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Material Properties:
Alloying, Heat Treatment,
Mechanical Working and
Recrystallization
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Material Properties: Alloying, Heat Treatment,

Mechanical Working and Recrystallization!

Method # 1. Alloying:
Alloy steels are broadly classified into two
categories:

(i) Low Alloy Steels

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(ii) High Alloy Steels

In low alloy steels, the total content of the alloying

elements, such as Cr, Ni, Mo, V, and Mn, is kept
within 5%. Each alloying element imparts a specific
property to the original material.

Method # 2. Heat Treatment:

Control of material properties can also be achieved
without the addition of other elements. This is done
by subjecting the material to a controlled cycle of
heating and cooling. To illustrate this, let us take a
simple example where austenite steel (above
723°C) is cooled at different rates. Figure 1.29
shows the various resulting structures along with a
few mechanical properties.

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It is thus obvious that by changing only the rate of

cooling, different phases can be achieved. The
information on the change of phase with the cooling
rate can be conveniently displayed with the help of
a time-temperature-transformation diagram
(commonly known as the TTT diagram).

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In such a diagram, the temperature is plotted along

the vertical axis (using a linear scale), whereas the
abscissa represents the time on a logarithmic scale.
The TTT diagram for carbon steel is given in Fig.
1.30. When austenite is brought to a temperature θ1
from θ0 (in essentially zero time) and thereafter held
at θ1 the transformation to pearlite begins after a
lapse of time t1, as shown by the point A in the
figure.

Such a transformation, taking place at a constant

temperature, is known as an isothermal
transformation. The point B indicates a time t2, after
which the transformation is complete. In Fig. 1.30,
the transformations corresponding to other
temperatures, viz., θ2 and θ3 are also shown. At
about 600°C, the transformation starts after a
minimum lapse of time, and this part of the diagram
is called the nose.

Below this temperature, austenite transforms into

bainite which is an intimate mixture of ferrite and
cementite (cementite exists in the form of tiny
spheroids). Bainite cannot be produced by
continuous cooling.

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When the temperature of isothermal transformation

is decreased (above 600°C), the time required for
the transformation reduces. This results in a finer
grain structure as less time is available for the
growth of new nuclei.

It may be noted that the curve, indicating the

beginning of the transformation, does not exist
below about 220°C. Below this temperature,
austenite instantaneously starts transforming into
martensite.

A TTT diagram is quantitatively valid only when the

transformations are isothermal. In practical
situations of heat treatment where a continuous
cooling is involved, a modified TTT diagram (see
Fig. 1.31) is used. The use of such a diagram can
be explained as follows. If the cooling rate is very
high (as shown by cooling curve 1), the entire
austenite is transformed into martensite because
the cooling curve does not enter the pearlite region.

With a moderate cooling rate (depicted by cooling

curve 2), a portion of austenite is transformed into
pearlite and the rest of it into martensite. The
percentage of pearlite depends on the point of
intersection of the cooling curve and the line AB
(Fig. 1.31). When this point is nearer^, lesser
pearlite is produced. So, when the desired structure
is prescribed, steel should be heated beyond 723°C
(where it is austenitic) and then cooled in a manner

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dictated by the TTT diagram.

We shall now briefly discuss some common heat

treatment processes.

i. Tempering:

This refers to secondary heating of martensite

obtained by a rapid cooling of austenite (Fig. 1.32).
during this process, no change of phase takes place
because the temperature is never raised beyond
the lower critical temperature (723oC) this process
hardens the steel with reduction in strength, also, it
adds to the toughness and ductility. The different
structures, indicated in Fig. 1.32, result from
dispersion of carbides.

ii. Annealing:

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It includes, among others, full annealing, stress

relieving, and process annealing.

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