Unit 2: Rectilinear Motion

2.1 Introduction

Rectilinear motion means motion in a straight line. Motion forms part of our every day
life activities. Without it, we would be constrained to stay in one place like plants
although even the latter show some limited motions such as swaying in the wind. Most
people would claim to know what motion is but they get stuck when confronted to define
it. Motion of an object is said to have taken place when the position of such an object
relative to some surroundings changes. Scientists have refined this definition. They have
expressed it in terms of coordinates. Nowadays, positioning of objects is achieved by the
use of G.P.S (Geographical Positioning Systems). All positions that we can think of here
on Earth have been mapped and given coordinates. These are called Geographical
coordinates. In this system, an object is said to have moved when its co-ordinates on
Earth change relative to the positions of the mapping satellites.

Distance

When one moves from point A to point B through different paths, see figure 2.3.1, the
distance covered by the traveler is the total length of the path followed. Note that, of the
three lengths shown in the figure, path ADB is the longest. The length of the path that
one has to cover as one moves from one point to another is called distance. It is
measured (S.I.) in meters. A distance term is always positive because it has no direction
associated with it; it is a scalar. For example the distance covered when one moves from
point A through point D and on to point B and back to point A via D is about twice the
distance of path ACB. The shortest is path AB.

A D
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Figure 2.3.1
 2.3.2 Displacement

Displacement is defined as the distance covered in a particular direction. It is measured

(S.I) in meters. Since this quantity involves direction, it is a vector. If a path is not
straight, it has many directions that are associated with it and thus many displacements.
For this reason, it would be quite inconvenient to go on specifying all these. To simplify
this, one usually just quotes the final displacement. For example in figure 2.3.1, the final
displacement is vector AB. In summary, if you move from point A to point B your
displacement is the straight path from your starting point to your end point. The direction
of this path is the angle that AB makes with the horizontal or the vertical axis. In figure

2.3.1, the angle θ gives the direction of the vector AB.

2.3.3 Speed

The speed of an object in motion is defined as the time rate of coverage of distance. It is
measured (S.I) in units of ms-1. For example in figure 2.3.1, if you take time t to cover

distance ADB which is d meters long, your speed ( v ) will be defined as the ratio

v s / t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... (2.3.3.1)

44
Equation 2.3.3.1 assumes that the motion is carried out uniformly and only one value of
speed can be defined. However, in real life, this is rarely the case; speed changes every
now and then. For example the driver of a car may decide to slow down or speed up or
stop altogether for a snack before starting all over again on the same journey. In such a
case, you cannot define a single value of speed; it would be a whole range of speeds and
it would be quite labourious mentioning all of them. To address this, the term average

speed [symbol v ; units (S.I.): ms-1 ] is used. It is formally defined as as the ratio

Average speed = (total distance covered)/(total time taken)

The total time taken includes any time that you might have spent resting or time spent
taking a snack.
Another quantity of interest that you may come across is the instantaneous speed. This
quantity is defined even for a motion that is not regular. It is defined as the ratio between

a very short distance, Δdd covered to the short time taken Δdt in covering this small
distance, that is
Δdd
v=
Δdt ................. ...... (2.3.3.2)
You can come up with many values of this quantity in one irregular motion since speed
and/or direction changes every now and then. The interest you would have in this
quantity is to find out the speed of an object e.g. a car at a certain instant. The police are
particularly interested in knowing the speed of a car at a given instant by use of what is
known as the speed trap in order to regulate speed of motorists. Note that in uniform
motion, the speed, average speed and the instantaneous speed would have the same
value.

45
 2.3.4 Velocity

Velocity and speed are related but are not the same. Velocity is the ratio between the
displacement ( a vector) covered to the time (a scalar) taken. If you are given a car and
you drive it uniformly covering a displacement s taking a time t, then your velocity v is
the ratio
v = s/t ...................... (2.3.4.1)

Equation 2.3.4.1 assumes that the motion is carried out uniformly and only one value of
velocity can be defined. However, in practice, this is rarely the case; velocity changes as
the motion progresses. For this quantity any change in speed or direction of the motion
can change the velocity. For example the driver of a car may decide to slow down or
speed up or change direction. In such a case, you cannot define a single value for
velocity; it would be a whole range of velocities. It would be quite labourious
mentioning all of them. To address this, the term average velocity [symbol v ] units
(S.I.): ms-1 ] is used. It is formally defined as the ratio

Average velocity = (Total displacement covered)/(total time taken)

regardless of whether you stopped anywhere for a drink or not.

Another quantity of interest that you may come across is the instantaneous velocity.
This quantity is defined even for a motion that is not regular. It is defined as the ratio

between a very short displacement Δd s covered to the time taken Δdt in covering this
small distance that is
Δds
v=
Δdt .......... ..... .... 2.3.3.2
According to this definition, you can come up with many values of this quantity in one
irregular motion. Note that in uniform motion, the velocity, average velocity and the
instantaneous speed would have the same value.

46
 2.3.5 Acceleration

When a well-accomplished motorist takes off to a high speed, we say the car has very
good acceleration. In this section, we take acceleration to have taken place when-ever the
motion of an object, for example a car changes in time. The change can either be in the
speed or direction of the object’s motion. Acceleration, a can therefore be defined as
follows: it is the ratio between the change in the velocity to the time taken. In
mathematical term, it is written as

Δdv
a=
Δdt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.3.5.1)
From this definition, it is clear that the units (S.I.) of acceleration are ms-2.

Example 2.3.5.1
A car traveling over a curved path covered a distance of 144 km in 4 hrs. But at the
end of the journey it was found exactly 72 km east of the starting point.
(a) What was its average speed?
(b) What was its average velocity?

Solution
(a) the average speed = Total distance covered
Total time taken
= 144km/4hrs = 36km/h
(b) the average velocity = Total displacement.
Total time interval
= 7km/4hr = 18 km/h east

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 2.4 Displacement –time graphs

Suppose you are asked to record the displacement of an object as time progresses. Your
data might look like that shown in table table 2.4.1

Positio t(se x
n c) (m)

A 0 -20

B 10 0

C 30 40

Table 2.4.1

In this table, the displacements are recorded when the object reaches the points shown i.e.
A, B , and C. The data can be plotted as in figure 2.4.1

Figure 2.4.1
\

48
We can get parameters of significance from this graph. Let us compute the area under the
graph. We drop a perpendicular from the end of the plot line and obtain a graph shown
in figure 2.4.2. We note that the figure obtained is a trapezium.

Figure 2.4.2

The area of a trapezium is given by

1
A= (S 1 + S2 )h
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2.4.1)
Where S 1 and S 2 are the lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium and h is
the distance of separation between the two. From the diagram, S 1 =|20| m and
|S 2|=120 m; h=36 sec. The area is therefore
1
A= ( 20+120 )×36=0 .5 ( 140 ) ×36=2 , 520
2 meter sec

Looking at the units, it is easy to tell that this quantity does not resemble any quantity that
we know of. We conclude that the quantity we have just obtained has no physical
significance. In other words, this quantity does not exist.
Let us keep on and try to find the gradient of this graphical plot may be we may get
something useful. If we fix the initial coordinates at point A (0 s, -20m) and the final
coordinates at point C (30s, 40m) we get
( 40−(−20)) 60
=
Gradient = ( 30−0 ) = 30 0.5 m/s

49
 Figure 2.4.3

These units look like those of speed or velocity. The quantity we have just looked at is
called the velocity of the moving object. It looks like these are the only quantities that
we can derive from this graph. One feature of interest on this graph is that the
displacement can assume negative values. Can you figure out what this means?

Example 2.4.1

What is the net displacement of the object whose displacement-time graph is shown in
figure 2.4.4.

20

x(m) A

10 B

O
5

Figure 2.4.4

50
Solution

From the graph, we note that the object covered a displacement of 11 m when it reached
point A. Between points A and B, the object registered the same value of the
displacement i.e. it did not move. From point B to point C, the object covered an
additional 6m. Its final displacement is therefore 17m

Example 2.4.2

Now consider a similar plot but ending at point D. What would be the final
displacement in this case?

20

x(m) A

10 B

O
5

Figure 2.4.5

Solution

Point D reads a displacement value of 6m. This is obtained as follows. Refer to the
previous example for the displacements up to point C. From point C, the object made a
negative displacement of -11 m.

The total displacement is therefore 17m +(-11)m = 6m.

51
Note the following: The distance travelled by the object in example 2.4.2 is also 17m.
This is so because the object travels in a straight line and does not make any negative
displacement. In other words, it keeps on going without turning back at any point.
Contrast this with the situation in figure 2.4.5. Here the displacement and the distance
covered have different values. Can you figure out what the distance would be in this
case? Note that distance is a scalar.

Significance of negative velocities. If the velocity in a region is negative (i.e. negative

gradient) then the object is heading in the negative direction.

Student Activity 2.4.1

Revise the material in this section i.e. 2.4 and answer the following questions:

Find the velocities of the object in figure 2.4.5 in the following regions (clearly indicating
the sign of the velocity i.e. whether negative or positive)

(a) OA (b) AB (c) BC and CD

2.5 Velocity–time graphs

When the velocities of an object are plotted as a function of time, the resulting graph is
called the velocity-time graph. Velocities in such a plot can assume both positive and
negative values. Generally, velocities are plotted along the vertical axis while time is on
the horizontal axis, figure 2.5.1.

We can get some useful parameters from this graph. To start with, let us get the area
under the graph. For this purpose it is not necessary to get the area under the entire
curve; a portion will be enough to get us to a good conclusion. Let us take the easiest; the
area under the flat portion i.e. BC. The height of this area is 10ms -1 and the base is 4.6 –
2.3 = 2.3 sec. Therefore, the area is

A= (10 ) ms-1 ¿ 2.3 s = 23m

52
The unit is that of displacement or distance. We therefore conclude that the area under
the velocity-time graph signifies displacement. We can extend this to speed and state that
the area under the speed-time graph signifies the distance covered by the moving object.

20

v(m/s) B

10 C

A
0
5

O
-10 m/s

Figure 2.5.1

Let us continue and find out whether the gradient of this graph has any physical
importance. We concentrate on the line OB well knowing that the result would apply to
all lines. The coordinates of point O are (0, -8) and the coordinates of B are (2.3, 10) and
the gradient , m is

m= (10−(−8 ) 18
2 .3−0 ) 2 .3
= =7 .8
ms-2

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We recognize these to be units of acceleration. Thus the gradient of the velocity-time
graph is the acceleration of the moving object. It is easy to show that in region DE, the
acceleration is negative.

Example 2.5.1
Compute the accelerations of the object in the regions
(a) BC and
(b) DE.

Solution
(a) Since the line plot is horizontal in the region BC, the gradient here is zero and so
is the acceleration. This means the velocity is constant. The displacement
covered here is calculated in the introductory part of this section i.e. 23 m
approximately.

(b) The coordinates of point D are (7,6) and the coordinates of C are (6,17). The
gradient m is the ratio

m=( 6−17
7−6 )=
−11
1
=−11
ms-2.

Negative acceleration means that the object is slowing down.

Student Activity 2.5.1

Describe the motion of the object in figure 2.5.1. Hence plot the acceleration of the
object as a function of time. This will be the acceleration – time graph.

2.6 Equations of motion

So far we have concentrated on describing the motion of objects by using displacement

and velocity – time graphs. These are convenient when we want to actually see the

54
progress of the motion. However, there is limit to the application of these methods. For
example if the numbers are very large, our scales will be difficult to fix. One way to get
out of this predicament is to use what are known as equations of motion. One of the
simplest and most often used equation is the speed-distance formula. It works very well
when the speed of an object is constant. It is formally stated as follows:

distance = speed ¿ time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6.1)

This formula still works even when the speed is not constant but changing uniformly i.e.
if the acceleration is constant. This is only possible if the speed is replaced by the
average speed or average velocity see sub-section 2.3.4. With this modification, the
statement reads

D istance = Average Speed ¿ time . . . . . . . . . .

(2.6.2)
If the calculation involves displacement, we get

Displacement =Average velocity ¿ time . . . . . . .. .

(2.6.3)

2.6.1 Calculation of average speed and velocity.

If a moving object has initial velocity

v i at a time ti and a final velocity v f at

time
t f then its average velocity v is defined as
( vf + vi)
v=
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6.4)

If it takes time
t=t f −t i , then its displacement, s is given by

s=vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . (2.6.5)

55
We can take this as the first equation..

Example 2.6.1

Find the displacement of the object between the points C and D in figure 2.5.1 using
equation 2.6.5.

Solution

v
The initial velocity, i of the object is 10ms-1 and the final velocity is
v f is 1 ms-1.
Time taken is 6.0 - 4.6 = 1.4 sec. The average velocity is
10+17
v= =13. 5
2 ms-1
The magnitude of the displacement is

s=13 . 5×1 . 4=18 .9 m

Note that this is the same as finding the area under the curve CD (this is a trapezium!).

56
We can arrive at another equation by manipulating the equations which we already have.

The acceleration expression can be written as

( v f −v i )
a=
t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2.6.6)

Making the final velocity

v f subject of this formula, we get

v f =v i +at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6.7)

In most books, equation 2.6.7 is called the first equation of motion. This equation can
be used to find the final velocity of an object after it has been in motion for a time t

with its initial velocity,

v i known and its acceleration, ‘a’. The latter has to be known.

Example 2.6.2
The driver of a car moving with a velocity of 108 km hr -1 suddenly notices that she is
holding traffic flow. She increases the velocity to 180 km hr -1 in a total time of 20
seconds. Find her acceleration.

Solution

Given initial velocity. i

v =108
km hr-1 or 30 ms-1; final velocity
v f = 180 km hr-1 or
-1
50 ms .
Using equation 2.6.6, the acceleration is

a= (50−30
20 )=1 ms-2.

Whereas equation 2.6.7 may be very useful, it has limited application. For example, it
cannot be used to find the displacement or distance covered by the object in the 20
seconds given. To take care of such situations, another equation is required. We start
with the equation which involves a distance term i.e.,

s=vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6.5)
But
( vf + vi)
v=
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . (2.6.4)

57
Therefore

vf + vi
s= ( ) 2
t
........ ............... (2.6.8)
And

v f =v i +at .......... ...............

.(2.6.7)

Using this equation in 2.6.8, we get

( v i + at )+v i
s= ( 2
t )
After simple algebraic manipulations, we get

1
s=v i t+ at 2
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . (2.6.9)
Can you check how this equation has been arrived at.

Example 2.6.3
Using equation 2.6.9, calculate the distance, s , covered by the car in 2.6.2 as it
accelerates from 30 ms-1 to 50 ms-1.
Solution

Given
v i =30 ms-1 and v f =50 ms-1. Time taken t=20 s and acceleration,
a=1 ms-2.
1
s=30×20+ ×1(20)2
2 = 800 m.

The final equation connects the final velocity with the initial velocity, displacement and
acceleration. Squaring both sides of equation 2.6.7, we get
2 2
v f =(v i +at ) ,

We get
2 2
v f =vi +2 as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6.10)

Can you check how this equation has been arrived at. Hint: Involve equation 2.6.9.
This is our last and final equation.

58
Example 2.6.4
A motorist driving at 50 ms-1 suddenly notices a red traffic light at a junction 200 m
ahead. He slams the breaks and decelerates at a rate of – 2ms -2. Make relevant
calculations to find out whether he will stop right at the junction drawing line.

Solution
It is required that the car comes to a complete stop in a distance of 200m. This means
v f =0 ms-1. Given s=200 m and 5 ms-2 , we use equation 2.6.10 with s as the
subject of this formula. Thus
2 2
s=(v f −v i )/2 a
02 −(50 )2
s= ( 2(−5 ) ) =250
m

Conclusion
The driver will not make it as the car will only stop after 250 m. This is far beyond the
junction.

Hints to solving kinematics problems

(a) Read the question carefully noting all the given data.
(b) Select the most appropriate equation or equations for the problem depending on
the number of unknowns. Remember that there may be two or more equations
that may be used to solve the problem. Chose one that would give you less
number of steps in solving the problem.
(c) Make the quantity of interest as the subject of the equation and simplify the
expression as much as possible. You may get a lot of marks for this even though
your final arithmetic calculation is not correct. Substitute the known data in the
simplified expression.

Student Activity 2.6.1

59
A bullet is fired through a board 10.0 cm thick in such a way that the bullet’s line of
motion is perpendicular to the face of the board. If the initial velocity of the bullet is 400
ms-1 and it emerges from the other side of the board with a speed of 300 ms-1, find,
(a) the acceleration ( deceleration) of the bullet as it passes through the board and

(b) the total time the bullet is in contact with the board.
Answers: (a) -3.50 ×105ms-2.

(b) 2.86×10-4s
2.7 Free fall

The motion of freely falling objects was extensively studied by Galileo ( 1564 – 1642)
and later by Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727 ). Newton discovered that the only force that
acted on a freely falling body was gravity.
If the only force acting on an object is gravity, the object is said to be in free fall.
According to this definition, all stones thrown from the ground, fruits falling from trees
and planes falling with failed engines are freely falling objects. The acceleration of such
objects is called “acceleration due to gravity” of simply “gravitational acceleration”. It
has been given a special symbol g . This means that the acceleration of a freely

falling object is always known. Additionally, if the object is dropped from a height h ,

the initial velocity,

v i is always zero and if it is thrown (vertically) from the ground to

a height h , the final velocity

v f is always zero. To work out problems involving
freely falling objects, the foregoing equations of motion still apply except that one has to

remember to substitute g where acceleration a appears and h where s

appears. Thus we have:

h=v t ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. . . . (2.7.1)
v f =v i +gt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.7.2)

60
 1
h=v i t+ gt 2
2 ....................
. . . (2.7.3)
2 2
v f =vi +2 gh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.7.4)

Example 2.7.1

A model rocket is launched straight upward with an initial velocity of 50.0 ms-1. It
accelerates with a constant upward acceleration of 2.00 ms-2 until its engines stop at an
altitude of 150m.
(a) What can you say about the motion of the rocket after its engines stop?

(b) What is the maximum height reached by the rocket?

(c) How long after lift-off does the rocket reach its maximum height?
(d) How long is the rocket in the air?

Solution

(a) The rocket will not start falling immediately; it will continues rising due to inertia

under gravitational acceleration until it reaches an additional height

hadd where its

velocity will be zero after which it will start falling with acceleration g .

(b) Data: Initial velocity

v i =50 .0 ms-1; acceleration 2.0 ms-2. Height attained in the

acceleration phase H=150 m.

The additional height attained by the rocket in the gliding phase (i.e. with engines
failed) is added to 150 m to get the maximum height.

Data: Free fall, a=g=9 . 8 ms-2. Final velocity = 0

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First we find the final velocity of the rocket at the point of engine failure. We use the
equation

2 2
v f =vi +2 as ...........................
(2.7.4)
2
We make v i subject of the formula and put in the known values. Thus
2 2
v f =50 + 2×2×150 =3100 m2s-2
From which
v f =55 .7 ms-1

We now use this value (which is the initial velocity for the additional height) to get the
additional height covered by the rocket. Using the same equation, we get

v 2f −vi2 0−(55 .7 ) −3100

h= ( )(
2g
=
2×9 .8
=
−19 . 6 )
=158 . 16
m
The total height is therefore 308.16 m.

(c) To rise to 150m requires time t given by

v f −v i 55 . 7−50
t= ( a )
=
2
=2 . 85
sec.

To rise the additional height of 158.16 m, requires time

t= ( 0−55 .7
−9 . 8 )
=5 . 68
sec
The total time is the sum 2.85 + 5.68 =8.53sec.

(d) The rocket is now falling freely under g from a the height of 158.16 m. Therefore,
v i =0 . Time taken is found using the relation,

1
s=v i t+ gt 2
2
Making t subject of the formula,

62
 2 s 2×308. 16
t=

The total time is therefore (8.53+7.9) sec=16.46 seconds.

√ √
g
=
9.8
=7 . 9
sec.

Student Activity 2.7.1

A ball is thrown directly downward with an initial speed of 8.00 ms -1 from a height of
30.0 m. After what time interval does it strike the ground? Answer: 1.79 sec

2.8 Projectile motion

Projectile motion is a motion where the only acceleration is that of gravity. Essentially,
projectiles are freely falling bodies. However, their motion is two dimensional. In other
words their motion is specified by quoting two coordinates for both velocity and
displacement. But what is a projectile?

A projectile is anything that is thrown or projected. It has no engine of its own. Its
motion is solely influenced by gravity. There are chiefly two methods of projection:
(a) Horizontal projection and

(b) Projection at an angle ϕ to the horizontal. to the horizontal.

2.8.1 Horizontal Projection.

This is the easiest method of projection, see figure 2.8.1. Note that the horizontal
o
velocity vector of the ball at the instant of projection is v . It makes an angle of 0 to
the horizontal or x axis. The other important point to note is that the ball has no
vertical velocity vector component at the instant of projection or throwing. However, as
time progresses, the projectile acquires some velocity in the vertical direction because of
gravitational acceleration in that direction. Note that gravity acts vertically downwards
on anything placed in its field. In the horizontal direction the velocity vector remains
constant because there is no acceleration of any sort here. This means that we can ascribe

63
two velocity vectors to the motion of the projectile at any point and time other than at the
instant of throwing.

Figure 2.8.1

Projectile velocity and displacement progressions in the horizontal direction.

Since velocity is constant here, the displacement s is given by the usual equation

s=v h t .................... (2.8.1)

Where
v h is the horizontal projection velocity.
Contrast this with the motion in the vertical direction where gravity imposes an
acceleration g . Since there was no velocity in this direction at the instant of

projection,
v i =0 . We use the following equation of motion

v f =v i +gt
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2.7.2)

Since in this direction the initial velocity

v i =0 at the instant of projection, this
equation reduces to

v f =gt
........... ....
. . . . ..(2.8.2)
This equation and the constancy of velocity in the horizontal direction are the two we
need to follow the subsequent motion of the projectile as time progresses. The other
quantity of interest in this discussion is the horizontal distance that the projectile (in this
case the ball) will travel from the point directly below the point of projection to the

64
landing point. Alternatively this can be taken as the distance covered by the shadow of
the projectile. A special name has been given to this distance; it is called the range of
projectile, R . Time of flight of projectile is also important. It is defined as the total
time the projectile is in the air. If the height of the point of projection is known, time of
flight can be found from the following equation:

1
h=v i t+ gt 2
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. . (2.7.3)
Taking initial velocity in this direction to be zero, equation 2.7.3 reduces to

1
h= gt 2
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .(2.8.3)
Once the time of flight is found, the range can be found using equation 2.8.1. Thus

R=v h T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2.8.4)
where T is the time of flight.

Example
A helicopter in level flight at an altitude of 500m is tasked to deliver food parcels to a
refugee camp. It has a speed of 360 km/hr. At a ground distance of 1 km from the camp,
the pilot releases the parcels hoping they will land into the camp for collection by the
refugees. Determine whether the parcels will land as intended.

Solution
Known quantities: h=500 m; v h =360 km hr-1 equivalent to 100 ms-1. g=9.8
ms-2.

The time of flight is obtained using equation 2.8.3. Thus

2 h 2×500
T =t=
√ √g
=
9. 8
=
10.1 secs.
The range is found using equation 2.8.4. Thus

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 R=10 . 1×100=1001 m or 1.001 km

Conclusion: The parcels will land into the camp as intended.

2.8.2 Projection at an angle, φ (φ≠0) to the horizontal.

Figure 2.8.2 shows this mode of throwing. Usually the projectile is launched from the
ground. It is also possible to launch it from the top of a cliff.

Figure 2.8.2

Since the velocity vector is at an angle, it has both horizontal

v h and vertical v v
components given by

v x=v cos θ
v y=v sinθ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .(2.8.5)

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Again the horizontal velocity ,
vx remains constant throughout the journey of the

projectile. The vertical velocity

v y varies because of gravitational influence. The
range is given by

R=(v cosθ )T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.6)

Where T is the time of flight. If H is the highest height attained by the projectile, the
time required to reach the highest point can be found using equation 2.8.7. However, in

this case
v i ≠0 . Alternatively, equation equation 2.7.2 can be used since the final

vertical velocity
v f =0 at the highest point. Thus

v f =v i +gt=v sin θ+ gt=0

−v sin θ v sin θ
t= =
−g g

Because of the symmetry of the path, the flight time is twice this value. This means that
the time taken by the projectile to move up is the same as the time it takes to land to the
ground. Thus,

2 v sin θ
T =2 t=
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.7)

And the range is then

2
2 v sin θv sin θ v (2sin θ cosθ )
R= =
g g

Using the trigonometric identity 2 sinθ cos θ=sin (2θ ) , the range equation becomes

2
v sin(2θ )
R=
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.8)

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 It is also possible to obtain a formula for the highest height attained by the projectile. We
make use of equation 2.7.4

2 2
v f =vi +2 gh
2
h
with h replaced by max
h
and v f =0 . Solving for max , we obtain
2
−v −v 2 sin 2 θ
hmax = i =
2g g . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.9)

Velocity of projectile at any time is given by

v =√ v 2y +v 2x ........ . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.10)

Where
vy
is the vertical velocity of the projectile and
v x the horizontal velocity of
the same projectile at that time. We are justified using this formula because the two
velocity vectors are mutually at right angles. The direction of motion of the projectile is
given by
vy
tan θ=
vx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.11)

Tw 2.8.3 Trajectory of a projectile

The paths followed by a projectile can be evaluated from the relation

1 2
v gt
h= i t+ 2
where t is the total time the projectile is in the air. But from our previous relations,

x
t=
v i cosθ and
v iy =v i sin θ . Using these equations in 1.12.1 yields

x 1 x 2 1 gx 2
s=v i sin θ + g
vi cos θ 2 cosθ ( )
=x tanθ +
2 cosθ
1 gx 2
s=x tan θ+
i.e. 2 cosθ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . (2.8.12)

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showing that the trajectory is a parabola. When the trajectory is symmetrical as in figure

2.8.2, the displacement s=0 .

2.8.4 Maximum range of a projectile

From above, we saw that the relation giving the range of a projectile is
R=(v i cos θ )T
where T is the time of flight. From above, the expression for T was found as
2 vsin θ
T=
g

And the range

2
v sin2 θ
R=
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8.8)
With same projection velocity, the value of R is maximum when sin 2θ =1 since the

sine of an angle can never be greater than 1. This happens when θ= 45o.
Example 2.8.1

A shell is launched from a gun whose barrel is inclined at an angle of 60o to the
horizontal. If the velocity of the shell is 432 kmhr-1, find

(a) the time of flight for the shell

(b) the highest height attained by the shell

(c) the range cleared by the shell.

Solution

432 kmhr-1 is equivalent to 120 ms-1. g=9.8 ms-2. At the highest point, v yf =0
We refer to figure 2.8.2. The velocity components of the projectile at the instant of
throwing is

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 o
v yo=120 sin 60 =103.9 ms-1

v xo = o
120 cos 60 =60 ms-1

(a) time of flight T is found using the equation

o
2 v sin θ 2×120 sin 60
T= = =21 .2
g 9.8 sec

The time t taken to reach the highest point is half of this value. Hence, t=10 .6 sec.
(b) the highest height attained by the shell is given by the relation
(v sinθ )2 (120 sin 60 )2
hmax = = =551 .0
2g 2×9. 8 m

(d) the range, R=21 . 2×75 = 1590 or 1.59 km.

Student Activity 2.8.1

o
A projectile is released at an angle of 45 to the horizontal with a velocity of 70 ms-1.
How fast is it going when it reaches half of its maximum height?
Answer: 60.6 ms-1at an angle of 35.27o to the horizontal.

2.9 Self-assessment exercises

Q1 Figure 2.9.1 (a) and (b) shows a graphical plot of the velocity of an object versus
time.

70
(a) Find the velocity of the object between 0 and 1 sec and between 3 and 4 sec in figure
2.9.1(b).
(b) Find the average velocity and average speed of the object between 0 and 3 sec in the
same figure.
(c) Find the displacement of the object in figure 2.9.1(a)
(d) Find the acceleration of the object in the time interval 1 – 3 in figure 2.9.1(b).

Q2. A car starts from rest and travels for 5.0 s with a uniform acceleration of +1.5
ms-2. The driver then applies the brakes, causing a uniform acceleration of -2 ms-2.
If the brakes are applied for 3.0 s,

(a) how fast is the car going at the end of the braking period, and

(b) how far has the car gone?

Answers: (a) 1.5 ms-1 , (b) 32 m

Q3. A certain freely falling object, released from rest, requires 1.50 s to travel the last
30.0 m before it hits the ground.
(a) Find the velocity of the object when it is 30.0 m above the ground.
(b) Find the total distance the object travels during the fall.
Answers: (a) 12.7 ms-1, (b) 38.2 m

Q5 A student stands at the edge of a cliff and throws a stone horizontally over the edge
with a speed of 18.0 ms-1. The cliff is 50.0 m above a flat , horizontal beach as shown
in figure 2.9.2

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 Figure 2.9.2

(a) What are the coordinates of the initial position of the stone?
(b) What are the components of the initial velocity?

(c) Write the equations of the x and y components of the velocity of the stone
with time

(d) Write the equations for the position of the stone with time, using the coordinates in
the figure

(e) How long, after being released does the stone strike the beach below the cliff?

(f) With what speed and angle of impact does the stone land?

Answers: (a) ( x, y)=(0 , 50)

(b)
v ox =18. 0 ms-1, v oy =0

(c)
v x=18. 0 ms-1 v y=−9.8t

2
(d) x=(18 .0)t ; y=50. 0−4 .9 t

(e) 3.19 s
(f) 36.1 ms-1, -60.1o.

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