 -labeled
internal standards; for coumestrol, 13 C3 -enterolactone was
used.
The method was validated on both LC/MS/MS systems. The
intrabatch cv of this method is between 3 and 14% and the
interbatch between 1 and 6%. As quality control, a sample con-
sisting of equal amounts of red cabbage, orange, and celery was
analyzed with each batch. The limit of detection of this method
is 1.5 µg/100 g dry weight.
Data Analysis
Each sample was prepared in triplicate and analyzed twice.
Data given is the average of two analyses and is in µg/100 g wet
weight.
RESULTS
All foods analyzed contained detectable amounts of phy-
toestrogens (Table 1). The highest amounts of phytoestrogens
(mainly in the form of isoflavones) among the foods tested were
found in breads, with an average 375 ± 67 µg/100 g (excluding
the soya-linseed bread with 12,000 µg/100 g); whereas most
other foods contained less than 100 µg/100 g phytoestrogens,
mainly as lignans, with the notable exception of “luxury/extra
fruit muesli,” which contained 4,775 µg/100 g isoflavones and
381 µg/100 g lignans.
Daidzein, genistein, and glycitein were the most common
isoflavones detected, whereas only small amounts of biochanin
A and formononetin were found. In most foods, secoisolari-
ciresinol was the main lignan, with the notable exception of
“soya lecithin fortified quick cook porridge oats,” which con-
tained 120 µg/100 g matairesinol but only 7 µg/100 g sec-
oisolariciresinol. Except for breads, only a few foods contained
large amounts of isoflavones, in particular porridge oats and raw
 304 G. G. C. KUHNLE ET AL.

TABLE 1
Phytoestrogen content in cereals and cereal-based foodsa
Isoflavones Lignans
Food Daidzein Genistein Glycitein Biochanin A Formononetin Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol Coumestrol
Bread
Bread, brown, sliced 155 246 14 — <1 10 <1 <1
Bread, Danish type 235 465 36 5 <1 2 3 <1
Bread, granary, sliced 89 154 18 — <1 8 <1 <1
Bread, mixed grain, sliced 106 171 16 4 — 214 2 <1
Bread, rye 8 13 <1 3 <1 21 9 —
Bread, soya—linseed 3,065 6,807 709 20 8 1,374 5 —
Bread, white, added fiber 229 403 37 6 <1 5 1 —
Bread, white, sliced 185 298 28 8 <1 6 <1 <1
Bread, whole meal, sliced 209 333 39 <1 <1 19 <1 <1
French stick/baguette, 122 206 19 10 — 8 3 <1
white
Malt loaf <1 2 <1 14 <1 26 4 —
Pappadum, grilled 6 24 29 15 3 22 19 2
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009

Pumpernickel bread 7 3 2 — 3 39 27 —
Wheat germ bread, sliced 149 249 24 <1 <1 11 <1 <1
Breakfast cereals
Bran flakes — — <1 — 2 53 3 <10
Chocolate puffed rice — 1 4 — 1 2 8 —
Corn flakes 19 — 2 6 2 6 1 <10
Crunchy oat cereal — 1 — — <1 12 3 <1
Crunchy wheat & malted — 3 <1 11 — 19 2 —
barley cereal
Crunchy/Honey nut corn 2 5 9 — <1 10 4 —
flakes
Frosted flakes <1 9 <1 — 1 <1 — <1
Bran flakes with fruit — <1 — <1 <1 12 2 <1
High Fiber Bran cereal 2 3 4 <1 2 53 6 <1
Malted Wheat type cereal 2 2 2 <1 2 30 — —
Muesli, luxury/extra fruit 1,693 3,065 13 — 4 355 26 —
Muesli, Swiss style — 3 <1 — 1 7 3 <1
Muesli, unsweetened — 2 <1 — 1 7 2 <1
Multigrain hoops <1 1 3 — <1 7 3 <1
Oat bran flakes — <1 — — 3 14 1 <1
Porridge oats, quick cook 8 19 5 11 24 7 120 —
+ soya lecithin
Porridge oats, quick cook 13 5 22 1 15 47 53 —
+ vitamin + minerals
Puffed rice (leading brand) <1 3 1 3 2 3 3 <1
Puffed Rice n.s. 3 2 <1 4 1 4 <1 <1
Puffed wheat n.s. — 6 — — 2 8 3 <1
Rice a—wheat flakes <1 2 <1 <1 <1 6 10 <1
Rolled oats <1 — <1 6 <1 5 <1 <1
Shredded whole wheat <1 <1 7 — 1 11 5 —
cereal
Shredded whole wheat — 6 <1 1 <1 11 10 <1
filled with raisins
Sugar/golden puffs type <1 — — 5 3 21 1 <10
cereal
Sultana bran, n.s. — — 5 — 1 3 11 —
Wheat cereal biscuit 4 11 2 — <1 18 <1 <1
(Continued on next page)
 PHYTOESTROGEN CONTENT OF CEREALS CONSUMED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 305

TABLE 1
Phytoestrogen content in cereals and cereal-based foodsa (Continued)
Isoflavones Lignans
Food Daidzein Genistein Glycitein Biochanin A Formononetin Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol Coumestrol
Wholegrain wheat flakes — — 5 — 1 12 10 —
with nuts
Wholewheat flakes 2 2 1 1 3 129 — <1
Biscuits and other snacks
Chocolate biscuit, full 7 25 3 8 <1 14 14 <1
coated
Chocolate coated 4 9 <1 5 <1 4 4 <1
marshmallow biscuit
Chocolate Wafer biscuit 7 20 1 11 <1 2 3 —
Cookie type biscuit with 3 7 1 7 <1 3 6 <1
chocolate chip
Cracker bread type 1 5 1 — <1 8 7 1
Cracker, wheat and rye <1 1 <1 4 <1 9 16 <1
Cracker/thin, cheese <1 2 <1 16 <1 6 5 <1
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009

Cream cracker, plain — <1 4 5 — 3 2 —

Digestive biscuit, 3 10 <1 5 <1 7 3 <1
chocolate (milk)
Digestive biscuit, plain <1 1 <1 13 — 6 8 —
Ginger nut/ginger snap — <1 4 10 2 48 3 —
biscuit
Sponge biscuit with orange 3 7 <1 2 <1 7 <1 1
filling and chocolate top)
Oat based biscuit, plain <1 <1 <1 18 <1 10 5 <1
Oat cake — <1 <1 9 — 8 12 —
Plain/semisweet <1 4 <1 14 <1 7 11 <1
biscuit—rich tea type
Pop corn, cooked — — 9 14 — 19 <1 <1
Pop corn, raw — — 15 7 <1 19 6 2
Rice cake, cracker — — 5 2 <1 3 3 —
Rye crispbread type 2 2 2 — 3 59 30 <1
Sandwich biscuit, 3 9 <1 12 <1 3 2 <1
chocolate filling and
chocolate coating
Sandwich biscuit, <1 3 <1 14 <1 4 7 <1
chocolate with chocolate
filling, bourbon type
Sandwich biscuit, cream 5 17 <1 11 <1 4 1 <1
filling and chocolate
coating
Sandwich biscuit, cream <1 8 <1 17 <1 3 <1 <1
filling, custard cream
type
Short sweet <1 8 <1 24 <1 7 11 <1
biscuit—malted
milk/shorties
Water biscuits <1 2 — 10 <1 4 3 <1
Cereal grains, brans, germs, and flour type foods
Arrowroot <1 2 <1 <1 — 1 1 <1
Corn flour — 6 <1 <1 <1 1 1 —
Maize meal — <1 <1 8 <1 2 <1 1
Oat bran/germ <1 — <1 7 — 14 4 —
Oatmeal <1 <1 <1 6 <1 4 <1 <1
 306 G. G. C. KUHNLE ET AL.

TABLE 1
Phytoestrogen content in cereals and cereal-based foodsa (Continued)
Isoflavones Lignans
Food Daidzein Genistein Glycitein Biochanin A Formononetin Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol Coumestrol
Pearl barley <1 <1 <1 14 <1 7 <1 <1
Semolina <1 <1 <1 7 <1 2 — <1
Tapioca <1 1 <1 5 <1 8 <1 —
Wheat bran <1 <1 2 6 1 5 <1 3
Wheat flour, brown, <1 1 <1 7 <1 6 — <1
self—raising & strong
Wheat flour, white, plain 1 6 2 — <1 34 <1 2
Wheat flour, whole meal <1 — <1 9 <1 6 <1 <1
Wheat germ — 2 <1 — 4 26 9 —
Pasta and noodles
Lasagna, green, cooked <1 — <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Lasagna, green, raw 1 <1 <1 — <1 4 3 —
Lasagna, white, cooked <1 — <1 — — 2 <1 —
Lasagna, white, raw <1 — <1 — — 4 1 —
Lasagna, whole wheat, <1 <1 <1 2 — 1 2 —
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009

cooked
Lasagna, whole wheat, raw <1 4 <1 10 — 2 <1 —
Macaroni, white, cooked <1 — <1 — <1 <1 <1 —
Macaroni, white, raw 1 <1 <1 — — 4 <1 —
Noodles, cooked <1 <1 <1 <1 — <1 1 —
Noodles, instant, raw 4 6 2 1 3 <1 17 —
Pasta (whole wheat), — 3 — 5 <1 9 1 —
macaroni & fusilli,
cooked
Pasta (whole wheat), <1 3 <1 8 <1 9 3 —
macaroni & fusilli, raw
Spaghetti, white, cooked <1 — <1 — — 2 <1 —
Spaghetti, white, raw 1 — <1 — — 5 1 —
Spaghetti, whole wheat, <1 — <1 — <1 6 <1 —
cooked
Spaghetti, whole wheat, <1 — <1 — <1 3 2 —
raw
Rice
Rice, brown, cooked — <1 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 —
Rice, brown, raw 55 76 7 5 <1 9 <1 <1
Rice, savory, cooked <1 2 1 2 <1 7 1 <1
Rice, white, long grain, — <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
cooked
Rice, white, long grain, raw — <1 <1 7 2 5 <1 <1
a
Data are given as µg per 100 g wet weight; the data are the average of 3 different samples analyzed in duplicate. — indicates content was
below the limit of detection.

brown rice. These foods also contained the highest amount of
total phytoestrogens in their respective group.
DISCUSSION
Bread has been identified as one of the major dietary sources
of phytoestrogens in the UK (34), and the main reason for this
is that soya is used in the preparation of many breads. This is
also shown by the fact that the phytoestrogen content (in par-
ticular, isoflavones) in flour is much lower than in bread. In
this study, we showed that most breads analyzed contain mainly
soya-type isoflavones (daidzein, genistein, and glycitein) but
only small amounts of other isoflavones. Except for rye bread,
pumpernickel bread, and malt loaf, all breads contained more
isoflavones than lignans, although most other cereal-based foods
contained similar amounts or a higher proportion of lignans.
Thompson et al. (41) analyzed Canadian breads and found
similar, although slightly lower, amounts of lignans but only
small amounts of isoflavones (1.5 µg/100 g), suggesting that
the breads analyzed were prepared differently from the breads
 PHYTOESTROGEN CONTENT OF CEREALS CONSUMED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 307

TABLE 2
Comparison of phytoestrogen content found in this study and content published previously by Adlercreutz & Mazur (43),
Horn-Ross et al. (42), Valsta et al. (44), and Thompson et al. (41)
Daidzein Genistein Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol
Bread, white
This study 185 298 6 <1
Horn-Ross et al. 606 831 0 0
Valsta et al. <1 <1 20 14
Thompson et al. 0 1 1 0
Bread, rye
This study 8 13 21 9
Valsta et al. 0 0 32 44
Thompson et al. 0 3 122 0
Bread, whole meal
This study 209 333 19 <1
Horn-Ross et al. 156 142 <1 <1
Thompson et al. 0 0 3 0
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009

Rice
This study 0 <1 5 <1
Thompson et al. 1 1 0 0
Wheat meal, white
This study <1 0 6 <1
Adlercreutz & Mazur <1 <1 8 0
Wheat bran
This study <1 <1 5 <1
Adlercreutz & Mazur 7 4 110 0
Oatmeal
This study <1 <1 4 <1
Adlercreutz & Mazur 0 0 13 0
Oat bran
This study <1 <1 14 4
Adlercreutz & Mazur 0 0 24 155

available in the UK. In contrast, Horn-Ross et al. (42) analyzed
breads from California and found isoflavone levels that were
higher (for white bread) or slightly smaller (whole meal bread)
than those found here (see Table 2 for details). These results
emphasize the importance of food analyses of locally available
foods for the determination of dietary phytoestrogens.
Most breakfast cereals contained less than 71 µg/100 g
phytoestrogens—mainly as lignans—with a few notable ex-
ceptions with a significantly higher phytoestrogen content
(luxury/extra fruit muesli: 5,156 µg/100 g; porridge oats:
175 µg/100 g; and whole wheat flakes: 138 µg/100 g). Break-
fast cereals are consumed by approximately 50% of the adult
(19–64 yr) population in the UK (1), and even though the av-
erage phytoestrogen content (excluding luxury muesli) is only
41 µg/100 g, they are therefore an important food group con-
tributing to total phytoestrogen exposure. In pasta and noodles,
only small amounts of phytoestrogens were detected. Interest-
ingly, the spinach in green lasagna did not affect the phytoe-
strogen content much compared with white or whole wheat
lasagna. In all types of pasta and noodles, cooking decreased
the amount of isoflavones present; because of the small number
of samples, it is not possible to determine whether this differ-
ence is statistically significant. However, a similar pattern was
observed in rice. Surprisingly, the isoflavone content of brown
rice decreased more than 70-fold following cooking, and it is
likely that water soluble isoflavones have leached into the water
during preparation, which was discarded afterward.
So far, few data on the phytoestrogen content in cereals
and cereal-based foods have been published. The only study
of a comprehensive selection of cereal-based foods by Liggins
et al. (9) analyzed exclusively daidzein and genistein but not any
other isoflavones, lignans, or coumestrol and used the addition
method rather than stable 13 C-labeled standards for quantifica-
tion. In other studies that have covered more compounds, only a
very limited selection of these foods has been analyzed. For this
reason, it is difficult to compare results found here with results
 308 G. G. C. KUHNLE ET AL.
published previously. Table 2 shows a comparison of phytoe-
strogen content (daidzein, genistein, secoisolariciresinol, and
matairesinol) found in this study and data published previously
by Adlercreutz and Mazur (43), Horn-Ross et al. (42), Valsta
et al. (44) and Thompson et al. (41). As described above, there
are significant differences in the isoflavone content in breads
from different sources, presumably because of different prepa-
ration methods and the addition of soya. However, the phy-
toestrogen contents found in other foods were comparable, in
particular when taking into account the natural variability of
phytoestrogens found in plant products (45,46); notable excep-
tions were the lignan contents of rye bread, wheat bran, and oat
bran. The database presented here, although comprehensive in
the selection of foods consumed in the UK, is still incomplete
because only two lignans, matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol,
have been analyzed but not other lignans such as lariciresinol or
pinoresinol for which no 13 C3 -labeled internal standards were
available. The results of this study will contribute to databases
for the assessment of dietary intake of phytoestrogens and al-
Downloaded By: [Kuhnle, Gunter G. C.] At: 00:12 17 April 2009
low a more accurate determination of exposure in free-living
individuals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by the United Kingdom Food Stan-
dards Agency (FSA), contract number T05028, and the Medical
Research Council (MRC).
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