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SHAKESPEARE ON JEW AND CHRISTIAN: An Interpretation of The Merchant of Venice
Author(s): ALLAN BLOOM

Source: Social Research, Vol. 30, No. 1 (SPRING 1963), pp. 1-22
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SHAKESPEARE ON
JEW AND CHRISTIAN
*
of The Merchantof Venice
An Interpretation
BY ALLAN BLOOM
V enice is a beautifulcity;it is fullof colorand variety.To

thisday it represents the exoticand the excitingto the minds
of thosewho knowit- a port with all the freedomthat the
proximity to thesea seemsto encourage, and withthe presence
ofdifferentkindsofmenfromdiversenations, races,andreligions
broughtby the hope of adventureor gain to its shores. The
prosperous merchants ofVenicelavishly adornedit in a romantic
tastecombining thestylesofEastand Westbetweenwhichit was
thelink. Add to thisthesunof Italyand theattractiveness ofits
people,andyouhavethatcitywhichremainsthesetting ofdreams
of pleasureand happiness.
Shakespeare, in his twoVenetianplays,Othelloand The Mer-
chantof Veniceadmirablycapturesthe atmosphere of Venice.
It is notsurprisingthathe chosethislocale in whichto present
his mostexoticheroes;Othelloand Shylockare thefigures who
arethemostforeign to thecontextin whichtheymoveand to the
audienceforwhichtheywereintended. In a sense,it is Shakes-
peare'sachievement in thetwoplaysto havemadethesetwomen
* Author's Note - This article is based on a lecture
given at the Hillel Foun-
dation of the Universityof Chicago in January i960. I wish to dedicate it to the
memoryof the late Rabbi Maurice B. Pekarsky,the director of that organization
for seventeen years. He was a wise and good man who inspired men of many
faithswith respect for Judaism; he appealed on the highest grounds to both heart
and mind. This interpretationis meant to be a companion piece to my article:
"Cosmopolitan Man and the Political Community: An Interpretationof Othello,"
The American Political Science Review (March i960), pp. 130-57. It fits into a
series of Shakespearean studies that attempt to clarify the political frameworkin
which all the plays take place. This work was begun by Harry V. Jaffawith "The
Limits of Politics: An Interpretation of King Lear (Act I, Scene I), American
Political Science Review (June 1957), pp. 405-27.
2 SOCIAL RESEARCH
- who normallywould have been mereobjectsof hatredand con-
tempt - into human beings, who are unforgettablefor their
strengthof soul. For the firsttime in European literaturethere
was a powerfulcharacterization of men so different;
Shakespeare,
while provinghis own breadthof sympathy, made an impression
on his audiences which could not be eradicated. Whetherthey
liked thesemen or not, the spectatorsnow knew theywere men
and not thingson whichtheycould with impunityexercisetheir
vilestpassions. Veniceofferedtheperfectsettingfortheactionsof
Shylockand Othello because it was the place where the various
sortsof men could freelymingle and it was known the world
over as the mosttolerantcityof its time. In thiscitythosemen
who it was generallythoughtcould never share a common way
of lifeseemedto live togetherin harmony.
Shakespeare,however,does not depict Venice with the bright
colorswhichone would expect,given its beautyand its promise.
When one thinksof Othello or Shylockone can only remember
theirsomberfates;in bothcases,I believe,theirunhappydestinies
were in some measurea resultof theirforeignness;or, in other
words,Venice did not fulfillfor them its promise of being a
societyin whichmen could live as men,not as whitesand blacks,
Christiansand Jews,Venetiansand foreigners. To understand
whyShakespearehas thuspresentedVenice,we mustfora moment
considerwhat it meant to enlightenedmen in the sixteenthand
seventeenthcenturies.
The Setting
Venice was a republic;one of the fewsuccessfulexamplesof such
a political organizationin its time. It had for severalhundred
yearsguarded its independence;it had an orderlyformof gov-
ernmentin which a large proportionof the citizenscould take
active part. It was prosperousand had even become powerful
enough,in spite of its size, to cherishsome imperial ambitions.
During the Renaissancetherewas revivalof the republicanspirit
among thoughtfulmen; it was thoughtthat the proper practice
SHAKESPEARE ON JEW AND CHRISTIAN 3
of political life had deterioratedsince the fall of the Roman
Republic. For whateverreasons,the political,the conditionof
human dignity,had become indifferent to men and they lived
under monarchs. The independenceand pride thatare a result
of self-government had vanished; the political virtuespraised by
the ancientshad no opportunityforexerciseand witheredaway.
One can find this point of view developed most completelyin
Machiavellibut it was sharedby manyeminentthinkers. None-
theless,theyalso lookedforexamplesof thepossibilityof republics
in moderntimesand Venice was the mostfittingone. From the
end of the sixteenthcenturyup to the middle of the seventeenth,
Venice was constantlyadmired and writtenabout as the model
fora good politicalorderin modernity. It precededAmsterdam
as the model and- to name only two of its most illustriousad-
vocates- Harringtonand Spinoza drew liberallyfromit in the
elaborationsof their teachings. It was, indeed, a modern state
and hence different fromRome in many crucial respects. And
it is in these respectsthat it was of most interestto modern
theorists,because it seemed to providean answerto theircentral
problems. Along withthe tasteforrepublicanismcame a certain
depreciationof the Biblical religions,partlybecause theirother-
worldlinessseemedto be the sourceof the disinterestin the poli-
tical, and partlybecause theywere at the root of the religious
fanaticismwhichissued in such occurrencesas the religiouswars
and the Inquisition. These religiousattachments, it was believed,
led men away fromtheirpolitical interestsand divided men on
the basis of opinions. Modern republicanismhad to overcome
the religiousquestion,to attachmen to the here and now rather
than the hereafter.The statehad to become tolerantto be able
to embracemen of widelydiffering beliefsin a stableorder. This
was a problemnot directlyaddressedby ancientpoliticalthought,
and itsresolutionis the mostcharacteristicaspectof laterpolitical
thought. It was believed thatonly by directingmen's interestto
somethingwhich could subordinatetheir religious attachments
would it be possible to establisha way of life in which religious
4 SOCIAL RESEARCH
doctrines and theirintransigence wouldnotplaytheleadingpart.
It wasnotthought possibleto educatemento a tolerant viewnor
to overcomethe powerof the established religionsby refuting
them;theonlywaywasto substitute fortheinterest and concern
as
of men'spassionsanotherobject powerfully attractive as reli-
gion. Such an objectwas to be found in the jealous desire for
gain; thecommercial spiritcausesmento moderatetheirfanati-
cism;menforwhommoneyis themostimportant thingare un-
likelyto go offon crusades.Venicewas aboveall a commercial
cityand had indeedsucceededin bringing together in one place
moredifferent typesofmenthananyothercity.1The condition
of Shylock'slivingin Venicewas itsneed of venturecapitalfor
itsenterprises. The lawswhichwouldnotbe respected forthem-
selvesare obeyedbecausetheyare the foundation of the city's
prosperity. As theMerchant himself says(III. iii. 31-36,cf.IV.
i- 39-43):
The Dukecannotdenythecourseoflaw
forthecommoditie thatstrangershave
Withus in Venice, ifit be denied,
Willmuchimpeach thejusticeofthestate
Sincethatthetradeand profit of thecity
Consistethofall nations.2
The Jewsin Venicewerewelloffand enjoyedthefullprotec-

tionofthelawin thefifteenthandsixteenth theVenice
centuries;
Jewishcommunity privilegedamongthe Jewish
was relatively
communitiesin the claimagainstAntoniorests
Diaspora;Shylock's
awareof itscommercial
on thatlaw and he is perfectly
entirely
1 For a typical and influentialpre-Shakespeareanevaluation of Venice, Cf. Jean
Bodin, Les Six Livres de la Republique (Paris: 1577) pp. 726, 790. For the general
understandingof Venice at the period, cf. Cardinal Gaspar Contareno, The Com-
monwealth and Governmentof Venice (London: 1599). Although the translation
did not appear until fiveyears after the production of the Merchant of Venice, the
book appeared in Italian in 1543, had been translated into French much before
1594, and was well known.
2 All citations are from the Furness Vanonum edition (Philadelphia: J. B. Lip-
pincott Co., 1888).
roots. Venicewas a modelcityforthenew politicalthought;it
was tolerant, bourgeois,and republican. This solutionto the
politicalproblemis theone whichbecamedominantin theWest
and is onlytoofamiliar to us.
It behoovesus,therefore, to examineShakespeare's viewofthat
citywhich contained the germ ofwhatis todaygenerally accepted.
He did in thatcity,as I havesaid,present hisviewoftherelations
betweenmenwho are foreignto one another. This is the link
betweenthetwoVenetianplays. He understood thehopesbased
on theVenetianexperiment and,as thefatesof his heroesshow,
he was pessimisticabout the possibilitiesof its success. This is
notto saythathe did notapproveof whatVenicestoodfor;but
he triedto understand thehumanconsequences of the legal ar-
rangements, and he foundthatfriendship betweensuch unlike
personages is verydifficult,
if notimpossible.Lawsare notsuffi-
cient;theymustalso be accompanied bygooddispositions on the
partof thosewho live underthem. Shakespearepresentsthe
depthsofsoulsas no manhas everdone and through his divine
insightwecancatchsightofthedifficulties whichstandin theway
of humanbrotherhood, difficulties
whichare real and cannotbe
doneawaywithby piousmoralizing.
The Conflict
Shylockand Antonioare Jewand Christian and theyare at war
in faith. It is notthattheymisunder-
as a resultoftheirdifference
standone anotherbecauseofa longhistory ofprejudiceand that
enlightenment could correct
their hostility; rather
theirrealviews
oftheworld,theirunderstanding ofwhatis mostimportant in life,
areso opposedthattheycouldneveragree. Andwhenconfronted
withoneanotherin thesameplacein relationto thesamepeople,
theymustnecessarily quarrel.Their difference as to whomand
on whatterms one shouldlendmoneyis themostexternalsignof
thisrootand branchopposition.To do awaywiththeirhostility,
thebeliefsofeachwouldhaveto be doneawaywith,thosebeliefs
whichgofromtheverydepthstotheheights oftheirsouls;in other
6 SOCIAL RESEARCH
words,theirbeing would have to be changed,formen are consti-
tutedmostessentiallyby theirunderstandingof the mostimpor-
tant things. The law of Venice can forcethem to a temporary
truce,but in any crucial instancethe conflictwill re-emergeand
each will tryto destroythe spiritof the law; foreach has a differ-
ent way of life which, if it were universalizedwithin the city,
would destroythatof the other. They have no commonground.
Antonioand Shylockare, however,not merelyindividualswho
differ;Shakespeare,rightlyor wrongly,has presentedthem as
types,representatives of Judaismand Christianity.Each acts ac-
cordingto the principlesof his faith;theydo not differbecause
theyare men who have idiosyncrasies but because theirprinciples
are opposed; those principlesare not theirown but are derived
fromtheirrespectivereligions. Of course,we do not see themin
thepurityoftheirworship;theyact in thecorruptworldofprivate
and politicallife; but we do see the extensionof theirprinciples
in thatworld. Antonioand Shylockare each depictedas models
of theirheritage;each is even a parodyof a remarkableBiblical
not as thosefigures
figure, werebut as theymightbe in thecontext
of Venice. Shakespeareviews them fromoutside withoutcon-
sideringthe truthof either.3
3 Shakespeare, who presentedJews,seemsto have
unlike the earlierdramatists
gone back to the Bible to findhis characterizations ratherthan use a traditional
image. His Jewis Jewishin his profession of faith;his principlesare recognizable.
And it is similarwiththeChristian.Shakespeare seemsto have takena certainside
of theOld Testamentand added to it thecriticism of theJewsmade in the Pauline
Epistles. One might look especiallyto Romans IX-XI; the oppositionbetween
Shylockand Antoniomightwell be characterized as that between"a vessel of
angerand a vesselof mercy." Or, moregenerallystated,the issueis preciselythe
quarrelbetweentheOld Law and theNew Law, each presenting its own evaluation
of whatis the mostimportant elementin pietyand the moralityconsequentupon
piety.The twoLaws are relatedbut inimical. Shakespeareis, I believe,farmore
interested in Antonio'sprinciplesthanin Shylock's.The Jewswerenot a problem
in England;therewerenone,or practically none; and his audiencewas Christian.
But Antonio'soriginsare somehowin Shylock'slaw, and he can only be seen in
termsof thoseoriginsand his oppositionto them.This is parallelto theNew Testa-
ment'streatment of Jesus.The confrontationof the two is a re-enactment of the
originalconfrontation but alteredand embitteredby the unhappyhistoryof fifteen
hundredyears. Cf. the dialoguesbetweenAntonioand Shylock(I. iii. 40-187;III.
iii. 3-28; IV. i. 39-124).
Shylockholds thatrespectforand obedience to the law is the
conditionforleading a decent life. Throughout the play law is
his only appeal and his only claim. Righteousnessis hence the
criterionforgoodness;if a man obeysthelaw to itsletterthrough-
out his lifehe will prosperand do whatis human. No othercon-
siderationneed troublehim. Justiceis lawfulness;Shylockis a
son of Moses. Along with this goes a certain positive temper;
Shylocklives verymuch in thisworld. Money is a solid bastion
of comfortableexistence,not for the sake of pleasure or refine-
ment but of familyand home. The beggaris contemptibleand
was probablynot righteous. This earth is where man lives and
justiceand injusticereap the fruitsof rewardand punishmenton
it. Decent sobrietyis the rule of life,each man livingforhimself
accordingto therule. A certaintoughnessand lack of far-ranging
sympathies characterize him.4
Moreover,shrewdnessconcerningthe thingsabout which the
law does not speak is perfectly legitimateand even desirable. To
live well on thisearthone musthave some amount of substance,
withoutwhich life is miserable;given the nature of men, one is
likelyto lose what properlybelongsto one, if one is not careful.
Shylock'smodel is Jacob who had to deceive his fatherto attain
his successionand who used tricksto get a fairwage fromLaban
(I. iii. 74-100). So he is a moneylender;he does not cheatmen,he
onlytakesadvantageof theirneed. If a man wantsmoney,forhis
businessor his pleasures,he can make use of what Shylockpos-
sesses. Shylockdoes not care for the man or his interestsbut
throughthem he can profithimself. What he does is neither
noble nor generous,but it is not unjust. Why should he concern
himselfwith Bassanio's prodigalityor his hopes to make a good
matchforhimself? Would it not be follyto wasteone's sympathy
and one's substanceon thevicesof others? Shylocklives privately
in his "soberhome" withhis daughter,and thiswayof life is pro-
tectedby his shrewdnessand the moneywhichhe earned with it.
Antonio,on thecontrary, bases his whole lifeon generosity
and
* IV. i. 150, 94-108; II. v. 30-40.
8 SOCIAL RESEARCH
love forhis fellowman. For him, the law, in its intransigence
and its indifference to persons,is an inadequate guide for life.
Not thatone shouldignorethe law,but it is onlya minimumcon-
dition. Equity and charityare more importantvirtues than
righteousness.Antoniohas money;it is, however,not forhis own
enjoymentbut ratherforhis friends;he lends his moneybut not
forprofit. Life on this earthis but a frailthingand only gains
whateverallure it has in seeing othersmade happy. Antonio is
sad and lifedoes not mean much to him. Life is but a stageand
our actionstakeon meaningonlyin a largercontext. Antonio is
perfectly willingto die forhis friendto provehow much he loves
him. Calm calculation is beyond him. He makes promiseshe
cannotkeep and his hopes are based on shipsthatare yetto come
in. The restraintand the coldness of the Jew are not his; his
sympathies go out to all men and he caresmuchfortheiraffection.
He is fullofsentimentality.He has no familyand we hearnothing
of his home; he is a bachelor (I. i. 5-11, 98-109, 164-170; iii.
133-140; II. vii. 38-52; III. ii. 309-314; IV- *• 75~88> 120-24).
Antonioand Shylockare not made to understandone another.
When Shylocksees Antonio approachinghe says "How like a
fawningpublicanhe looks,"echoingthesentiments of thePharisee
in the Gospel who prides himselfon his own righteousnessand
despisesthe publican's abasementbeforethe Lord.5 Antonio in
his turnhas, in imitationof Jesus,driventhe moneylenders from
the Rialto. He has spit on Shylock; forhis sympathy cannot ex-
tend to a man who denies the fundamentalprincipleof charity
(I. iii. 110-140). That is the limit case. Neithercan regardthe
otheras a humanbeing in any significant sensebecause in all that
is human theydiffer. It is verywell to tell themto live together,
but in any confrontation of the two theyare bound to quarrel;
what is prudence for the one is robberyfor the other; what is
kindnessfortheone is mawkishsentimentality to theother. There
is no middle groundsince theysee the same objects as different
&Mark xviii. 10-14. Shylock'srighteousnessis in general the parallel of that of
the Pharisee.
things;commonsensecannotmediatebetweenthem. If thereis
tobe harmony, onemustgivein totheother;pride,at least,ifnot
conviction, precludesthis. But thetwomenneed one another;
theyare linkedby money. AntoniomustborrowfromShylock.
Theyhave a contract but one thatis not boundby good faith.
In thisnotveryfunnycomedy,themostamusingfigureis the
clown,LancelotGobbo. Andhe is so amusinglargelybecausehe
represents theridiculousness of themanwho triesto live in the
worldsofAntonioand Shylock at thesametime;everything is so
differentthathe is likesomeonewhowantsto standon his head
andhisfeetat thesametime. He worksfortheJewbuthiscon-
sciencetellshimthattheJewis theDevil;so he wantsto leavethe
Jew,buthisconscience tellshimhe mustdo his duty. His con-
science,thatgreatinstrument ofmoralguidance,tellshimhe must
go andstayat thesametime. Lancelotis utterly confused.Ulti-
mately he follows the onlything he knows surely,his stomach.
Shylock'sparsimony has lefthim hungry;also, Bassaniogives
pretty uniforms,thingunthinkable
a in thehomeof theaustere
Jew.Thereseemto be no rulesofmoralconductwhichcan gov-
erntherelationship betweenmenso diverse.Lancelotdrawsout
theparadoxofthesituation whenhe discusses conversion
Jessica's
withher. Shecan,he says,onlybe savedifherfather wasnother
father;but if her sin of beingthe Jew'sdaughteris removed,
thenshe will inheritthe sin of her mother'sadultery. She is
damnedifshedoes,anddamnedifshedoesn't. Besides,Lancelot,
on his gastro-economic grounds,is againstconversion becauseit
will makethe priceof porkgo up (II. ii. 2-29; III. v. 1-25).6
Shylock stateshisprinciple forrelatingto theChristian commu-
nity in which he livesas follows: "I will buywithyou, sell with
you,talkewithyou,walkwithyou,and so following: but I will
not eate withyou,drinkewithyou,nor praywithyou" (I. iii.
« Lancelotcarrieshis confusionfurther
in his relationswithhis father,whomhe
respectsand despises,thusmixingthe responsesof Portiaand Jessica. His father,
in thisplay whichhas so much to do withfathers, is blind. Lancelot,moreover,
also parodiesthe lovesbetweenforeignersin thiscomplicatedworld(III. v. 36-41).
io SOCIAL RESEARCH
33~39)-7 What is mostimportantto him he cannotsharewithhis
neighbors. When men do not agree about what is most impor-
tant,theycan hardlybe said to constitutea community. Othello
is about a man who triedto assimilateand failed.8 In the Mer-
chantof Venicewe see thesoul ofa man who refusedto assimilate.
He is consequentlydistrustedand hated. He reciprocatesand his
soul is poisoned.
The Meaning of Compromise

Shylockmakes one compromisewith his principle. He goes to
dinnerat Bassanio's. Punishmentis swiftand harsh. During the
dinnerhe loses his daughterplus a considerablesum of money.
Everything thathe has held mostdear is gone; he becomesa mon-
sterintentonlyon revenge. It is no longerprinciplewhichguides
him,forhe has compromisedhis principleby disobeyingthe law.
He can only thinkthatAntonio arrangedthe dreadfuldeed, al-
thoughAntonio apparentlyknew nothingof it.9 Shylockrecog-
nizes thatno one cares forhim, that his sorrowsare the joys of
others. No humiliationcould be more complete;as a man with
dignityhe can onlymakeotherssuffer forwhathe suffers.Others
have countedhim out of the pale of humanity,and he will show
themtheywererightin doingso. Formerly, he was bitter,but he
had his littlelifein whichhe could practicehis faithand enjoyhis
home. Now this is all gone. He has a certaingrandeurin the
depthof his rage,but he has become terrible.The strongimpres-
sion he makesis based onlyon thatwhichis negativein him. How
could he forgive,when he would onlybe despisedforhis forgive-
ness? If he cannotbe loved,he can at leastgain therespectof fear.
7Shylock'sfaithcuts him offfromothers;moreover,it gives him a different
notionof the thingsthatreallycount.
8 Cf. myarticlecitedin the author'snote. Mr. W. H. Auden has subsequently
proposedan interpretationof Othellonot unlikemyown in thisrespect.See "The
AlienatedCity,"Encounter(August1961) pp. 3-14.
» What causesShylockto changehis mind and go to eat with the Christiansis
unclearand can onlybe a subjectof conjecture(II. v. 14-21). There is no indica-
tionthatAntonioknewof the abduction(II. vi. 69-75). But Shylocktakesit as a
conspiracyknownto and supportedby the whole Christianworld (III. i. 22-23).
But nowhis lifeis carriedon onlyin responseto the Christians
whomhehates;ithasno solidcontent ofitsown. In thisportrayal
Shakespeare, to someextent,givesjustification to the Christian
reproach that the Jews had lostthe one most important thingand
carriedon onlytheemptyforms oftheirlaw.
Shylock is not a comic figure.Thereis no scenein theplayin
whichhe is meantto be laughedat in person. He does appear
comicin theeyesof someof the Christianactors,but thisonly
provesthatShakespeare did notagreewiththemand is as much
of a commentary on themas on Shylock. He is mostcomicto
Salerioand Salerinowhoburlesquehisscreaming afterhisducats,
his daughter and his ducats (I. vii).10 Shylockis reproached, as
weretheJewsin general,formaterialism, a materialism which
madeit impossibleto makeproperdistinctions betweenthirigs.
Andthisis borneoutbyShylock's conduct, butin no ignobleway.
Forhim,as we havesaid,lifeis an earthly thingand hismoneyis
connectedintrinsically withhis existence.His affection forhis
daughter is based on the factthatshe is his fleshand blood (III. i.
32-34). The so-calledspiritualtiesdo not existforhim; every-
thinghe hasbelongstohimin thesameintimate waythathisbody
belongsto him. There is no distinction betweenspiritand mat-
ter;therelationofsoulsalonewithouttheotherbondsis impos-
sible;therefore,a universalhumanity is excluded. Kinshipis the
sourceoflove,hencehisreal lovesare his familyand his "sacred
nation."
When Shylocktalksto Tuball about his daughterand his
money,he does indeedexpressthesentiments attributed to him
by his ridiculers, but theyappearverydifferently to us (III. i.
75-123). He wouldliketo see hisdaughter dead withthejewels
in herear. We areshockedbythedistortion ofthesentiment but
10This scenenot only describesa comicShylockbut also givesa descriptionof
the partingof Bassanioand Antonio. This, too, in its way,has elementsof the
comic,althoughtheyare not intendedby the speakers. And it also revealsthe
Bassanio is remindedof the riskshis friendis
pretencein Antonio'sselflessness;
takingforhim when Antoniotells him to forgetthem. The scene cuts in both
directions.
12 SOCIAL RESEARCH
we also see thathis daughteris morea partof him thanhis money,
thatthisis an expressionof thedepthof his loss. Jessicadoes not
belongto himanymore;all he can counton now is hismoney. She
has brokenthe law and defiedhim. She is no more and he must
forgether forshe existedas a human forhim only so long as she
was faithful. It is a hardcode, but the passionand disciplinethat
is requiredto obey it are a measureof what it means to Shylock.
As Jessicawas hated with intensitywhen she leftthe fold,so she
would have been loved if she had remainedwithinit. Shylock's
daughteris dead to him but also partofhimhas died. The feeling
of whichShylockis capable is seen in the admirableresponsehe
makeswhen he hears thatJessicahas barteredfora monkeythe
turquoisehe gave his wife. "I would not have given it fora wil-
dernessof monkies"(III. ii. 115-116). This is the expressionof a
man practicedto a parsimonyof sentimentbut whose sentiments
forthatreasonare deep and unutterable. It is different fromthe
effusiveness of Antonio'sexpressionsof love; but is it not equal?
The mostquoted speech in the Merchantof Venice is the one
whichbestofall showstheplightofShylock(III. i. 47-66):
"I am a Jew;Hath nota Jeweyes?hathnota Jewhands,organs,
dementions, passions,fedwiththe same foods,
senses,affections,
hurtwiththesameweapons,subjectto thesamediseases,healed
bythesamemeanes,warmedand cooledby thesameWinterand
Sommeras a Christian is; ifyouprickeus doe we notbleede? If
you tickle
us, doe we notlaugh? If youpoisonus doe we notdie?
and if you wrongus shallwe not revenge?if we are like you in
therest,we willresemble youin that."
Shylockjustifieshimselfby an appeal to the universalityof

humanity. Behind this harsh but touchingcomplaintis also a
plea fortheexerciseof thegoldenrule. Men can onlybe men to-
getherwhen theyrecognizemutuallytheir sameness;otherwise
theyare like beingsof different species to one anotherand their
onlysimilarityis in theirrevenge. But, sadly,if one looks at the
list of similarcharacteristics
on which Shylockbases his claim to
equalitywith his Christiantormentors, one sees that it includes
only things which belong to the body; what he findsin common
betweenChristian and Jewis essentially whatall animalshavein
common.The onlyspiritual elementin thelistis revenge.11 Like
the
Antiphon, Sophist,Shylock assertsthatthe brotherhoodof
mancanonlycomeintobeingon thebasisof thelowestcommon
denominator; and thatcommondenominator is verylow indeed.
It is thebody;all thehigherpartsof thesoul mustbe abstracted
from, becausetheyexpressmen'sopinionsand beliefsaboutwhat
is good and bad, virtueand vice; and these,mendo not share;
thesebeliefsmakemenenemies. Shylockappealsto a humanity
whichall mencanrecognize butin so doinghe mustdiscountwhat
all noble men would regardas the mostimportant.Shylock
standsforJudaism and hislifehasgaineditssensefromthatfact,
notfromthefactthathe eats,drinksand feels;Christianity has
played a similarrole in the lives of his opponents.They would
haveto transform theirbeingsin orderto becomeunified.The
choiceseemstobe a hostilediversity on a highlevelor a common
humanity on thelevelofthebeasts,a commonhumanity grounded
on an indifference to theopinionabout thenatureof thegood.
The fourJewishnamesin the Merchantof Veniceseemto be
drawnfromtwosuccessive chapters, x andxi,ofGenesis. Chapter
xi has as its themethe Tower of Babel; perhapsthisis partof
Shakespeare's meaning. "Let us go down and thereconfound
theirlanguage,that theymay not understandone another's
speech." Men's separateness is an act of Divine Providence.12
11Shylock characteristicallymentions laughter as a result of tickling. He and
Antonio would not laugh at the same jokes.
i2Tubal x, 2, Chus, 6, Jessica (Jesca) xi. 29. The latter two names are spelled
otherwisein the King James version,but appear as they are here in the translations
which follow the Greek of the Septuagent, and they were so spelled in translations
at Shakespeare's time (cf. note 21). Shylock poses a greater problem and its origin
can only be conjectured. But in the same passage is a name which comes closer to
it than any other and is repeated six times (x. 24, xi. 12, 13, 14, 15); it occurs both
before and after the account of the Tower of Babel. This name appears as Salah
in the King James but is spelled Shelah (the last syllable is pronounced as ach) in
the Hebrew, and so it appears in the English version of 1582. This is very close
indeed; and the Hebrew spelling of this name is almost the same as that of the only
other Biblical name which has been suggestedas a possible source: Shiloh (Genesis.
xix. 10). Given that Shelah occurs in the same passage with the other names, it
seems probable that he is Shylock's ancestor.
14 SOCIAL RESEARCH
Portia and Her Suitors
Whetheror not Shylockoriginallyintendedto exact the pound of
fleshif possible,afterthe loss of Jessicahis whole hope is to be
able to gain revengewithinthe limitsof the law. The drama of
Shylockand Antonio would have come to a disastrousend if it
had not been forPortia. We mustnow pause to considerher role
in theplay beforeexaminingthe famoustrialscene. The contrast
between Portia and the other two major figuresis sharp and
pointed; and the difference in atmospherebetweenBelmontand
Venice is striking. Portia bringswith her a love of gaiety,satis-
faction,subtletyand above all, common sense that is entirely
lackingin Venice. While scenes of hate are being unfolded in
Venice,at BelmontPortiapresidesovera feastoflove- love,not in
the sense of Antonio'sspirituallove for Bassanio, but the erotic
love betweenman and woman. Portia is the masterof thisworld
of Belmontand her own satisfaction is thehighestlaw of the land.
She has no doctrinesand she is willingto appear to be anything
to achieveher ends. She rules,and rules forher own good while
alwayskeepingup the appearancesof proprietyand justice. Bel-
montis beautifuland therewe enterthe realm of the senses;it is
Pagan; everyonetherespeaks in the termsof classical antiquity;
religion is only used there; and there is a temple as well as a
church;the themesof conversationand the ideas currentin Bel-
mont have an ancientsource; Portia has the tastesof a Roman
and is comparedto one whose name she shares (I. i. 175-76.)13
Belmonttoo is a cosmopolitanplace but the attractionthereis
not moneybut love. Men fromall over the world come to woo
the fairPortia and she is able to see and evaluatewhat the wide
worldhas to offer. She is no cloisteredlittlegirl. She presentsa
typologyof nationalcharactersin goingover the listof her suitors
- the horse-loving Neapolitan,the severePole, the drinkingGer-
13The templeis mentionedat II. i. 50; Portia'suse of religionis indicatedin
III. iv. 29-35. Portiawould seemto be representative
of classicaleros. All myths
and examplescitedin Belmontare drawnfromclassicalantiquity.
man,and so forth.Shejudgesthemeachin relationto thecom-
modityof a pleasantsharedexistence.Her candorwhenshe is
alone withher servantis shockingto someand exasperating to
others;butit can also appearto be theclearvisionofone whois
liberatedand hasspurnedtheunhappydepthsoftragedy.Portia
rejoices thebeautiesof thesurfaceand certainly
in no one can
assertthatherhedonismleadsto vulgarity.She choosesforher
husbanda fellowcountryman afterhavingseenall thatis exotic
and strange.She is the oppositeof the shy,untutoredDesde-
mona. Sheoptsforthefamiliar notonlybecauseit is thefamiliar
but also becauseit represents mostadequatelywhatis agreeable
andappropriate toher;Bassanioisa sortofmeanin relationtothe
othersuitors,justas is hisnationspeakinggeographically.
The testof the threecasketsshowsthe principlesimpliedin
Portia'schoiceas wellas itpre-figures
thetechnique shewilluse in
thetrial. Portiais apparently notthemistress of herfate;she is
ruledbythewillofherfather whohasdecreedthatthemanwho
is to winhermustfirst a
pass seemingly foolishtestof character.
Portiaprofesses dissatisfactionwiththisarrangement, but as a
gooddaughter she intends to abide by therestriction. She does
not,likeDesdemonaorJessica, defyconventionstogaintheobject
ofherwishes; she has a greatrespectforthe forms,ifnotthesub-
stance,of the conventional.The testis, moreover, not entirely
disagreeablebecauseitsconditions driveoffmanyan undesirable
suitorwhomightotherwise be importunate.She usesher tradi-
tionaldutyto satisfy herdesiresbut she,as becomesclear,does
notbecomeitsvictim.The firstsuitorwhorisksthechoiceis a
Moorwhobeginshis wooingwiththerequest:"Mislikeme not
formycomplexion."He is in certainrespects like Othellobut
renderedcomicin the atmosphere createdby Portia. He is a
greatwarrior and a passionatelover,fullof noble words.This
hastymanof theSouthchoosesthegoldencasketbecauseof its
appearance.He is a slaveof his senses. Portiawhohas treated
himwithelaboratepoliteness, him fromher thoughts
dismisses
with"Let all ofhiscomplexion choose me so." She is no Desde-
16 SOCIAL RESEARCH
monawho "saw Othello'svisagein his mind."14 She makesno
effort totransform herimmediate sensualimpressions. Sheknows
thesortofmanwhowouldbe tohertaste.
As theMoorwasimmediate, sensualand passionate, Aragonis
is thecool,reflected gentleman of the North. He is a piousmor-
alizer,fullof the mostcorrectcommonplaces.He choosesthe
moderatesilverand the basisof his judgmentis the text. He
choosesto havehisjust deserts, but is angrywhenhis deserving
turnsoutto be lessthanwhathe conceives (II. ix. 1-86). Aragon
is a foolwhothinks thattheaccentsofvirtueconstitute itsessence.
Portiaseesin himonlya bore. The Moorchosebyimages, Aragon
bytexts.Neitherwasright.Portiaseeksa manwhocancombine
feeling and thought in a naturalgraceofsentiment. The Southis
barbaric,the Northcold and sententious. True civilizationim-
plies a mixture of developedunderstanding and reflection witha
fullcapacity to perceive;one mustbothsee thingsas theyare and
reactto themappropriately. Textsand imagesmustgo together
as a naturalunity.
PortiawantsBassanio. She is awarethathe is nota hero,that
he is notherequal. She knowshisweaknesses and eventhefact
thathe hopesto recouphis fortunes by marriage.But she also
seesthathe is a niceman,a manofrefined sentiments and a true
gentleman.He doesnotsermonize, and he is balancedand grace-
fulin hisjudgments. He is neitherprimitive norover-civilized.
He has no eminentvirtuesbut he pretends to none; and he has
no markedvices. He is a mean;he is both handsomeand culti-
vated. Bassaniois also no fanatic. He is the onlyone of the
Venetianswho does not instinctively hate Shylock. He always
treatshimlikea man,indifferent to thedoctrines whichseparate
them. He is surprised and shockedat Shylock's conduct;he does
notexpectit,and evenencourageit,as does Antonio. Bassanio
is humaneandsimple. LikePortia,he approaches theworldwith
no preconceptions but letsimpression and taste guidehim,buthis
is an educatedtaste. He lovesPortiaand Portiawantshim. So
14 Othello I. iii. 254.
shecheatsand letsBassanioknowhowto chooseby thesongshe
thesensesand itsmeaningis clear. More-
sings. It depreciates
over,the firstrhymeis bredwithhead,whichalso rhymewith
areveryjustand showa capacity
lead. Bassanio'sownreflections
to put textand imagetogether, but he is assuredof choosing
arightby thesong. Portiadoes this but,by usingthe
delicately;
convention whichseemsto limither,she becomesthemasterof
herfate. She breaksherfaithbut in sucha waythattheappear-
ancesare saved,thuspreserving the principlewithoutbeinga
victimoftheprinciple.The law is onlya meansto an end with
her.15
Portiaand theLaw
PortiagoesofftoVenicetosaveAntonio,notout ofanyprinciple
ofuniversal humanity butbecausehe is herhusband'sfriendand
forhisplight. Sheleaves
Bassaniois involvedin theresponsibility
on thepiouspretext ofgoingto a nunnery to prepareherselffor
marriage,and takes
on a newappearance, ofa boy(III. iv.).16
that
She becomesa representative of thelaw and interjects herselfas
suchbetweenthewarringJewand Christian.The situationbe-
tweenthemhas becomeintolerable; onlysenselessbestialitycan
be theconsequence.Shylocklivesonlyforrevenge;thelaw sup-
portshim. He desiresthefleshofAntonioalthoughit can profit
himin no way.Thereis no compromise possible(IV. i. 20-74).17
15The authorityof the fatheris like that of the law and is supportedby it.
Both are bindingand unmoving;and law gets its authorityfromthe ancestral,
fromthe factthatit was givenby the fathers.Hence Portia'sexperiencewithher
father'slaw and what it means to her preparesher for dealingwith the law in
general,notas a lawyer,who by profession is committed to thelaw,but as one who
standsoutsidethe law and sees its relationto life and happiness. Shylockon the
otherhand,simplytakeshis authority and his law forgranted;or,otherwise stated,
he identifiesthe law withthe good.
16It is a man'sworld,but men are no longerable to controlit, so the woman
mustbecomea man and restorethe balance.
17There is a strongresemblancebetweenthis scene and the accountsof the
crucifixionin the Gospels,withthe role of the Duke parallelingthatof Pilate (cf.
Matthewxxvii,17-23;Mark xv 8-15; Luke xxiii 13-25). Shylock'sinsistencethat
Antoniodie and his unwillingness to say whyare parallelto the Jews'conductin
relationto Jesus. WithoutPortia,the conclusionwould have also been similar.
18 SOCIAL RESEARCH
Shylock knowsthathe is hatedand thathe can neverhaverespect
fromtheothers.He hasno private lifetowhichhecanretreat with
dignity.That is all gone. He wouldseemweakor cowardly ifhe
gave in. Antonio, on the other hand, is not entirelyaverse to
martyrdom. It fitsin wellwithhisgeneralmelancholy and he can
provehisgreatlovebydyingforBassanio. He can makean ever
livingmemorial forhimself in theguiltofhisfriendwhomhe ex-
pectstowritean epitaphforhim(IV. i. 120-24).18Onlybyalter-
ingthelawcan thisabsurdsituation whichlawneverintendedbe
avoided. But theessenceof thelaw is itsfixity.Onlya Portia,
indifferent to thelaw butawareofitspower,can manipulateit.19
Portiaunderstands Shylock's intentionveryquickly;sheknows
thatlawis whatcountsforhim. So shepresents herselfat thebe-
ginning as theseverest interpreterofthelaw,whichwinsShylock's
confidence.First,in a mostdirectand frankwayshe triesto set-
tlethecasewithout chicane. Shylock mustbe merciful.Shedoes
notappealdirectly tohissimplehumanity; sheknowsthatShylock
is a Jewandthatshemustbeginfromthere. Shetriestosuggest a
common groundonwhichJewand Christian canmeetandnotthe
low one of animalnature. She triesto showthatbothhavethe
Scripture in common,thattheyprayto the samegod withthe
sameprayer, theLord'sprayer.Christian and Jewdo shareon a
high leveland neither need step out ofhis faithto experiencethe
unity.Andthepresent caseis coveredbythecommunity offaith.
'
"Forgiveus our debtsas we forgiveour debtors/ Equityand
Mercystandabovethelaw (IV. i. 207-11).20 But thisnobleat-
temptdoesnotsucceed,at leastwithShylock.The interpretation
is Antonio seeks martyrdom;Portia will not allow it to him.
is Portia gives the appearance of total indifferenceto persons which is
proper to
the law: "Which is the Merchant here? and which the Jew?" (IV. i. 181). But she
has prepared her case, and it is a discriminatoryone. And Shylock transfershis
devotion from the religious law to the civil law: Law as law is respectable to him.
This is Portia's great insight.
20"Therefore Jew... we do pray for mercy." The Lord's prayer
(Matthew, vi. 9)
is meant to be a distillation of common Jewish teachings. The specific teaching
about mercy is frequentlyreferredback to Ecclesiasticus xxviii.
ofthemeaning ofthesameScripture differstoomuchbetweenthe
two. The law,and onlythelaw,is stillthehighestforShylock.
Portiatriesa secondmodeof reconciliation through themean
motiveof profit.This too failsand now Portiastartsusingher
wiles. FirstshegainsShylock's acceptance ofheradjudication by
theappearanceof strictinterpretation of thelaw. He putshim-
selfcompletely into her hands;"a Daniel, come to judge me."
Then,by a series ofstepswhichwe neednotrecount, sheturnsthe
tableson Shylock anddeprives himofhisrevenge, hisfortune,and
hisJudaism.Hermeansarecontrary toall goodlegalproceeding.
in
Portia, demanding that thefleshbe cutto theexactweightand
thatno dropof blood be spilled,makesit impossibleto achieve
ends thathave been agreedto be legitimate.With particular
reference to theblood,sheasksfora miracle:fleshmusthavethe
qualitiesofnon-flesh; thatwouldbe as greata miracleas there-
verse. Shylock's faithin therighteousness ofhiscauseapparently
doesnotgo so faras to counton divineintervention. The age of
miraclesis past.
Portiahasmaintained theappearanceofthelaw and thecaseis
settled.Shylock suffers and withthelossofhis revenge
terribly;
he hasloststrictly everything. Someonehad to suffer in thister-
ribleaffairand Shylock was theone whoin justiceshoulddo so.
He insistedon the inhuman.The war of Shylockand Antonio
couldnotgo on andPortiadecidesin favorofAntonio. Veniceis
a Christian cityand Antonioherhusband'sfriend.If thecancer
ofcivildiscordmustbe rootedout,thenShylock is theone to go.
Conversion is no solution(IV. i. 397-419).21 We can all see
Shylock is now a dead man. Justicehasnotbeendoneto himin
anycomplete sense. Shakespeare wishesto leavea dolefulimpres-
sion of the impossibility of the harmonious resolutionof such
problems.He does thiswiththe unforgettable pictureof Shy-
lock'sgrandeurand misery. But Shylockis not a nice man.
It hasbeenremarked thatShylock'sreduction to nothingness is
too quickand too improbable.Is it plausiblethatShylockwho
21At the end all the main charactersare still present, except for Shylock.
20 SOCIAL RESEARCH
has evincedsuch pridewould give in to Portia in such a cowardly
way? This would make him like thoseJewsof the earlierlitera-
ture who are only devicesof the plot. I believe that thosewho
make thisobjectionhave missedthegeniusof the trialscene. It is
not by cowardicethat Shylockis reduced but by respectfor the
law. He was proud and resolutebecause of his convictionof his
righteousness; when he no longerhas the law on his side, he col-
lapses. He has acceptedBalthasaras a second Daniel and what-
ever she revealsthe law to be, is law forhim. "Is thatthe law?"
he questions(IV. i. 329). Shakespearehas maintainedtheunityof
the character- as the law was Shylock'sheart and soul it is the
cause of his destruction,and in this he attainsto the dignityof
tragedy. He is a dupe of the law. He has neverreflectedthatthe
law mightbe a means to an end and hence only an instrument
which mightbe variable in relation to that end, nor that laws
depend, at least in some measure,on human frailty. Portia has
takenon thename ofBalthasar;thatwas thename ofDaniel in the
courtof Nebuchadnezzar.22She is a law-giverwho mediatesbe-
tweenBelmontand Venice and harmonizesjusticewithlaw. She,
accordingto Shakespeare,understandsthe limitsof law. This is
thepoet'spictureof theJews,a people greatby itsdevotionto the
law but deceivedby it.
Antonio,too, suffersfromPortia's victory. She is aware that
the ties whichbind Bassanio to Antonio are verystrong. If An-
toniohad died thosetieswould have poisonedBassanio'slife. She
freesBassanio fromthatonus; and then,withher deceptioncon-
cerningtherings,she forcesBassanio to admitexplicitlythe supe-
riorityof his love forPortiaover everything else. She substitutes
her lusty,gay, physicallove for the gloomyspiritual love that
unitedBassanioand Antonio. And Antoniois forcedto speak up
as guarantorforthe new fidelity, whichhe had earlierchallenged
(V. i. 273-80; cf.IV. i. 296-301; IV. ii. 469-71-)23
22Daniel, I. vii. In the King James version the name is Belshazzar, but it was
frequentlyspelled Balthasar followingthe Greek (cf. note 11).
23The obviouslyerotic symbolismof the ringscontraststhe basis of Portia's power
over Bassanio with that of Antonio's.
Reconciliation
The conclusionof the trial is too unhappya themeon which to
end a comedy. Venice is an unpleasant place, full of ugly pas-
sions and unfulfilledhopes. It must be rememberedthatPortia
onlyplaysthe role of a dens ex machina; the ugly truthremains
that,if her improbableappearance had not been made, revenge
and blood would have been the result. She has done nothingin
principleto resolvethe problemswhichled to the war of Shylock
and Antonio. And thereis no resolution. We can only hasten
back to Belmontto forgetthem.
Belmontis theseatoflove; but it does not exist;it is an Utopia.24
What is not possible in Venice is possible here. The only love
affairthattakesplace in Venice is a sordidone. Jessicawithout
theslightesttraceof filialpietyremorselessly leavesher fatherand
robs him. She is one of the veryfewfiguresin Shakespearewho
do not pay the penaltyfortheircrimes;and disobedienceto one's
parents,be theygood or bad, is a crimeforShakespeare;so is rob-
bery. But somehowthe atmosphereof Belmont changes all of
this. It is a place where thereare no laws, no conventions,no
religions,just men and womenin love.
Jessicaescapesto thisnever-never land withher Christianlover
and is saved (V. i. 1-22).25 Here the past is transformed in the
glow of Eros; the duties of everydaylife appear the concerns of
drudges;dutyis not the fulfillment of virtuebut the burden of
necessity. There is, indeed, harmonyin the world; it is the
a
harmonyof the eternal order. In Venice we forgetthis, but
Lorenzo remindsus in his great Platonic speech (V. i. 63-98).26
We participatein one cosmosand everysoul is a reflection of that
24It is literallynowhere; it is unknown in Italy. I take it to be the elaboration
of men's prayers; that best place which indicates the perfectionwhich is unattain-
able in ordinarylife with its accidents and necessities. Etymologicallyit is "beauti-
ful mountain." Could it be Parnassus?
25On the firstlevel, it is clearlyJessicas conversionthat saves her. But the other
are overcome by the magic of the place. At the beginning of their scene
difficulties
in the garden, Jessica and Lorenzo recite a list of unhappy lovers whose loves were
either forbidden by parents or divided by a nation.
26 Cf. Plato, Republic X. 6i6d-6i7d, and John Burnet on "Shakespeare and Greek
Philosophy," Essays and Addresses (London: Chatto & Windus, 1926).
22 SOCIAL RESEARCH
cosmos. This is the harmonyto whichall men as men can attain.
But because we are "grosslyclosed in" by a "muddyvestureof
decay"we cannothearthemusicofthespheres. It is onlythrough
theeffect of musicthatwe touchfromtimeto timeon thathigher
world;and manymenno longerhaveanymusicin theirsouls. We
are all human on a high level and can have completeunity. But
the accidentsof life forcemen into customsthat cause them to
forgetthewhole and the immortalpartof themselves;the nations
have no timeformusic. The ultimateharmonyof men is a har-
monynot on thelevel of theirdailylivesbut on thatof a transcen-
dence of them,an indifference to them,and assimilationto the
movementsof the spheres. Hence humanityis attainableby only
a fewin rare circumstances, but it is potentiallyin all of us and
thatis what makesus humans. The realizationof Belmontdoes
not solve the problemsof Venice; it onlymitigatestheirbleakness
forthosewho understand. Portia,the goddessof love,can orche-
stratea human harmonyfora few.
Shakespearedoes not understandJudaismfor he saw it from
theoutside;he lookedat it,as no man rightfully can, froma purely
political point of view. But he was personallyless interestedin
thequestionofJudaismthanin man'sattemptto becomeman and
man alone. He was of the convictionthatit was of the natureof
man to have varyingopinions about the highestthingsand that
such opinions become investedin doctrineand law and bound
up with vested interests. When confrontedwith one another
these opinions must quarrel. Such is life and that must be ac-
cepted with manlyresolution. In Venice and modern thought,
therewas an attemptto cut the Gordianknotand unite man,not
on the level of theirtrulyhuman samenessbut thatof the politi-
- a unityexpressedin men's universaldesire for
cally beneficial
gain. The consequencesof thismust eitherbe conflictor a bas-
tardizationof all that is noble and true in each of the separate
points of view. Venice had the adorned beauty of a strumpet.
Shakespearewas not willingto sacrificeforthis illusion the only
true beauty which lies somewherebeyond the heavens for the
happy few.

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SHAKESPEARE ON JEW AND CHRISTIAN: An Interpretation of The Merchant of Venice

Author(s): ALLAN BLOOM

V enice is a beautifulcity;it is fullof colorand variety.To

The Jewsin Venicewerewelloffand enjoyedthefullprotec-

The Meaning of Compromise

Shylockjustifieshimselfby an appeal to the universalityof

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