Introduction

History of biotechnology
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Brewing was an early example of biotechnology

Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to
the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and
services.[1] From its inception, biotechnology has maintained a close
relationship with society. Although now most often associated with the
development of drugs, historically biotechnology has been principally
associated with food, addressing such issues as malnutrition and famine.
The history of biotechnology begins with zymotechnology, which
commenced with a focus on brewing techniques for beer. By World War I,
however, zymotechnology would expand to tackle larger industrial issues,
and the potential of industrial fermentation gave rise to biotechnology.
However, both the single-cell protein and gasohol projects failed to
progress due to varying issues including public resistance, a changing
economic scene, and shifts in political power.

Yet the formation of a new field, genetic engineering, would soon bring
biotechnology to the forefront of science in society, and the intimate
relationship between the scientific community, the public, and the
government would ensue. These debates gained exposure in 1975 at the
Asilomar Conference, where Joshua Lederberg was the most outspoken
supporter for this emerging field in biotechnology. By as early as 1978,
with the development of synthetic human insulin, Lederberg's claims
would prove valid, and the biotechnology industry grew rapidly. Each new
scientific advance became a media event designed to capture public
support, and by the 1980s, biotechnology grew into a promising real
industry. In 1988, only five proteins from genetically engineered cells had
been approved as drugs by the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), but this number would skyrocket to over 125 by the
end of the 1990s.

The field of genetic engineering remains a heated topic of discussion in

today's society with the advent of gene therapy, stem cell research,
cloning, and genetically modified food. While it seems only natural
nowadays to link pharmaceutical drugs as solutions to health and societal
problems, this relationship of biotechnology serving social needs began
centuries ago.

Cell Division And Growth

In unicellular organisms, cell division is the means of reproduction; in

multicellular organisms, it is the means of tissue growth and
maintenance. Survival of the eukaryotes depends upon interactions
between many cell types, and it is essential that a balanced distribution
of types be maintained. This is achieved by the highly regulated process
of cell proliferation. The growth and division of different cell populations
are regulated in different ways, but the basic mechanisms are similar
throughout multicellular organisms.

mitosis

One cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells during the
process of mitosis.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Most tissues of the body grow by increasing their cell number, but this
growth is highly regulated to maintain a balance between different
tissues. In adults most cell division is involved in tissue renewal rather
than growth, many types of cells undergoing continuous replacement.
Skin cells, for example, are constantly being sloughed off and replaced; in
this case, the mature differentiated cells do not divide, but their
population is renewed by division of immature stem cells. In certain other
cells, such as those of the liver, mature cells remain capable of division to
allow growth or regeneration after injury.

In contrast to these patterns, other types of cells either cannot divide or

are prevented from dividing by certain molecules produced by nearby
cells. As a result, in the adult organism, some tissues have a greatly
reduced capacity to renew damaged or diseased cells. Examples of such
tissues include heart muscle, nerve cells of the central nervous system,
and lens cells in mammals. Maintenance and repair of these cells is
limited to replacing intracellular components rather than replacing entire
cells
.
 Principles of Gene Transfer: An Overview

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This article provides an overview on the principles of gene transfer.

Classical gene therapies normally require efficient transfer of cloned

genes into disease cells so that the introduced genes are expressed at
suitably high levels. In principle, there are numerous different
physicochemical and biological methods that can be used to transfer
exogenous genes into human cells.

The size of DNA fragments that can be transferred is in most cases

comparatively very limited, and so often the transferred gene is not a
conventional gene. Instead, an artificially designed minigene may be
used: a cDNA sequence containing the complete coding DNA sequence is
engineered to be flanked by appropriate regulatory sequences for
ensuring high level expression, such as a powerful viral promoter.
Following gene transfer, the inserted genes may integrate into the
 chromosomes of the cell, or remain as extra chromosomal genetic
elements (episomes).

Genes Integrated into Chromosomes:

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The advantage of integrating into a chromosome is that the gene can be

perpetuated by chromosomal replication following cell division (Fig. 23.3).
As progeny cells also contain the introduced genes, long-term stable
expression may be obtained. As a result, gene therapy using this
approach may provide the possibility of a cure for some disorders.

For example, in tissues composed of actively dividing cells, the key is to

target the stem cells (a minority population of undifferentiated precursor
cells which gives rise to the mature differentiated cells of the tissue). This
is so because stem cells not only give rise to the mature tissue cells, but
during this procedure they also renew themselves.

As a result, they are an immortal population of cells from which all other
cells of the tissue are derived. High efficiency gene transfer into stem
cells, and subsequent stable high level expression of a suitable introduced
gene, can, therefore, provide the possibility of curing a genetic disorder.

Chromosomal integration has its disadvantages, however, because the

insertion often occurs almost randomly: the location of the inserted genes
can vary enormously from cell to cell. In many cases, inserted genes may
not be expressed because of integration into a highly condensed
heterochromatic region.

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In some cases, the integration event can result in death of the host cell
(for example, by insertion into a crucially important gene, thereby
inactivating it). Such an event has consequences only for the single cell in
which the integration occurred.

A greater concern is the possibility of cancer: an integration event in one

of the many cells that are targeted could disturb the normal expression
patterns of genes that control cell division or cell proliferation, for
example by activating an oncogene or inactivating a tumor suppressor
 gene or a gene involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Ex vivo gene therapy at least offers the opportunity for selecting cells
where integration has been successful, amplifying them in cell culture and
then checking the phenotypes for any obvious evidence of neoplastic
transformation, prior to transferring the cells back into the patient.

Nonintegrated Genes:
Some gene transfer systems are designed to insert genes into cells where
they remain as extra chromosomal elements and may be expressed at
high levels (see Table 23.3). If the cells are actively dividing, the
introduced gene may not segregate equally to daughter cells and so long-
term expression may be a problem.

As a result, the possibility of a cure for a genetic disorder may be remote:

repeated treatments involving gene transfer will be necessary. In some
cases, however, there may be no need for stable long-term expression.
For example, cancer gene therapies often involve transfer and expression
of genes into cancer cells with a view to killing the cells. Once the
malignancy has been eliminated, the therapeutic gene may no longer be
needed.
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Most gene therapy protocols have used mammalian viral vectors because of their high
efficiency of gene transfer:

The method chosen for gene transfer depends on the nature of the target tissue and
whether transfer is to cultured cells ex vivo or to the cells of the patient in Vivo. No
one gene transfer system is ideal; each has its limitations and advantages. However,
mammalian viral systems have been particularly attractive because of their high
efficiency of gene transfer into human cells.

The major classes of recombinant virus vectors are based on certain retroviruses
which are integrating but only infect actively dividing cells, and adenoviruses which
infect a wide range of cell types but do not integrate efficiently.

In addition, increasing use is made of other systems such as adeno-associated virus-

es, while some viruses are particularly suitable for infecting specific tissues, as in the
case of herpes simplex virus (HSV).

Retrovirus Vectors:
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Retroviruses are RNA viruses which possess a reverse transcriptase function, enabling
them to synthesize a complementary DNA form that can integrate into chromosomal
DNA (see Fig. 23.4). They are very efficient at transferring DNA into cells, and
integration of viral DNA occurs usually at a single chromosomal site.

The integrated DNA can be stably propagated, offering the possibility of a permanent
cure for a disease. Simple injection of retroviral vectors is usually inappropriate for in
vivo gene therapy because they can generally be killed by human complement.

Retroviruses can only be produced at relatively low titers and only infect actively
dividing cells, thereby excluding their use in treating tissues composed of non-dividing
cells (e.g.’ neurons, etc.). This same property is, however, beneficial to gene therapy
 for cancers of tissues that normally have non-dividing cells; the actively dividing
cancer cells can be selectively infected and killed without major risk to the non-
dividing cells of the normal tissue. Widely used murine retrovirus vectors can
accommodate inserts up to 8 kb.

Adenovirus Vectors:
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Adenoviruses are DNA viruses that produce infections of the upper respiratory tract
and have a natural tropism for respiratory epithelium, the cornea and the gastro-
intestinal tract Unlike retroviruses, which can only infect actively dividing cells,
adenoviruses can infect a very wide variety of cell types.

Entry into cells occurs by receptor-mediated endocytosis (Fig. 23.4; see also below)
and is efficient, but the inserted DNA does not appear to integrate and so expression
of inserted genes can only be sustained over short periods. Adenovirus vectors can be
produced at very high titers, typically accept insert sizes up to 7-8 kb and, because of
their ability to infect many different types of cells, have found widespread
applications, notably in vivo gene therapy strategies.

Because they can infect virtually all human cells, cancer gene therapies involving cell-
killing without causing toxicity to normal surrounding cells could be a problem.
Another problem is that adenovirus vectors can induce significant inflammatory
responses as happened when used to treat cystic fibrosis.

Herpes Simplex Virus Vectors:

HSV vectors are tropic for the central nervous system (CNS) and can establish lifelong
latent infections in neurons. They are non-integrating and so long-term expression of
transferred genes is not possible. Their major applications are expected to be in deli-
vering genes into neurons for the treatment of neurological diseases, such as
Parkinson’s disease, and for treating CNS tumors. They have a comparatively large
insert size capacity (>20 kb).

Adeno-associated Virus Vectors:

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Adenoassociated viruses (AAVs) are a group of small, single-stranded DNA viruses

which cannot usually undergo productive infection without co-infection by a helper
virus, such as an adenovirus or HSV. In the absence of co-infection by a helper virus,
unmodifie human AAV integrates into chromosomal DNA, usually at a specific site on
19q13.3—qter. Subsequent super-infection with an adenovirus can activate the
integrated virus DNA, resulting in progeny virions.
AAV vectors can only accommodate inserts up to 4.5 kb, but they have the advantage
of providing the possibility of long-term gene expression with a high degree of safety;
they integrate into chromosomal DNA but, because 96% of the parental AAV genome
has been deleted—the AAV vectors lack any viral genes and recombinant AAV vectors
only contain the gene of interest.

Concerns over the safety of recombinant viruses have prompted increasing interest in
non-viral vector systems for gene therapy:

Increasingly concern has been expressed regarding the safety of viral vector systems.
The recombinant viruses which are used for ex vivo gene therapy are designed to be
disabled: typically some viral genes required for viral replication are deleted, and the
therapeutic genes that are to be transferred are inserted in their place. The resulting
replication-incompetent viruses are then intended to infect individual cells.

In the case of retrovirus vectors, chromosomal integration is still possible but they—
like other replication-incompetent virus vectors—should not be able to undergo a pro-
ductive infection in which they replicate, assemble new virions and infect new cells.
However, there is the remote possibility that the introduced viruses can recombine
with endogenous retroviruses, resulting in recombinant progeny that can undergo
productive infection.

Additionally, adenoviruses are generally non-integrating and the repeated injections

that may be required may provoke severe inflammatory responses to the recombinant
adenoviruses as has happened recently in a gene therapy trial for cystic fibrosis.
Increasingly, therefore, attention has been focused towards studying alternative
methods of gene transfer.

Direct Injection/Particle Bombardment:

In some cases, DNA can be injected directly with a syringe and needle into a specific
tissue, such as muscle. This approach has been considered, for example, in the case
of DMD, where early studies investigated intramuscular injection of a dystrophin
minigene into a mouse model, mdx .

An alternative direct injection approach uses particle bombardment techniques: DNA

is coated on to metal pellets and fired from a special gun into cells. Successful gene
transfer into a number of different tissues has been obtained using this approach.
Such direct injection techniques are simple and comparatively safe.
However, there is poor efficiency of gene transfer, and a low level of stable integration
of the injected DNA. The latter property is particularly disadvantageous in the case of
proliferating cells, and would necessitate repeated injections, it may be less of a
problem in tissues such as muscle which do not regularly proliferate, and in which the
injected DNA may continue to be expressed for several months.

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis:
The DNA is coupled to a targeting molecule that can bind to a specific cell surface
receptor, inducing endocytosis and transfer of the DNA into cells. Coupling is normally
achieved by covalently linking polylysine to the receptor molecule and then arranging
for (reversible) binding of the negatively charged DNA to the positively charged
polylysine component.

For example, hepatocytes are distinguished by the presence on the cell surface of
asialoglycoprotein receptors which clear asialoglycoproteins from the serum. Coupling
of DNA to an asialoglycoprotein via a polycation such as polylysine can target the
transfer of exogenous DNA into liver cells.

The complexes can be infused into the liver either via the biliary tract or vascular bed,
whereupon they are taken up by hepatocytes. A more general approach utilizes the
transferrin receptor which is expressed in many cell types, but is relatively enriched in
proliferating cells and hemopoietic cells (see Fig. 23.5). Gene transfer efficiency may
be high but the method is not designed to allow integration of the transferred genes.

A further problem has been that the protein-DNA complexes are not particularly stable
in serum. Additionally, the DNA conjugates may be entrapped in endosomes and
degraded in lysosomes, unless previously co-transferred with, or physically linked to,
an adenovirus molecule (see Fig. 23.5 )
 Liposomes:
Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of synthetic lipid bilayers which mimic the
structure of biological membranes. The DNA to be transferred is packaged in vitro
within the liposomes and used directly for transferring the DNA to a .suitable target
tissue in vivo (Fig. 23.6).

The lipid coating allows the DNA to survive in vivo, bind to cells and be endocytosed
into the cells. Liposomes have become popular vehicles for gene transfer in vivo gene
therapy because of the safety concerns when using recombinant viruses. However,
the efficiency of gene transfer is low, and the introduced DNA is not designed to
integrate into chromosomal DNA, so expression of the inserted genes is transient.
 Reflection paper on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

This reflection was prepared in September 2003, with an update in

October 2004

I. Introduction

At recent major conferences of the United Nations, such as the 2002 World Food
Summit+5 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development, United States
government officials, often accompanied by agro-business company representatives,
pushed a model of biotechnology which has been intensely questioned by farmers and
others around the world. This model involves the use of genetically modified (GM)
seeds. Even as questions about the production of genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) continue to be raised, the U.S. has included GM seed in USAID programs and
food relief donations. GM seed is farmed in such scale in North America that the risks
of contamination to non-genetically modified crops are a concern to many involved in
international food, agriculture and trade issues. The technology is being developed
and rolled out at breath-taking speed with insufficient debate or testing. We may find
that by the time we learn the consequences of using GM technology, it will be
impossible to rein it back.

What are genetically modified organisms and why are they so controversial? What are
the implications of these new technologies for planet Earth and the full community of
life that shares this planet? What concerns do Maryknollers and the people they serve
have about these new technologies? What position should Maryknoll take in regard to
genetically engineered organisms? Because food is a basic human right and because
GMOs have immense implications for the world’s food supply, extremely important
ethical and moral issues surface. Owning exclusive patents on life and leaving basic
human needs to be met by markets alone can leave marginalized people without the
means to sustain life itself. The Advisory Committee on the Integrity of Creation of the
Maryknoll Office for Global Concerns offers this paper to engage Maryknoll missioners
in a reflection/dialogue about genetically modified organisms. In so doing, Maryknoll
joins the on-going international discussion about these technologies and their impact
on sustainable development.

II. Background

Genetically modified, or transgenic, organisms are created through high tech transfers
of selected genetic material from one organism to another. The goal of this genetic
engineering process is to create new varieties of plants and animals with chosen
characteristics. While humans have intervened in the genetic development of plants
and animals over the millennia, these new bio-engineered interventions are of a
different order.

Historically, farmers have altered the genetic make-up of plant and animal species by
selecting individuals that possess desirable traits for reproduction, cross-breeding, and
cross-pollination. These interventions have taken place within the limits imposed by
nature. For example, through careful selection of seed for its qualities, Mexican
farmers have created diverse varieties of corn, adapted to different micro-climates,
exhibiting different colors, flavors, textures, etc. But attempts to interbreed members
of different species have either failed or led to infertile off-spring. Modern technology,
however, allows for the transcending of such natural barriers. Laboratory methods are
now used to insert bits of genetic code from one species into another with which it
would never, in the natural order, have the possibility of cross-fertilization or the
development of a fertile offspring. Laboratory technology has enabled the transfer of
genetic material not just from one species to another, but even from plants to animals
and vice versa.
 Proponents of the technology of transgenic modifications tout the technology as
promising a revolution in the production of food and pharmaceuticals and even as
heralding the end of world hunger. Products that are already on the market include:
corn that produces its own insecticide, soy beans that are resistant to certain weed
killers, and rice that is enriched with vitamin A. Fast growing fish, plants that produce
vaccines for the animals (including humans) that consume them, corn with genetic
material from hog’s milk, are a few of the products currently in the experimental stage
in U.S. laboratories.

These new technologies, however, raise profound questions that should be addressed
before these technologies are routinely adopted.

III. Ecological concerns

A fundamental point that needs to be made is that the natural world—as expressed in
plants, seeds, animals, etc.—has intrinsic value and exists in its own right. It is not
dependent upon the value humans place upon it, but rather, by its very existence,
each dimension of Earth life has a right to be. It also has the right to make its
contribution to the maintenance and celebration of the larger Earth community.
Therefore, human interaction with the natural world is not a relationship of control
over or dominance of, but rather, as members and co-creators of one community of
life, the shared task is to advance the total Earth community. To understand this
relationship of community, of an essential oneness in the great unfolding story of the
universe, is to situate the whole human project in a posture of deep respect for and
interaction with the natural world.

The promoters of GMOs point to the benefits to human good these products will bring.
A stance that holds that all of Earth’s expressions have intrinsic value leads to deep
ethical/moral questions about genetic modification of life forms even for the purpose
of human good.

Genetically modified organisms may offer short term benefits to humans, but their
long term consequences for humans and the rest of creation are unknown. The earth
and its life forms are the product of millions of years of evolution and the web of
ecological interactions is vast and complex. Genetic modification of organisms is
predicated on a simplistic model that the expression of genes is mechanistic and
predictable. This is not the case: the expression of genetic information is the result of
complex interactions within the living organism and between the organism and its
environment. No scientist can predict what will happen over time as a result of the
introduction of genetically modified organisms into the environment. The National
Catholic Rural Life Conference, in applying the “Precautionary Principle” [i] states the
 issue as follows: “Whereas every gene carries instructions for the production of a
protein, and proteins combine with other proteins in an organism, science is not yet
able to fathom the intricate web of life. In the fantastic complexity of nature, is
science certain that artificially altering or moving a gene between species will produce
the same intended results each time?” [ii]

Already the problems of containing the new genetically altered varieties are evident.
Pollen from genetically modified plants is spread by the wind and has been found to
have pollinated plants in fields where GMOs were not planted. Although the planting
of genetically modified corn is prohibited in Mexico, it has been found in several parts
of the country because small farmers experimentally planted corn that had been
imported from the U.S. for food and animal feed. To the North, organic canola farmers
in Canada complain that it is no longer possible to grow canola that can be certified as
organic because of GMO contamination.

The effect of GMOs on biodiversity is another area of controversy. As scientists perfect

genetically modified varieties and these varieties are used more and more, the natural
genetic diversity of the organisms is likely to be lost. Genetic diversity is a form of
“insurance” against unforeseen natural disasters. If a species becomes subject to
disease, blight, or some other environmental challenge, species with no genetic
diversity will be subject to catastrophic loss, but those with genetic diversity may
have individuals with the genetic make-up to resist the challenge. So important is the
insurance value of genetic diversity that seed banks have been created to house
genetically diverse varieties of agricultural seeds.

IV. Food issues

At present, foodstuffs made from genetically modified plants, especially corn, soy, and
canola, are commonly sold in the United States. Most processed foods in the U.S.
contain genetically modified organisms. There is insufficient evidence at this point to
say definitively whether these foods are safe or are health hazards. But many
countries, including all the European countries, fear that GMOs are health hazards and
importation of GMO foodstuffs is banned.

Certainly, food allergies comprise one kind of danger from GMOs. People with allergies
may unknowingly eat foods containing transgenes from foods to which they are
allergic. New allergies may occur as previously unknown combinations of proteins are
engineered and marketed.

Of concern to people of many faith traditions is the importance of dietary laws that
prohibit the mixture of certain foods and the use of others. Foods containing
transferred genetic material could lead to a person’s unintentionally breaking
 customary dietary laws.

Much of the controversy about the use of GMOs in food revolves around labeling and
choice. Consumers are demanding the right to know what they are eating. Producers
of GMOs, on the other hand, resist labeling as prohibitively costly and out of fear that
consumers might shun GMO products.

The use of food crops to create pharmaceutical products (pharm crops) presents a
whole other level of hazard. In November 2002, a U.S. biotechnology company was
fined for allowing experimental plants engineered to produce pharmaceuticals to treat
diabetes and diarrhea to grow in fields along with non-engineered food plants. The
extreme difficulties of containing the spread of plant seeds and pollen in the field and
the possibilities for accidental mixture of pharm crops with other crops destined for
human or animal consumption have led to calls for a ban on the use of food crops to
create pharmaceutical products.

Proponents of GMOs claim that GMO technology promises to end world hunger. The
U.S. policy on solving world hunger is based on a simple formula: increased
productivity = reduced hunger. In an effort to increase productivity, the U.S. has
promoted the model of large-scale, single crop farms with a large number of inputs
(tilling, sowing and reaping equipment, fertilizers and pesticides). GM technology has
been developed to reduce the work load for these large-scale, capital intensive
farmers, not to meet the needs of small-scale farmers or the diverse ecosystems
within which they farm. With this model, the U.S. leads every conversation about
hunger with the premise that if farmers in other countries adopted U.S. farming
techniques, including GM seed technology, they would be more productive.

So for the U.S. large-scale production is an integral part of the solution to hunger. For
years NGOs that focus on hunger and food security issues have shown that
productivity is not the problem. There is enough food in the world to feed everyone:
distribution and access to good, nutritious food is the problem. Nutrition and
livelihoods are often left out of the picture.

V. Political/economic issues

Central to the political/economic issues are the questions of ownership and who
benefits?

GMO plants and technologies are protected under law by patents and ownership laws.
According to an article in The Nation[iii], five corporations (Dow, DuPont, Syngenta,
Aventis, and Monsanto) control three quarters of the patents issued on GMO
technology in the last decade. Monsanto owns or licenses 90 percent of the GMO seed
planted globally. GMO technology is sold as a package and under patent protections.

For example, farmers can buy Round-up Ready soybeans from Monsanto. This variety
of soy is resistant to Monsanto’s weed-killer Round-up, hence the name Round-up
Ready. The supposed advantage to farmers willing to use herbicides is that they can
destroy the weeds in their fields by spraying Round-up, a relatively inexpensive
alternative to more labor intensive forms of weeding. Beyond the ecological damage
of chemically dependent farming, the disadvantage is farmers cannot save seeds from
a harvest of Round-up Ready Soybeans for future planting, but are bound by law to
purchase the seeds from Monsanto. It is clear that Monsanto benefits from the
integration of its seed business with its chemical business and will benefit even more
as its seeds come to dominate the market.

One of the most controversial developments seed companies have come up with is
labeled “terminator” technology through which companies would create plants that
produce sterile seed. Such technologies would protect corporate patents and profits
by preventing farmers from saving seed for the following year’s planting and forcing
them to buy seeds from seed companies. Though several companies have patents for
terminator technology, such was the outcry against it among farmers that companies
have backed off from developing it, at least for now.

With an eye to future profits, corporations are busy searching the world for
economically promising plants so they can patent their genes. In so doing, they are
patenting the knowledge and the results of the labor of indigenous peoples who
neither share in the ideology of ownership nor in the potential profits. What
corporations call bio-prospecting, indigenous peoples and their advocates call bio-
piracy.

In short, GMO technology raises the specter of a few corporations controlling the
world’s food supply and access to the seeds and technology of production. Farmers,
who in the past have shared and saved seeds, will be forced to buy seeds along with
the whole technological package.

Deeply troubling is the idea that genes, the very essence of life, are patentable. As
people of faith, we believe that life is from God and not subject to human ownership
and domination.

VI. Trade and economic issues

Currently over 60 percent of the corn and soy raised in the U.S. is genetically
engineered. It is in the U.S.’s interest to have as wide a market as possible for these
genetically modified products. Yet many countries refuse to allow the importation of
 genetically modified grains or products. Access to these restricted markets depends
on the growers’ ability to prove that their crops are not contaminated by GMO
technology. What happened in Mexico shows how difficult it is to prevent
contamination. We should not be surprised that some observers accuse the U.S. of
sending relief food in the form of grain intentionally to spread GMO contamination. As
fewer countries are then able to certify their crops are GMO free, these observers
claim, the import barriers against GMO crops will of necessity be dropped. When that
happens many small, local farmers will find themselves unable to compete with
subsidized U.S. farm products.

The impact of U.S. subsidized imports is already evident in Mexico where U.S.
subsidized corn is imported as food and animal feed under the North American Free
Trade Agreement. Indigenous farmers, unable to compete with the low-priced
imported corn, are being forced to look for other ways to make a living. The collapse
of indigenous agriculture, so fundamental to their communities and cultures, radically
alters the lives of indigenous peoples.

In early 2003, U.S. trade officials, backed by aggressive lobbying from agribusiness
proponents, began discussing the possibility of challenging the European Union’s right
to ban genetically modified imports. Such a legal challenge would be heard by the
World Trade Organization. Should the U.S. win, the impact on world markets would be
immense.

VII. Faith-based justice groups

Many faith-based communities and organizations are studying GMOs; some have
already formulated statements. The National Catholic Rural Life Conference and
African Faith and Justice Network have called for a freeze on the proliferation of
genetically engineered foods while the many questions around GMOs are studied. A
powerful statement by the National Conference of Brazilian Bishops, accompanied by
their Pastoral Land Commission, supports the international effort to have seeds
declared the “common heritage of humanity” with the understanding that they would
be preserved in their genetic integrity by farming communities.

VIII. What are Maryknoll missioners saying?

Too often U.S. policy is set without knowledge of the livelihoods of small scale farmers
in rural areas. Maryknollers living among such farmers have for years shared the joys
and hardships of their lives. The life of subsistence farmers can be extremely harsh,
but as new technologies (including GM technologies) emerge on the scale that the
U.S. is promoting, small scale farmers who cannot compete find themselves forced to
look for new work, often in urban areas, thus forfeiting their connection to the land
and the traditions their families have carried on for years. Cultures and languages are
being lost at an alarming rate.

To date, we have heard from Maryknoll missioners in Mexico, the Philippines, Brazil
and Venezuela. This information has been incorporated in this reflection paper. We
invite Maryknoll missioners around the world to reflect on these issues in the context
of their own reality and to add their thoughts to the development of this reflection
paper.

There may be appropriate ways to use new technologies if they address some of the
key issues raised by people in the global South — widespread hunger, drought, water
shortages, poor soil, limited access to land. Yet we believe that serious questions must
be asked about whether the present technological direction addresses these
problems, whether it creates new problems, and whether it is appropriate to the
continuing evolution of the full community of life on Earth.

Animal cloning
how–dolly-the-sheep.jpgDolly the sheep may have been the world's most famous
clone, but she was not the first. Cloning creates a genetically identical copy of an
animal or plant. Many animals - including frogs, mice, sheep, and cows - had been
cloned before Dolly. Plants are often cloned - when you take a cutting, you are
producing a clone. Human identical twins are also clones.

So Dolly was not the first clone, and she looked like any other sheep, so why did she
cause so much excitement and concern? Because she was the first mammal to be
 cloned from an adult cell, rather than an embryo. This was a major scientific
achievement, but also raised ethical concerns.

Since 1996, when Dolly was born, other sheep have been cloned from adult cells, as
have mice, rabbits, horses and donkeys, pigs, goats and cattle. In 2004 a mouse was
cloned using a nucleus from an olfactory neuron, showing that the donor nucleus can
come from a tissue of the body that does not normally divide.

How was Dolly produced?

Producing an animal clone from an adult cell is obviously much more complex and
difficult than growing a plant from a cutting. So when scientists working at the Roslin
Institute in Scotland produced Dolly, the only lamb born from 277 attempts, it was a
major news story around the world.

To produce Dolly, the scientists used the nucleus of an udder cell from a six-year-old
Finn Dorset white sheep. The nucleus contains nearly all the cell's genes. They had to
find a way to 'reprogram' the udder cells - to keep them alive but stop them growing –
which they achieved by altering the growth medium (the ‘soup’ in which the cells
were kept alive). Then they injected the cell into an unfertilised egg cell which had
had its nucleus removed, and made the cells fuse by using electrical pulses. The
unfertilised egg cell came from a Scottish Blackface ewe.

When the scientists had managed to fuse the nucleus from the adult white sheep cell
with the egg cell from the black-faced sheep, they needed to make sure that the
resulting cell would develop into an embryo. They cultured it for six or seven days to
see if it divided and developed normally, before implanting it into a surrogate mother,
another Scottish Blackface ewe. Dolly had a white face.

Plant propagation/Cloning
< Plant propagation
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 Plant cuttings can be taken by cutting a stem of a plant, or a single leaf.
Plant cutting, also known as striking or cloning, is a technique for vegetatively
(asexually) propagating plants in which a piece of the stem or root of the source plant
is placed in a suitable medium such as moist soil, potting mix, coir or rock wool. The
cutting produces new roots, stems, or both, and thus becomes a new plant
independent of the parent.

How could biotechnology improve your life?

Explore the latest strategic trends, research and analysis

Experts on the World Economic Forum’s Council on Biotechnology have selected 10

developments which they believe could help not only meet the rapidly growing
 demand for energy, food and healthcare, but also increase productivity and create
new jobs, should issues such as regulatory certainty, public perception and
investment be tackled successfully. In this blog post, the council members make their
case for each of these technologies and highlight their potential benefits:

Over the past 100 years, humans have depleted about half the world’s known
reserves of fossil fuels. These reserves, which took more than 600 million years to
accumulate, are non-renewable, and their extraction, refining and burning are a major
cause of greenhouse gases and the warming of the planet. One of the most promising
hopes in the sustainability field is artificial biosynthesis, a process whereby living
organisms, such as bacteria, fungus or plants, are used to create fuels, chemicals and
other materials.

The continuing increase in our numbers and affluence are posing growing challenges
to the ability of humanity to produce adequate food and animal feed, as well as meet
the new demands for biofuel. Although controversial, genetic modification of crops
can help to solve this problem. The evidence shows that, in places where they are
allowed, modern GM crops are contributing to the growth of agricultural productivity.
In 2011, for instance, 16.7 million farmers grew biotech crops on almost 400 million
acres in 29 countries, including 19 developing countries. Existing GM commodity crops
also contribute to crop sustainability by permitting the use of less pesticide and
decreasing the need for erosion-promoting tillage. Such crops also contribute to
human and animal welfare by increasing farm productivity and reducing fungal
contamination of grain.

More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by seawater, and it is the most
abundant water source available on the planet, but we are only starting to tap its
potential. For instance, new bioprocesses can turn some types of seaweed grown in
the oceans into biofuels, potentially providing an energy solution to countries that lack
arable land and access to freshwater. Additionally, bacteria and microalgae that live
and grow in seawater can be engineered to grow more efficiently and be used to
produce chemicals, fuels and polymeric materials.

Environmentalists have long dreamed of a zero-waste society and new bio-processing

techniques could help to make this a reality. Biorefineries – facilities that integrate
biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuel, power, heat and value-
added chemicals from biomass – can turn industrial waste streams into chemicals and
fuels, thereby closing the production loop. Recent advances include using less-costly
inputs in the bio-process, such as carbon dioxide, methane and waste heat. Other
advances are also simplifying the waste streams, reducing their toxicity and moving
society closer to the goal of zero waste.
 Carbon dioxide and other carbon molecules are seen as a culprit in global warming,
and the environmental consequences of more of these compounds entering the
atmosphere is becoming increasingly clear. Recent advances are rapidly increasing
our understanding of how living organisms consume and use carbon dioxide. By
harnessing the power of these natural biological systems, scientists are engineering a
new wave of approaches to convert waste carbon dioxide and other molecules into
energy, fuel, chemicals, and materials that may help the world meet its needs.

Many societies that are grappling with the challenge of a rapidly ageing population are
increasing the demand for regenerative medicine, which holds the promise of growing
tissue and organs in the laboratory and allows surgeons to safely implant them when
the body is unable to heal itself. Traffic accidents and war amputations are also
spurring interest in the field. Scientists are already able to engineer tissue using
various biomaterials, and believe that stem cells, especially ones called induced
pluripotent stem cells (adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an
embryonic stem cell-like state) provide another significant opportunity in this field.

The ability of therapeutics and vaccines to treat and prevent diseases has been well
documented. Biotechnology has been central to these advances, progressively
offering the ability to make more complicated medicines and vaccines, opening up the
treatment and prevention of a broader set of diseases. The leading edge of
biotechnology is now offering the potential to rapidly produce therapeutics and
vaccines against virtually any target. These technologies – including messenger
therapeutics to stimulate the body’s natural ability to produce therapeutic proteins;
targeted immunotherapies to boost or restore the ability of the immune system to
fight diseases by targeting specific cells; conjugated nanoparticles, which combine
antibodies and nanoparticles – have already produced potential treatments with
substantial promise to improve human health globally.

One of the most real and serious threats to the human race is a potential global
pandemic. Biotechnology has the potential to provide the platforms needed for rapid
identification of biological threats, development of potential cures and global
manufacturing of the solutions. Identification of better targets and combined use of
nanotechnology and information technology are making it possible to develop rapid,
accurate, personalized and inexpensive diagnostics and prognostics systems.

Arable land and fresh water are two of our most important, yet limited, resources.
Sustained abuse and misappropriation have threatened these resources, much as the
demand on them has increased. Advances in biotechnology have already yielded
technologies that are beginning to restore the vitality and viability of these resources.
A new generation of developing technologies, such as bioremediation to use microbial
metabolism to remove pollutants, bioregeneration to renew or restore life-supporting
resources using biological processes, and bioaugmentation to introduce a group of
natural microbial strains or a genetically engineered variant to treat contaminated soil
or water, offers great promise to not only further restore these resources but also to
augment their potential.

It took more than 13 years and US$1.5 billion to sequence the first human genome
and determine the precise order of the building blocks in our genetic information.
Today, we can sequence a complete human genome in a single day for less than
US$1,000. When we analyse in such a sequence the roughly 3 billion base pairs, which
are the building blocks of the genome, we find that we differ from each other in
several million of these base pairs. In the vast majority of cases these differences do
not cause any issues, but in rare cases they cause disease or susceptibility to disease.
New research and medicine will increasingly be driven by our understanding of such
genetic variations and their consequences.

Author: This list has been compiled by the World Economic Forum’s Global Agenda
Council on Biotechnology, of which Lee Sang Yup is currently chair. For a full list of the
Council’s members see here.

Opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of the World
Economic Forum.
 Biotechnology of Animal Reproduction

Biotechnology of Animal Reproduction is a book concerned with a strategic area of

science. All topics on animal production and comparative physiology are very
important to aid in the better understanding of areas related to pet companionship,
health sciences and food production. Nowadays, humanity is facing breakthroughs in
new technologies, genetics and environmental challenges. This book is an attempt at
fulfilling the need for information about the scientific and, most importantly, applied
aspects of animal reproduction. Considering the importance of many species that
need assisted reproductive technologies, the authors covered the most studied
models, including cattle, horses, sheep and others. The authors also exposed the main
biotechnologies used in animal assisted reproduction, discussing their indications
according to each species to which they are applicable. This book covers topics such
as the reproductive physiology of males and females; production of embryo (in vivo
and in vitro); cryopreservation of embryos; artificial insemination; control of estrous
cycle; hormonal treatments; semen analysis; reproductive ultrasonography; in vitro
culture of ovarian follicles; animal cloning; advances on biotechnology of small
ruminants; epigenetics in animal reproduction; equine reproduction and ovum pick-up.
Over twenty leading scientists from several universities and countries have
contributed research to create the first single-source reference on reproductive
techniques. It is hoped that this book will be convenient to all categories of people
dedicated to animal reproduction, whether they are undergraduate and graduate
students, teachers, scientists or practitioners. (Imprint: Nova)
 Biotechnology in medicines

The field of medical biotechnology is experiencing rapid growth in recent years,

leading to the development of several innovative techniques for preventing,
diagnosing, and treating diseases. Novel methodologies, including polymerase chain
reaction, gene sequencing, fluorescence in situ hybridization, microarrays, cell culture,
gene silencing using interference RNA, and genome editing, have significantly
contributed towards improving health science, such as the sequencing of the human
genome, use of stem cells for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, development
of antibiotics, and the generation of monoclonal antibodies for therapy. This chapter
will summarize and update important techniques used and the products generated
using these tools in the field of medical biotechnology. If the current growth rate
continues, medical biotechnology will soon become a major pillar of health science.

HOW IS BIOTECHNOLOGY USED IN MEDICINE?

Posted by Biolyse | Sep 27, 2018 | Biotechnology in

Medicine | 0 |

How is Biotechnology Used in Medicine?

Nowadays biologic medicines have successfully saved countless lives of patients with
serious diseases such as cancer, autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
and psoriasis, blood-related illness, and neurological cases such as multiple sclerosis.

HOW IS BIOTECHNOLOGY USED IN MEDICINE?

Throughout the years, Biotechnology has touched all aspects of health and
agriculture. Biotechnology is an important field that is applied to these sectors with
the aim of improving the different targeted genes and customized medicines. There
are numerous methods applied to biotechnology such as gene treatment, recombinant
DNA technology. A more targeted approach is called polymerase establishment
revenge which uses genetics along with DNA particles to make a projected illness and
put in replace them with healthy genes in the physical body in place of the harmed
 cells.

In this article, we will discuss how biotechnology revolutionized the traditional

medicine and help save and improve the quality of life for people suffering from
various illnesses. In addition, we will provide a brief overview of the common medical
biotechnology field that was vastly improved using innovations by medical
biotechnology.

Biotechnology is commonly used to improve medicines due to the advantages and

pieces of knowledge it provides such as understanding the genetic composition of the
human species, foundational structure of hereditary diseases manipulation and
repairing of damaged genes to cure diseases.

WONDERS OF MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE

Medical biotechnology has improved tremendously in the recent decades, which lead
to the multiple innovative techniques that aim to prevent, diagnose and treat
diseases. More advanced and innovative methodologies include genomics,
pharmaceuticals, DNA sequencing, cell culture, interference RNA, and genome editing
have effectively improved the growth and understanding of health science, through
gene sequencing, stem cells for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, and
antibiotics. With the steady improvements in the research and development, medical
biotechnology can surely become a well-received foundation in health science.

BIOTECHNOLOGY MEDICINE PROCESS

It is widely accepted that any medicine created with or extracted from living cells is
recognized as a biotech therapy, or biologic. For many years, the produced biologics
medicines are used as insulin and certain vaccines.Biologics were created after the
introduction of genetic engineering, that improved the medical biotechnology field in
the 1970s. By that time, a lot of medical companies realize the new field’s potential
and to deliver biologics to patients.

Biologics cannot be consumed ad administered to sick people until they have been
approved by the governing bodies responsible for regulating drug use and
consumption. For instance,the United States of America has the Food and Drug
Administration to evaluate the safety of these medicines.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE

Biotechnology has opened the floodgates for more improved medicines that aid
tremendously in the diagnosing, preventing and curing a wide range of illnesses.
Human health has always been the primary concern all throughout the world
especially now with the introduction of a multitude of diseases.
Biotechnology plays a dynamic stance in tackling the obstacles pertaining to health as
it offers an alternative way to mitigate the health defects with the promise of better
and improved medical biotechnology applications and innovations. It has
revolutionized the way medical science was perceived.

Leading experts in the field of biotechnology estimate that there are over thousands
of therapeutic organisms that can aid and pave way for better and effective
medicines. Common ones are different kinds of proteins, that contains organisms,
biomarkers, genes, and cells. Using this newfound knowledge, bioengineers create
health technologies and value-adding outcome that have made considerable
upgrades in curing illnesses and diseases along with providing a better quality of life
for patients.

THE APPLICATIONS OF MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE

BIOPHARMACEUTICAL
Through advanced methods in biotechnology, biopharmaceuticals were produced
safely and quickly for treating illnesses. Furthermore, biopharmaceuticals do not
contain any chemicals and use targeted organisms to synthesize the medicine
successfully. Big molecules of proteins are the typical origin of biopharmaceuticals.
When they are inside the human body, they target dangerous and hidden parts of the
disease and obliterate them. Today, scientists and researchers are aiming to extend
and develop biopharmaceutical medicines which can be used to fight diseases related
to heart, hepatitis and cancer.

PHARMACOGENOMICS
Pharmacogenomics is the technique that leverages the person’s heredity information
to choose the best biotechnological medicine for their illness. This studies the body
system’s response to certain medications. To put it simply, this is the combination of
advances in pharmaceuticals along with genomics. The end goal of this application is
to improve medicines that are specifically targeted to a person in lieu with his genetic
makeup to ensure effective treatment of illness. The end goal of this branch of
medical science is to effectively produce biotechnological medicines which are placed
in the patient’s body in accordance with his genetical makeup.

With the use of pharmacogenomics, medical companies can produce medicines that
depend on the proteins, compounds, and RNA particles based on the chosen qualities
and infections applicable. Synthesized medicines are almost guaranteed to improve
remedial effects, in addition to diminishing harm to other nearby cells. With the
knowledge of the person’s hereditary inclinations, specialists can ascertain how well
the patient’s body can prepare and process a medication and decide the correct
amount of medication doses. As a result, an accurate prescription will be given, and
the chance of overdose is mitigated.
 RAPID DEPLOYMENT OF VACCINES
A global pandemic is a real issue and has always proven its powerful grip on humanity.
Through Biotechnology, scientists and researchers can quickly pinpoint precursors or
markers that can cause severe illnesses and diseases. As a result, they can synthesize
vaccines quickly against any dangerous pandemic sickness. In a study on vaccines
and biotechnology, researchers found a great decline in illnesses when patients were
administered with a vaccine produced through biotechnology.
 Applications of biotechnology in the food industry: Enzymes
Last Updated : 06 September 2006

Each week, every European eats an average of 11 kg of food. Enzymes, the naturally-
occurring proteins which allow all the biochemical processes of life to occur, are found
in all food raw materials. When purified and used in food preparation, some of these
enzymes offer benefits such as improved flavour, texture and digestibility.

Background
For many thousands of years, man has used naturally occurring micro-organisms -
bacteria, yeasts and moulds - and the enzymes they produce to make foods such as
bread, cheese, beer and wine. For example in bread-making the enzyme, amylase, is
used to break down flour into soluble sugars, which are transformed by yeast into
alcohol and carbon dioxide. This makes the bread rise.

Today, enzymes are used for an increasing range of applications: bakery, cheese
making, starch processing and production of fruit juices and other drinks. Here, they
can improve texture, appearance and nutritional value, and may generate desirable
flavours and aromas. Currently-used food enzymes sometimes originate in animals
and plants (for example, a starch-digesting enzyme, amylase, can be obtained from
germinating barley seeds) but most come from a range of beneficial micro-organisms.

In food production, enzymes have a number of advantages:

They are welcomed as alternatives to traditional chemical-based technology, and can

replace synthetic chemicals in many processes. This can allow real advances in the
environmental performance of production processes, through lower energy
consumption and biodegradability.
They are more specific in their action than synthetic chemicals. Processes which use
enzymes therefore have fewer side reactions and waste by-products, giving higher
quality products and reducing the likelihood of pollution.
They allow some processes to be carried out which would otherwise be impossible. An
example is the production of clear apple juice concentrate, which relies on the use of
the enzyme, pectinase.
Where enzymes are produced from micro-organisms (the main types include species
of Bacillus, Aspergillus, Streptomyces and Kluyveromyces), these are grown by
fermentation in large vats or fermenters with capacities of up to 150,000 litres; here,
temperature, nutrients and air supplies are adjusted to suit their optimal
development. As in other parts of the food chain, strict rules of hygiene are followed.
When the process is complete, the fermenter contains a broth which includes
enzymes, nutrients and microbes. This is purified by passing it through a series of
 filters to remove impurities and extract the enzyme.

Making improved products

Since the early 1980s, companies which produce enzymes have been using genetic
engineering techniques to improve production efficiency and quality and to develop
new products. There are clear advantages here for both industry and consumers, with
major improvements in enzyme production giving better products and processes.
However, progress is being slowed down because the debate on some other, more
controversial applications of biotechnology - such as genetic engineering in animals -
is continuing throughout Europe.

At present, modern biotechnology can be used to give a range of advances in

enzymatic production technology:

Improved productivity and cost-effectiveness in existing processes. By producing

enzymes more efficiently, the amount of raw materials, energy and water needed to
make a product can be reduced by as much as one-half by changing from a traditional
strain of microbe to a genetically modified one.
Companies can tailor their enzymes more precisely to customer demands for products
with specific properties.
Manufacturers can supply enzymes which otherwise could not be produced in large
enough quantities, giving the consumer access to a wider variety of products. An
example is the amylase-based product which makes bread stay fresh for longer.
 Biotechnology: Ethical Issues

Biotechnology is the use of organisms or their parts or products to provide a valuable

substance or process. Fermentation using microorganisms in brewing, baking, and
cheese production are biotechnologies that date back centuries. Production of human
insulin in bacteria to treat type I diabetes mellitus without causing allergic reactions is
a more modern example of biotechnology. Two widely used biotechnologies that
manipulate genes are recombinant DNA technology, which endows single-celled
organisms with novel characteristics using genes from other organisms, and
transgenic technology, which creates multicellular organisms that bear genes from
other types of organisms. Genetically modified (GM) fruits and vegetables, such as a
type of corn that manufactures a bacterial insecticide, are transgenic plants.

Ethical issues that arise from modern biotechnologies include the availability and use
of privileged information, potential for ecological harm, access to new drugs and
treatments, and the idea of interfering with nature. Applications include agriculture
and health care.

Agriculture
In agriculture, GM crops have been in the food supply in the United States for several
years. Foods containing GM ingredients are not usually labeled to indicate their origin.
This is because regulatory agencies determine food safety based on its similarity to
existing foods, its chemical composition, and effects on the digestive systems of test
animals, not on whether the plant variant arose from traditional agriculture or
transgenic technology. If a food is found to include a chemical that could cause an
allergy or is a toxin, it is not marketed. As of early 2002, there have been no reports of
harm coming from the consumption of GM foods.

Still, individuals who object to genetic modification would like the opportunity to select
plant foods that were not produced in this manner. Labeling would solve this problem,
and perhaps with continued consumer pressure it may come to pass. Some argue that
at times, those who object to GM foods have acted in unethical ways. In several
instances, protesters destroyed what they erroneously thought were fields of GM
plants. Companies have behaved in ethically questionable ways in the GM food
debate too. Before consumer outrage put an end to it, certain agrichemical companies
sold GM crops that did not produce viable seed, forcing farmers to purchase new seed
each year.

Another concern arising in agricultural biotechnology is the unintended spread of

transgenes to other organisms. When a crop is grown in the field, its DNA, including
the transgene, can theoretically be spread to other organisms in several ways. Certain
types of plant viruses can transfer DNA from the host chromosome to a wild relative
as well. Bacteria take up genes from the environment in the process known as
transformation, and pass genes among different types of plants through conjugation .
It is not yet known whether any of these latter processes have occurred with GM plant
DNA, and detection may be difficult. It is likely to be a question not of whether but of
when, however, given the large acreages devoted to GM plants.

Again the question arises of whether the consequences of such gene transfers are
qualitatively different from the same process occurring on crop plants modified
through traditional breeding. Opponents of GM crops say yes, since the potential
exists to transfer genes from sources that would otherwise never be found in the
agricultural environment. For instance, jellyfish genes are used in some agricultural
research. In addition, the potential for harm from "escaped genes" may be greater
precisely because the gene is so useful agriculturally. The gene for a natural
insecticide may help grow safer corn, for example, but it could also allow a wild plant
to escape its natural controls and become a serious forest weed. While such scenarios
are hypothetical for the moment, opponents say that so little is known about the
intricacies of ecology that caution is the only safe policy.

Health Care
In health care, genetic testing presents several ethical challenges. Legislation is in
place or is being developed to limit access to genetic information, so that employers
or insurers cannot discriminate against individuals because of their genotypes. Testing
for a genetic disease presents a complication not seen in other types of illnesses,
because the diagnosis of one individual immediately reveals the risk that other family
members may be affected, based on the rules of inheritance. For example, a young
woman learned that she is a carrier of Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, which causes severe
immune deficiency that is lethal in childhood. Because the mutant gene is carried on
the X chromosome, each of her sons faces a 50 percent chance of inheriting the
illness. Knowing that the same would be true for other carriers in her family, the
young woman chose to inform all of her relatives who might also carry the gene. The
decision of whether or not to be tested rests with the individuals.
 Another ethical dilemma in health care that arises from biotechnology is cost and
access to new treatments. Such drugs as tissue plasminogen activator, used to break
up clots that cause heart attacks and strokes, and erythropoietin and colony-
stimulating factors, used to restore blood supplies in cancer patients being treated
with chemotherapy, are extremely expensive. Although insurers often cover the costs
in the United States, people in many other nations cannot take advantage of these
drugs.

Because biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field, experiments and clinical trials are
ongoing. Participation in a clinical trial of a recombinant DNA-derived drug, or of a
gene therapy, requires informed consent. A case in 1999 provoked reevaluation of the
care with which such participants are screened, and of the adequacy of informed
consent protocols. Jesse Gelsinger was 19 when he received experimental gene
therapy to treat ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency. In this disorder, lack of an
enzyme that metabolizes protein leads to buildup of ammonia, which damages the
brain. Most affected individuals die within days of birth, but survivors can usually
control symptoms with diet and drugs, as Jesse had been doing. This is why his death
five days after receiving the gene therapy was especially tragic. An underlying and
undetected medical condition may have contributed to his death.

Medication usually controlled Gelsinger's condition, but he chose to join the clinical
trial so that he might help babies who died of a more severe form of the illness.
Although Gelsinger clearly stated that he realized he might die, questions arose about
the extent of his knowledge, largely because he had been healthy. This issue does not
arise in the more common situation in which a participant in a gene therapy trial has
exhausted conventional treatments, because he or she has little to lose at that point.
Clinical trials of gene therapy are now conducted with much greater care.
 Laboratory techniques

Authors

Authond affiliations

P. BrimblecombeD. L. DentI. N. McCave

Research on the constituents of the natural environment may

begin in the field, but it is usually completed in the laboratory.

Having acquired a sample, the researcher needs to be familiar

 with a range of laboratory techniques in order to determine its

characteristics. Many samples taken from the natural

environment are chemical solutions, such as river, sea, lake and

rain waters, for which basic chemical methods for dilute

solutions are appropriate. Other samples, however, like soil and

sediment samples, may be mixtures of solid particles and dilute

solutions. For these, some special techniques to determine

simple chemical and physical properties of the materials are

necessary. This chapter proceeds from a description of basic

laboratory equipment to essential chemical techniques and,

finally, to special laboratory techniques for soils and sediments.

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Difficulties and Problems in Learning English

 Students can have various difficulties and problems in learning English. They can
make different mistakes in English pronunciation, grammar, orthography and
vocabulary usage. There is a connection between the native language of a learner and
the particular difficulties in learning and using English, and the kind of mistakes a
learner typically makes in English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary as there is
native language interference in learning and using English.

Listening comprehension and speaking in English are the skills generally more
frequently used than reading and writing in daily living in an English speaking country.
Listening comprehension and speaking in English are more difficult and more
important for learners to master than reading and writing. When reading and writing a
text a learner has more time for thinking and pauses than when listening and
speaking in English in daily living.

An ESL/EFL learner can also look up unknown vocabulary in English dictionaries and
use other English reference books when reading and writing a text in English, which is
impossible when listening and speaking in English. Therefore, listening comprehension
and speaking in English are more difficult than reading and writing. English vocabulary
for daily living requires more time and is more difficult to master by foreign learners
than English grammar.

Vocabulary is one of the most comprehensive and difficult aspects of English for
foreign learners to master thoroughly. They should first concentrate on learning the
most frequently used and therefore most important English vocabulary for their
practical real life needs.

Multiple sense English words and synonyms (words with a similar meaning) present
special difficulty for foreign learners. Other difficulties in learning and using English
vocabulary include fixed word collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, proverbs and
regional differences in vocabulary usage. There are differences in English usage in
English-speaking countries in terms of spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary and
grammar.

English usage can also be formal and informal. Formal English is the language of the
mass media, education, business, economy, commerce, technology, science, etc.
Informal English includes colloquial, slang and dialect usage. It is harder for foreign
learners to master informal than formal English vocabulary.

English synonym dictionaries combined with general English dictionaries are an

excellent tool for intensively, comprehensively and logically mastering vocabulary for
the needs of the learner in real life situations. Extensive reading on a variety of topics
is another effective method for expanding English vocabulary knowledge by learners
 of English.

Written by Michael Shelby

Difficulties and Problems in Learning English

 PROBLEMS FACED BY STUDENTS IN SPEAKING ENGLISH LANGUAGE
By Muhammad Adil

This article aims to know about the “Problems Faced by Students in Speaking the
English Language”. That what are actually the problems by which the students are
unable to speak the English language fluently.

Being the English language as an international language. It is a demand of today’s

world. For surviving in society, people have to understand and speak the English
language.

In this world, you go everywhere the people can speak the English language or even
understand the English language.
The English language plays a greater role for the people in a society.

The English language is an important subject for the people to learn, understand and
speak.

For communicating and sharing thoughts with the people belong to other regions who
speak different languages, the English language is a common language to
communicate with them.

The English language is studying and learning all over the world. In every country, the
students are compelled to study and learn the English language.

The students need to understand and speak the English language.

But after16 years of education and learning and the English language the students are
not able to speak the English language fluently.