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Extent of Harappa Civilization

Since the first discovery of this civilization in 1920-21 at Harappa in the

Indus Valley, hundreds of sites spread over more than a million square
kilometres in the Indian subcontinent have been excavated, many of these
are in Northern and Western India. Geographically, it was spread over an
area of some 1,260,000 km, comprising the whole of modern day
Pakistan and parts of modern-day India and Afghanistan. To date, over
1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the banks of the
Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. The major urban centers of the
Indus valley civilizations were Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal,
Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Kalibanga, Banwalli etc. The Indus Valley
Civilization was extended from Baluchistan to Gujarat, with an upward
reach to the Punjab from east of River Jhelum to Rupar on the upper
Sutlej. The coast settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at Iranian
border to Lothal in Gujarat. The following are some of the important sites
of Harappan civilization:

Kotdiji: Kot Diji, 40 km east of Mohen-jo-Daro on the left bank, is one

of the earliest known fortified city. It was a startling discovery which
gave new evidence of pre-Harappan culture and pushed back Pakistan`s
history by another 500 years. It was an important site in Sindh having a
citadel and the lower town. It had defensive wall with a mud brick
revetment in the exterior with bastions and the inner face was enforced at
intervals with a stone revetment bounded with stone courses at the
bottom.

Naushero: The site of Naushero, located six km away from Mehargarh

had developed Kotdijian settlement. Blocks of mud houses divided by
roads and streets were found during the excavation. The typical Indus
pottery was associated with the monumental structures of Indus culture. ,
Historians were found many large sized structures of mud bricks and
platforms and a 7.25 m wide wall. In comparison to Daborkot, it was a
smaller settlement but sharing fully the developmental process towards
maturity of urbanization.

Kalibangan: This pre-historic town is located 205 Km from Bikaner,

Kalibangann, literally means `black bangles`, it got its name from the
myraid pieces of terracotta bangles excavated here. Kalibangan, having a
full-fledged, early Harappan fortified settlement, houses on both sides of
streets, brick on edge platforms, perhaps bathrooms and drains of baked
bricks. In the succeeding Harappan period, Kalibangan had a citadel in
the west and fortified chessboard patterned city in the east. The citadel
has an impressive gateway in the south with a flight of steps to climb up
to the platforms. The
citadel is divided into two
parts, i.e., one having
platforms and other having
a residential complex for
the elite, separated by a
wall. The site had a
cemetery. Between 2600
and 1900 BC, Kalibangan
witnessed about nine
reconstructions.

Banawali: Banawali
Mound previously called
Vanawali, lies 14 kms,
north-west of Fatehbad on
the right bank of the
Rangoi Nala, This ancient
mound spread over an area
of one sq. km., rose to a
height of about 10 meters
due to successive
settlements on the earlier
rubble. The archaeological
excavations have revealed
a well-constructed fort
town of the Harappan
period overlying an
extensive proto-urban
settlement of the pre-
Harappan culture. If the
discovered ancient relics
are pieced together, a fairly
coherent picture emerges
and it can be conjured up
that if Kalibangan was a
metropolitan town over the
lower middle valley of the
Saraswati, Banawali was
possibly one over the upper
middle course of that river.
The civilization seems to
have been conversant with
the technology of copper
smelting. Among personal
ornaments, beads of gold,
semi-precious stones, terracotta and steatite and bangles of clay, shell,
faience and copper have been. recovered during the course of excavation.

Lothal: Lothal, one of the most interesting remnants of the ancient

Harappan civilisation, is situated in Gujarat. The unique dockyard is
perhaps the greatest of maritime architecture from the ancient world. The
citadel is obviously separated an acropolis, with its own paved baths, and
a lower town more humble residential quarters, coppersmithing
workshops, sheds and bead factories. The whole system exhibits an
excellent of sanitary drainage. A museum is stocked with archaeological
findings that offer an insight into the Indus Valley period. The Indus
Valley Civilisation at Lothal was a trade centre for the Indus valley
civilisation when it moved down from Sindh to theSaurashtra coast.
Rangpur and Lothal, were among the first 2 places where the Indus valley
civilisation was discovered in India. While this proves that the Harrapans
had maritime tendencies, depended on water sources for their survival
and navigated rivers and sea water for trade and communication, none of
these ancient cities became a major scientific port like Lothal.

It is believed that Lothal was the site of the Red Ware culture, named for
its vivacious pottery, until 2400 BC when the Harappans arrived here
from the Indus Valley in search of more fertile lands and potential ports.
Gradually they colonised many areas along the Gulf of Cambay, forming
citadels that include the southernmost outpost of the Indus Valley
civilization, which spanned an area larger than those of the Nile Valley
civilization and Mesopatamian civilization.

The Dockyard Lothal developed as the most important port and a centre
of the bead industry until 1900 B.C. A long wharf connected the dockyard
to the main warehouse, which was located on a plinth of some 3.5 meters
above the ground. The whole town was situated on a patch of high
ground, rising up from the flat alluvial plains of Bhal, a wall was erected
to encircle the town and a platform was built for the warehouse where
goods were checked and stored.

The warehouse was divided into 64 rooms of around 3 1/2 sq meters each,
connected by 1.2 meter wide passages, and 12 of these cubical blocks are
visible even today. Seals were used to label the imports and exports from
the dock, and some of these labels have been found during digs. Klin
fired bricks, which the Harrapans had learnt from experience were
unaffected by tidal waters, were used in making passages to protect the
cargo. Beside the warehouse, and also on a high plinth, is the upper town
or acropolis, spanning 128x61 meters. The rulers home is no longer a
grand palace, but the foundations show signs of it having been a 2 or 3
storeyed mansion. The rooms of the upper town were obviously built for
ruling classes, as they had private paved baths, and a remarkable network
of drains and cess pools.
The proximity of the seat
of power to the warehouse,
ensured that the ruler and
his entourage could inspect
stocks easily. An ivory
workshop at the acropolis
suggests that elephants
may have been
domesticated for the
purpose. Surkotada: It is
located 160 km., northeast
of Bhuj, in Rann of Kacch.
Surkotada had a citadel and
a fortified residential
annexe. The citadel had an
imposing gateway
complex. It was built over
a platform. The entrance to
the citadel was provided
with a ramp, barbican,
steps and guard rooms.
"The site had a cemetery. A
common 7m. thick wall
with an opening, separated
the citadel and the Lower
Town.

Dholavira: Of all the

harappan sites the site of
Dholavira locally known as
kotada, is in the Khadir
island of Kutch. It is
remarkable for its
magnificent planning and
enormity of area and
deposit. The latest
excavations at Dholavira
measures about 600m. on
the north-south axis and
775 m. on the east-west.
Inside the general
fortification, there are three
distinct complexes-An
Acropolis, a middle town
and a lower town, the first
two of them strongly fortified. The acropolis was provided with one gate
at each side. Of the two gates, one each on the east and north are exposed
and found furnished with a flight of steps, a sunken passageway flanked
by elevated chambers, and a high front terrace-a remarkably elaborate
layout. Further, use of highly polished stone-blocks and pillars along the
passage-may speak of architectural achievement without parallel at any
Indus site so far. In the centre of the citadel, there is an almost 13 m wide
water reservoir along with a feeder channel covered with slabs and
provided with manholes for occasional desilting. Besides, there are two
lapidary workshops. The most outstanding discovery is the find of a large
sized inscription of ten Harappan signs which may be a signboard.

Rojdi: The excavation at Rojdi, besides the discovery of imposing

architecture e.g, fortification, gateway, the large square build in and
houses built of stone rubble has given new insight in the evolution of
Harappan Culture of Saurashtra which the excavators feel is a "newly
discovered regional expression of the Harappan urban phase appears to be
an addition to the settlement type and evolutionary process in Saurashtra.
Kuntasi: The Harappan site Kuntasi, seven km from the Gulf of Kutch,
(District Rajkot), was basically not an agricultural settlement but appears
to have been a centre for procuring raw materials and processing them
into finished products primarily for exporting them to Sindh and West
Asia. In Kuntasi a mound measuring 150 by 125 metres and four metres
high, has been found to be a trading settlement, as the archeologists have
found remains of a landing platform 30 metres long, warehouses and
workshops. The settlement was a port and a manufacturing centre. The
Harappans of Kuntasi manufactured pottery, copper articles, bangles and
beads made of agate and carnellian and lapis lazuli, the last of which was
brought to Kuntasi as a raw material from Badakshan in Afghanistan.
Large interconnected rooms for workers, a large common kitchen and
workshops have led to the theory that Kuntasi was not a regular Harappan
settlement but meant to house artisans who crafted the wares.
he Harappan civilization extended in the west up to Sutkagen Dor near the
modern frontier of Pakistan and Iran while in the east the remains of this
culture have been found at Alamgirpur in Meerut district, in the north it is
extended up to Manda in Jammu and in the south up to Bhagatrao. On the
basis of Carbon-14 dating this culture flourished from C. 2300 to 1750 B.C. Thus
it was the most extensive culture of this period.

No buildings have so far been discovered in the remains associated with this
culture, which may be definitely regarded as temples. For reconstructing the
religion of these people their testimony of seals, sealing, figurines or stone
images should be taken into consideration. The Harappan script has not yet
been satisfactorily deciphered hence our knowledge of the religious beliefs of
these people is limited. A number of figurines of terracotta and earthenware
etc. standing or seated show a semi-nude female, wearing a girdle round her
loins with an elaborate headdress and necklace. It is also sometimes seen with
 an ear ornament. Some of the figures are smoke-stained which makes us
conclude that these figures were objects of worship and perhaps oil or incense
was burnt before them. These figures are rightly taken to represent mother-
goddess or Shakti. The worship of Divine Mother or Earth goddess is referred in
the Rigveda. Rigveda calls the Earth by the names of Aditi, Prthvi or Prthivi. In
the Tahtiriya Brahmana the Earth goddess is called Prthivlm Mataram. Thus it is
clear that the Vedic Aryans also worshipped the mother goddess.

A sealing from Harappan shows a nude female figure, turned upside down with
outspread legs and a plant issuing from the womb. On the reverse of this
sealing is depicted a man with a sickle in his hand and a woman seated on the
ground with hand raised in the posture of prayer. Obviously this depicts human
sacrifice in honour of the Mother-goddess.

Among the male deities the

most important is a three-
faced deity wearing a horned
dress and seated cross-
legged on a throne with
penis erectus. The god is
surrounded by a number of
animals such as elephant,
tiger, buffalo, rhinoceros and
deer. This deity has three
features of Siva as for
example he is three faced i.e. trimukha, the lord of animals i.e. pasupati and a
Yogi. Hence this deity has been called proto-Siva. Buddha Prakash, however,
lays emphasis on the absence of Nandi, the vehicle of Siva and thinks that it will
be more appropriate to identify the deity with Prajapati or Twastr from which
emanates the creation. The figure tallies with the description of Twastr, in the
Rigveda. He is called the lord of animals and an incarnation of the creator in
this universe.

Two other seals show this deity with a twig of flowers or leaves rising from his
head between the horns. The sprig suggests that the deity was associated with
vegetation or fertility. This deity was worshipped not only in the human form
but also in the form of phallus or iiriga. This can be proved as a number of
conical stones have been discovered in the excavations. The references to non-
Aryans in the Rigveda proved that the Harappan people were worshippers of
phallus. In Rigveda the non-Aryans are called worshippers of phallus i.e. Sisna-
devah.

Small ring stones found in the excavations suggest that worship of Yoni i.e. the
female symbol of generation was also prevalent. But the worship of linga was
always dominant. A seal from Mohenjodaro shows a standing deity between
two branches of a tree. It is shown being worshipped by seven female devotees
in a line with a mythical animal figure as the vahana or vehicle of the goddess.
The tree is identified as Pipal tree. This shows that the worship of Pipal tree was
 also prevalent among the Harappan people. Seals also portray figures of
animals as objects of worship. Some of these animals are mythical while of
others are real. They are shown eating offerings of food as objects of worship.
The worship also includes profusely decorated with ornaments. From the above
account it is clear that the Harappan people also worshipped animals. They
might have been considered sacred as vahanas of deities e.g. the bull of Siva,
the lion of Durga, the buffalo of Yama, the ram of Brahma and the elephant of
Indra. From an earthenware tablet it appears that some form of Naga worship
was also practiced by these people. In this tablet a seated deity is shown with a
hooded cobra on his head. The worshippers are shown seated on either side of
the deity.

Some six seals portray standing yogis who

may be taken to be Jain ascetics in the
Kayotsarga posture. The worship of fire also
seems to have been known to the Harappan
people as a number of fire altars have been
found on raised platforms at Kalibangan in
Rajasthan. The direct evidence of water
worship has been found in the form of the
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro. This shows that
ceremonial ablutions formed a feature of the
religion of the Harappan people.

The representations on some seals of

Svastika and the wheel suggest that the Sun
was represented symbolically. From the
figures on some other seals it appears that
the Harappan people considered the
numbers three, five, seven and sixteen sacred. According to Buddha Prakash,
three stands for the three elements namely, mind or manas, vital breath or
prana and sacred speech or vale. Like this five stands for five varieties of each
of the elements and seven stands for mind or manas, vital breath or prana and
five elements namely fire, water, air, sky and earth. The number sixteen
probably represents five kinds of each of manas, prana and vak together with
the Supreme Being. In the Vedas the whole is called Sodasi Prajapati.

These people had a belief in life after death. The dead bodies, therefore, were
either buried or after cremation, their remains were preserved in a jar. With
the dead bodies the Harappan people also buried animals, birds, fish, beads,
bangles, etc. so that the dead person might use them in need.

It seems that the common people had full faith in witchcraft. It is possible that
some of these seals were used as amulets. In the past scholars have generally
believed that the Harappan civilization was different and prior to the culture of
the Vedic period. However, there are some similarities in the religious beliefs of
these cultures. So long as the Harappan script is not satisfactorily deciphered
the problem of the relationship of the two cultures cannot be solved with any
 amount of certainty.

But it is beyond doubt that modern Hinduism is indebted to a great extent to

the religious beliefs of the Harappan people. The worship of Siva and Sakti both
in human and symbolic form, worship of stones, trees and animals, and the
worship of Nagas, Yaksas, etc., which are embodiments of good or evil spirits,
can all be traced to Harappan culture. Even traces of offering into fire were
considered a distinctive feature of the Vedic religion could be seen at
Kalibangan in the form of fire altars.
Pottery of the Harappan civilization is of a unique kind. The most striking
ceramic ware is a heavy sturdy ware of superior fabric, pink or red in colour in
the section and on surface. The word `superior` is used here to indicate the use
of fine clay in making the vessels which are well-fired, resulting in a sturdy
ware. Almost all the vessels have a smooth surface and are painted in black
over red. The characteristic Harappan types found in the red ware in Rangpur
include the small jar with a small neck, beaded rim, globular body and footed
base, jar with a beaded rim and bulbous body, large storage-jar with thick walls
and a Lat rim, small jar with a flaring rim, dish with a projected rim and
carinated shoulder, a dish with an incurved or internally beaded rim, dish-on-
stand, basin with a projected beaded rim, blunt-carinated shoulder and flat
base, jar-stand, goblet with an elongated base, beaker, lid with a knob in the
interior and cylindrical perforated jar.

Buff ware are some of the red ware vessels of Rangpur have a buff slip or
patches of buff along with red owing to differential firing. They are often
painted in chocolate or pinkish colour. The only type exclusive to the buff ware
is ajar with a flaring rim, bulbous body and pinched ear. The coarse red ware
meant for rough use occurs in a limited quantity. The clay used for making the
vessels is not levigated; and grit, such as dung or powered pottery, is added to
the clay. The jar with a flaring rim and bowl with a nail headed or beaked rim is
common types.

Coarse Grey Ware was similarly meant for rough use such as cooking. The
vessels are rendered porous by the use of grit and the surface is rough, slip-less
and rarely burnished. A common type in this ware is the jar with a flaring rim
and convex profile. Coarse grey vessels are generally decorated with incised
designs.

Some of the vessels show a poor treatment of the surface, and at times the
fabric is also coarse, e.g. the dish-on-stand, storage jar bowl and dish. Secondly,
minor changes in the shape of certain vessels like the convex-sided bowl jar
with a small neck, stands on dishes and storage jars are visible. The colour-
scheme adopted for painting is light black, chocolate or light red over a buff or
greenish-buff background. The course red ware continued to be in limited use
and it does not undergo any major change.

Careful examination will reveal an evolution in the technique of decoration and

forms of vessels. The jar with a small neck develops a higher neck and an ovoid
 body in this period. The fabric is coarse and painting mostly confined to the
upper half of the vessel surface. So far as the convex-sided bowl is concerned
types 10 to 13 can be said to have been evolved from types 28 and 29. The dish
with a projected rim and a prominently-carinated shoulder develops a beaded
rim and the carination also disappears slowly.

Three important types may be noted in the coarse grey ware. One of them is
the spouted jar with a sharp carinated shoulder and ring-footed base. The
other two types are the jar with a bottle neck and globular body and the jar
with a high neck and beaded rim. Another ceramic ware which is very distinct
from the sturdy red ware and the coarse red ware is the Lustrous Red Ware.

The ceramic industry may be said to represent the transitional phase of a

degenerate Harappan culture. It is therefore evident that the Harappan culture
was not static and did not disappear suddenly. While showing signs of decay, in
course of time it rejuvenated itself by reviving some of the earlier ceramic
traditions and evolving new ones in the transitional phase, which, in fact, is the
formative stage of a full-fledged Lustrous Red Ware Culture. The shallow bowl
with a footed base and jar with a high neck are also found in the Lustrous Red
Ware. Besides these types the dish becomes popular. It is mostly non-carinated
and has a beaded rim. A common type in the coarse red ware is the jar with a
high neck and a bulbous body. Some of the jars have thick walls and a smooth
surface, while others have thin walls with a rough surface.

The stemmed bowl jar with a convex profile and rounded base, storage-jar with
a flanged shoulder and deep bowls with tapering sides are some of the
important types in coarse grey ware. Vessels are decorated with incised
designs. Some vessels are stamped with floral and geometric designs and
occasionally treated with a red slip. Painting is normally confined to the upper
half of the vessels of the Harappan civilization. The designs are mostly linear
and geometric. Among painted animal motifs are the deer, bull and duck. Leaf,
creeper, fish-net and fronds are other naturalistic motifs. Animal-figures are
more stylized. The bull with `x` shaped horns and row of ducks are new. The
Black-and-Red Ware was the result of a variation in the techniques of firing of a
major ceramic industry of the site.

About two hundred and twenty-two of the excavated potsherds bear graffiti-
marks, which range in form from simple strokes to intricate geometric and
naturalistic designs. The graffiti-marks can be classified into three main groups
which are; Group one, Group two and Group three. The first group comprises
human motifs, animal motifs and bird motifs while the Group two consists of
linear symbols such as simple vertical strokes, the arrow-marks, the trident and
the rectangle, from which more intricate symbols evolve. The third group
consists of combinations of several linear signs
Pottery of the Harappan civilization is of a unique kind. The most striking
ceramic ware is a heavy sturdy ware of superior fabric, pink or red in colour in
the section and on surface. The word `superior` is used here to indicate the use
of fine clay in making the vessels which are well-fired, resulting in a sturdy
 ware. Almost all the vessels have a smooth surface and are painted in black
over red. The characteristic Harappan types found in the red ware in Rangpur
include the small jar with a small neck, beaded rim, globular body and footed
base, jar with a beaded rim and bulbous body, large storage-jar with thick walls
and a Lat rim, small jar with a flaring rim, dish with a projected rim and
carinated shoulder, a dish with an incurved or internally beaded rim, dish-on-
stand, basin with a projected beaded rim, blunt-carinated shoulder and flat
base, jar-stand, goblet with an elongated base, beaker, lid with a knob in the
interior and cylindrical perforated jar.

Buff ware are some of the red ware vessels of Rangpur have a buff slip or
patches of buff along with red owing to differential firing. They are often
painted in chocolate or pinkish colour. The only type exclusive to the buff ware
is ajar with a flaring rim, bulbous body and pinched ear. The coarse red ware
meant for rough use occurs in a limited quantity. The clay used for making the
vessels is not levigated; and grit, such as dung or powered pottery, is added to
the clay. The jar with a flaring rim and bowl with a nail headed or beaked rim is
common types.

Coarse Grey Ware was similarly meant for rough use such as cooking. The
vessels are rendered porous by the use of grit and the surface is rough, slip-less
and rarely burnished. A common type in this ware is the jar with a flaring rim
and convex profile. Coarse grey vessels are generally decorated with incised
designs.

Some of the vessels show a poor treatment of the surface, and at times the
fabric is also coarse, e.g. the dish-on-stand, storage jar bowl and dish. Secondly,
minor changes in the shape of certain vessels like the convex-sided bowl jar
with a small neck, stands on dishes and storage jars are visible. The colour-
scheme adopted for painting is light black, chocolate or light red over a buff or
greenish-buff background. The course red ware continued to be in limited use
and it does not undergo any major change.

Careful examination will reveal an evolution in the technique of decoration and

forms of vessels. The jar with a small neck develops a higher neck and an ovoid
body in this period. The fabric is coarse and painting mostly confined to the
upper half of the vessel surface. So far as the convex-sided bowl is concerned
types 10 to 13 can be said to have been evolved from types 28 and 29. The dish
with a projected rim and a prominently-carinated shoulder develops a beaded
rim and the carination also disappears slowly.

Three important types may be noted in the coarse grey ware. One of them is
the spouted jar with a sharp carinated shoulder and ring-footed base. The
other two types are the jar with a bottle neck and globular body and the jar
with a high neck and beaded rim. Another ceramic ware which is very distinct
from the sturdy red ware and the coarse red ware is the Lustrous Red Ware.

The ceramic industry may be said to represent the transitional phase of a

degenerate Harappan culture. It is therefore evident that the Harappan culture
was not static and did not disappear suddenly. While showing signs of decay, in
course of time it rejuvenated itself by reviving some of the earlier ceramic
traditions and evolving new ones in the transitional phase, which, in fact, is the
formative stage of a full-fledged Lustrous Red Ware Culture. The shallow bowl
with a footed base and jar with a high neck are also found in the Lustrous Red
Ware. Besides these types the dish becomes popular. It is mostly non-carinated
and has a beaded rim. A common type in the coarse red ware is the jar with a
high neck and a bulbous body. Some of the jars have thick walls and a smooth
surface, while others have thin walls with a rough surface.

The stemmed bowl jar with a convex profile and rounded base, storage-jar with
a flanged shoulder and deep bowls with tapering sides are some of the
important types in coarse grey ware. Vessels are decorated with incised
designs. Some vessels are stamped with floral and geometric designs and
occasionally treated with a red slip. Painting is normally confined to the upper
half of the vessels of the Harappan civilization. The designs are mostly linear
and geometric. Among painted animal motifs are the deer, bull and duck. Leaf,
creeper, fish-net and fronds are other naturalistic motifs. Animal-figures are
more stylized. The bull with `x` shaped horns and row of ducks are new. The
Black-and-Red Ware was the result of a variation in the techniques of firing of a
major ceramic industry of the site.

About two hundred and twenty-two of the excavated potsherds bear graffiti-
marks, which range in form from simple strokes to intricate geometric and
naturalistic designs. The graffiti-marks can be classified into three main groups
which are; Group one, Group two and Group three. The first group comprises
human motifs, animal motifs and bird motifs while the Group two consists of
linear symbols such as simple vertical strokes, the arrow-marks, the trident and
the rectangle, from which more intricate symbols evolve. The third group
consists of combinations of several linear signs