Basic Electronics Best Lab Manual PDF

BAS IC ELECTRONICS
La b or a tor y Ma n u a l
En ro llm e n t No .:_______________
Nam e o f t h e s t u de n t :_________________________________

Go v e rn m e n t En gin e e rin g Co lle ge , Rajk o t

'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

Zd/&/d

Th is is to cert ify th a t Mr / Mis s
_____________________________________________ En rollm en t No.
______________ of B.E . (E .C.) S E M-III h a s s a t is fa ct orily com p leted
th e te rm wor k of t h e s u b ject BASIC ELECTRONICS p res cr ib ed
b y Gu ja r a t Tech n ologica l Un iver s it y d u r in g th e a ca d em ic term
________________.
Da te: S ign a t u re of th e fa cu lt y
WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

INDEX
S r. Nam e o f t h e Ex pe rim e n t Page
No . No .
1. To ob s er ve s in e wa ve, s qu a re wa ve, t r ia n gu la r wa ve a n d ra m p 1
wa vefor m s on t h e C.R.O. a n d to m ea s u r e a m p lit u d e a n d
fr equ en cy of t h e wa vefor m s .
2. To ob t a in V-I ch a r a ct er is t ics of PN ju n ction d iod e

3. To ob t a in V-I ch a r a ct er is t ics of Zen er d iod e
4. To ob t a in ch a ra cter is t ics of ligh t d ep en d a n t r es is tor (LDR)
5. To b u ild a n d t es t p r a ct ica l cir cu it of LDR (Mea s u r e volta ge a t
d ifferen t p oin t s )
6. To ob t a in ch a ra cter is t ics of s em icon d u ctor p h ot o d iod e
7. To ob s er ve wa veform a t t h e ou tp u t of h a lf wa ve r ect ifier with

a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or . To m ea s u r e DC volta ge, DC
cu r r en t , r ip p le fa ct or wit h a n d with ou t filt er ca p a citor
8. To ob s er ve wa veform a t t h e ou tp u t of fu ll wa ve r ect ifier with
a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or . To m ea s u r e DC volta ge, DC
cu r r en t , r ip p le fa ct or wit h a n d with ou t filt er ca p a citor
9. To ob s er ve wa vefor m a t t h e ou tp u t of b r id ge rect ifier wit h a n d
with ou t filt er ca p a citor . To m ea s u re DC volt a ge, DC cu r ren t ,
r ip p le fa ct or wit h a n d wit h ou t filt er ca p a cit or
10. To ob t a in ch a ra cter is t ics of ligh t em itt in g d iod e (LE D)
11. To ob s er ve wa vefor m s a t t h e ou tp u t of cla m p er cir cu it s
12. To ob s er ve wa vefor m s a t t h e ou tp u t of clip p er cir cu its
13. To ob t a in com m on em it ter ch a r a cter is t ics of NPN t r a n s is tor
14. To ob t a in com m on b a s e ch a ra cter is t ics of NPN t r a n s is t or
15. To ob t a in com m on collect or ch a r a cter is t ics of NPN t r a n s is t or
16. To u n d er s t a n d wor k in g of t r a n s is t or a s a s witch . To d r a w DC
loa d lin e for given cir cu it.
17. To ob s er ve in p u t -ou t p u t wa vefor m s of com m on em it ter (CE )
a m p lifier . To m ea s u re ga in of a m p lifier a t d ifferen t frequ en cies
a n d p lot frequ en cy r es p on s e
18. To ob s er ve in p u t -ou t p u t wa vefor m s of com m on collector (CC)
a m p lifier . To m ea s u re ga in of a m p lifier a t d ifferen t frequ en cies
a n d p lot frequ en cy r es p on s e
19. To m ea s u re ga in of two s t a ge RC cou p led a m p lifier .
^/>dZKE/^>KZdKZzDEh>

20. To ob t a in ch a ra cter is t ics of field effect tr a n s is t or (FE T)
21. To m ea s u re ga in FET com m on s ou r ce (CS ) a m p lifier
22. To t es t in d ivid u a l cir cu it p r ep a red b y t h e s t u d en t
(Get cir cu it fr om t h e fa cu lty, b u ild it , d r a w cir cu it d ia gr a m
a n d tes t it in th e la b ora t or y. Wr ite t es t r es u lt s in th is
p r a ct ica l)
Instructions to the students:
x Draw circuit diagram of your practical in the given space as per circuit
available in your laboratory
x Write readings in the observation table
x Draw waveforms in the given space
x Simulate circuit using circuit simulator if hardware is not available in the lab
x Every student must construct at least one circuit as per his choice or as given
by the faculty
x Write answers of the questions given in lab manual in worksheet section. Use
text book, reference book or internet to find out answers of the questions
Suggest list of circuits that student will build individually
x DC power supply using IC 7805, 7812 or LM 317
x Burglar alarm
x Automatic street light switch
x Siren using LM-555 timer
x Automatic water tank overflow alarm
x Automatic Emergency light
x Sinusoidal waveform generator
x RC coupled CE amplifier
x IR (Infrared ) Switch
x Overvoltage under-voltage protection switch
x Simple intercom circuit
x DTMF Encoder/decoder circuit
x Telephone ring generator circuit

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: To ob s er ve s in e wa ve, s qu a re wa ve, t r ia n gu la r wa ve a n d r a m p
wa vefor m s on t h e C.R.O. a n d t o m ea s u r e a m p lit u d e a n d fr equ en cy of th e
wa vefor m s .
In t ro du c t io n :
C.R.O. (Ca t h od e Ra y Os cillos cop e) is t h e in s tr u m en t wh ich is u s ed to

ob s er ve s ign a l wa vefor m s . S ign a ls a r e d is p la yed in t im e d om a in i.e. va r ia t ion
in a m p lit u d e of t h e s ign a l wit h res p ect to t im e is p lot ted on t h e CRO s creen .
X-a xis rep r es en t s tim e a n d Y-a xis rep r es en t s a m p lit u d e. It is u s ed to
m ea s u re a m p lit u d e, fr equ en cy a n d p h a s e of th e wa vefor m s . It is a ls o u s ed t o
ob s er ve s h a p e of th e wa vefor m . C.R.O. is u s efu l for t r ou b les h ootin g p u r p os e.
It h elp s u s to fin d ou t ga in of a m p lifier , t es t os cilla t or circu it s . We ca n
m ea s u re a m p lit u d e a n d fr equ en cy of t h e wa vefor m s a t t h e d iffer en t tes t
p oin ts in ou r cir cu it . Th u s , it h elp s u s for fa u lt fin d in g p r oced u re. In d u a l
ch a n n el C.R.O. X-Y m od e is a va ila b le wh ich is u s ed to cr ea te Lis s a jou s
p a t ter n s
La tes t d igita l s t or a ge os cillos cop e d is p la y volt a ge a n d frequ en cy d ir ect ly on

th e LCD a n d d oes n ot r equ ire a n y ca lcu la t ion s . It ca n a ls o s t or e wa veform
for fu r t h er a n a lys is . Mor e d eta iled s t u d y on C.R.O. will b e cover ed in E MI
la b or a t or y (S E M-V). In th is p r a ct ica l, we will m ea s u r e a m p litu d e a n d
fr equ en cy of t h e d ifferen t wa vefor m s lik e s in e wa ve, s qu a re wa ve, t r ia n gu la r
wa ve a n d ra m p wa ve.
Pro c e du re :
1 . Con n ect fu n ct ion gen er a t or ou tp u t a t th e in p u t of C.R.O. a t ch a n n el 1

or a t ch a n n el 2
2 . S elect p r op er ch a n n el i.e. if s ign a l is con n ected to ch a n n el 1 s elect
CH1 a n d if s ign a l is con n ected t o ch a n n el 2 s elect CH2
3 . Ad ju s t Tim e / Div k n ob t o get s u fficien t t im e p er iod d is p la cem en t of
th e wa ve on th e CRO s cr een .
4 . Wit h fin e t u n in g of tim e/ Div m a k e th e wa vefor m s tea d y on s creen .
5 . Us e tr igger in g con t rols if wa vefor m is n ot s t a b le
6 . Keep volt / d iv k n ob s u ch th a t wa vefor m is vis ib le on t h e s creen
wit h ou t clip p in g
7 . Mea s u r e P-P rea d in g a lon g y-a xis . Th is r ea d in g m u lt ip lied with
volt / d iv gives p ea k to p ea k a m p lit u d e of t h e a c i/ p wa ve.
8 . Mea s u r e h or izon ta l d ivis ion of on e com p lete cycle. Th is d ivis ion
m u lt ip lied b y t im e/ d iv gives tim e p er iod of t h e i/ p wa ve.
9 . Ca lcu la te frequ en cy u s in g for m u la f = 1 / T.
1 0 . Note d own you r r ea d in gs in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le

1 1 . Dr a w wa vefor m s of s in e, s qu a re, r a m p a n d tr ia n gu la r in th e given
s p a ce.
:: WORKS HEET ::
Obs e rvat io n t able :
Fun c t io n Ve rt ic al Vo lt / div Am plit u de Ho riz o n t Tim e / d Tim e Fre q.

Div is io n (b) (p-p) al Div iv T F=1 / T
(a) V=a*b (c ) (d) =c *d
S in e
wa ve
S qu a re
Wa ve
Tr ia n gu
la r
Wa ve
Ra m p
Wa ve
Draw o bs e rve d wave fo rm s :
S in e wa ve: (Am p litu d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )

S qu a r e wa ve: (Am p litu d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )
Tr ia n gu la r wa ve: (Am p litu d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )
Ra m p : ((Am p lit u d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is t h e u s e of C.R.O. ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is th e h igh es t fr equ en cy t h a t ca n b e m ea s u r ed b y C.R.O. a va ila b le

in you r la b ora tory?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is h igh es t volt a ge th a t ca n b e m ea s u red b y C.R.O. a va ila b le in you r

la b or a t or y?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t you will d o t o m ea s u re volta ge wh ich is grea ter t h a n volt a ge lim it of

t h e C.R.O.?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[5 ] Wh y AC/ DC in p u t cou p lin g p u s h -b u t t on s wit ch is given ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[6 ] Wh a t d o you m ea n b y d u a l ch a n n el C.R.O.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[7 ] Wh a t t yp e of d eflect ion m ech a n is m u s ed in C.R.O. to d eflect elect r on

b ea m ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[8 ] How to t es t wh eth er C.R.O. p r ob e is in wor k in g con d it ion or n ot ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: To ob ta in V-I ch a ra cter is t ics of PN ju n ct ion d iod e
Th e s em icon d u ctor d iod e is for m ed b y d op in g P-t yp e im p u r it y in on e s id e

a n d N-t yp e of im p u rity in a n ot h er s id e of t h e s em icon d u ctor cr ys t a l for m in g
a p -n ju n ct ion a s s h own in th e followin g figu r e.
Ac c e p t o r io n s J u nction Do n o r io n s
Ho le s Ele c t ro n s
x
p ty pe -Wp 0 Wn n t y pe
De p le t io n re g io n
At t h e ju n ction in it ia lly free ch a r ge ca r r ier s fr om b oth s id e r ecom b in e

for m in g n ega t ively ch a r ged ion s in P s id e of ju n ction (a n a t om in P-s id e
a ccep t elect r on a n d b ecom es n ega t ively ch a r ged ion ) a n d p os it ively ch a r ged
ion on n s id e(a n a tom in n -s id e a ccep ts h ole i.e. d on a tes elect r on a n d
b ecom es p os it ively ch a r ged ion )r egion . Th is r egion d ep lete of a n y t yp e of free
ch a r ge ca r r ier is ca lled a s d ep let ion region . Fu r t h er r ecom b in a t ion of free
ca r r ier on b ot h s id e is p r even ted b eca u s e of t h e d ep let ion volt a ge gen era ted
d u e to ch a r ge ca r r ier s k ep t a t d is ta n ce b y d ep letion (a cts a s a s or t of
in s u la t ion ) la yer a s s h own d ot t ed in t h e a b ove figu r e.
Wo rk in g prin c iple :
Wh en volta ge is n ot a p p lied a cr os s th e d iod e, d ep let ion r egion for m s a s

s h own in t h e a b ove figu r e. Wh en t h e volt a ge is a p p lied b et ween th e t wo
ter m in a ls of t h e d iod e (a n od e a n d ca t h od e) two p os s ib ilities a r is es d ep en d in g
on p ola r it y of DC s u p p ly.
[1 ] For wa r d -Bia s Con d it ion : Wh en th e +Ve ter m in a l of t h e b a t ter y is

con n ected t o P-t yp e m a ter ia l & -Ve ter m in a l t o N-t yp e ter m in a l a s s h own in
th e cir cu it d ia gr a m , th e d iod e is s a id to b e for wa r d b ia s ed . Th e a p p lica t ion of
for wa r d b ia s volt a ge will for ce elect ron s in N-typ e a n d h oles in P-t yp e
m a ter ia l t o recom b in e with t h e ion s n ea r b ou n d a r y a n d to flow cr os s in g
ju n ction . Th is r ed u ces wid th of d ep let ion r egion . Th is fu r th er will r es u lt in
in cr ea s e in m a jor ity ca r r ier s flow a cr os s th e ju n ct ion . If for wa r d b ia s is

fu r t h er in cr ea s ed in m a gn itu d e th e d ep let ion region wid th will con tin u e t o
d ecrea s e, r es u lt in g in exp on en tia l r is e in cu r r en t a s s h own in id ea l d iod e
ch a ra cter is tic cu r ve.
[2 ]Rever s e-b ia s ed : If t h e n ega t ive ter m in a l of b a t ter y (DC p ower s u p p ly) is
con n ected wit h P-typ e ter m in a l of d iod e a n d +Ve t erm in a l of b a t ter y
con n ected to N typ e t h en d iod e is s a id t o b e r ever s e b ia s ed . In t h is con d it ion
th e free ch a r ge ca r rier s (i.e. elect r on s in N-t yp e a n d h oles in P-t yp e) will
m ove a wa y fr om ju n ct ion wid en in g d ep letion region wid th . Th e m in or it y
ca r r ier s (i.e. –ve elect r on s in p -t yp e a n d +ve h oles in n -t yp e) ca n cr os s t h e
d ep let ion region r es u lt in g in m in or it y ca r r ier cu r ren t flow ca lled a s r evers e
s a t u ra t ion cu r ren t (Is ). As n o of m in or it y ca r r ier is ver y s m a ll s o t h e
m a gn it u d e of Is is few m icr oa m p eres . Id ea lly cu r r en t in revers e b ia s is zer o.
In s h or t , cu r r en t flows t h r ou gh d iod e in for wa r d b ia s a n d d oes n ot
flow t h r ou gh d iod e in r ever s e b ia s . Diod e ca n p a s s cu r ren t on ly in on e
d ir ect ion .
Ex pe rim e n t Pro c e du re :
x Con n ect t h e p ower s u p p ly, volt m eter , cu r r en t m eter wit h th e d iod e a s

s h own in t h e figu r e for for wa r d b ia s d iod e. You ca n u s e t wo
m u lt im eter (on e t o m ea s u re cu r r en t th r ou gh d iod e a n d ot h er t o
m ea s u re volta ge a cr os s d iod e)
x In cr ea s e volta ge fr om t h e p ower s u p p ly fr om 0 V to 2 0 V in s tep a s
s h own in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le
x Mea s u r e volta ge a cros s d iod e a n d cu r ren t t h r ou gh d iod e. Not e d own
r ea d in gs in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rever s e DC p ower s u p p ly p ola r it y for rever s e b ia s
x Rep ea t th e a b ove p roced u re for t h e d iffer en t va lu es of s u p p ly volt a ge
for r ever s e b ia s
x Dr a w VI ch a r a cter is tics for for wa r d b ia s a n d r ever s e b ia s in on e gr a p h
Circ u it diagram (fo rward bias )
+ - 1 K
A
DC POWER 1 N4 0 0 7
S UPPY V
0 -3 0 V -

Circ u it diagram (re v e rs e bias ):
+
1 K
-
A
-
DC POWER 1 N4 0 0 7
S UPPY 0 -3 0 V V
+
:: WORKS HEET ::
Obs e rvat io n t able : (Fo rward bias )
S r. No . S u pply v o lt age Dio de v o lt age Dio de c u rre n t

(Vo lt ) (Vd) (Id)
1. 0
2. 0 .2
3. 0 .4
4. 0 .6
5. 0 .8
6. 1
7. 2
8. 4
9. 6
10. 8
11. 10
12. 15
13. 20

Obs e rvat io n t able : (Re ve rs e bias )

(Vd) (Id)
1. 0
2. 2
3. 5
4. 10
5. 15
6. 20
7. 25
8. 30
Dr a w V-I ch a ra cter is tics of PN ju n ct ion d iod e:

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Lis t im p or t a n t s p ecifica t ion s of th e d iod e
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is b rea k d own volt a ge? Wh a t is t h e b r ea k d own volt a ge of d iod e

1 N4 0 0 1 a n d 1 N4 0 0 7 ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e h igh es t for wa r d cu r r en t in th e d iod e 1 N4 0 0 7 a n d 1 N5 0 0 2 ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Lis t d ifferen t t yp es of th e d iod e
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[5 ] Lis t a p p lica t ion s of t h e d iod e?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[6 ] How t o ch eck d iod e wit h h elp of m u lt im eter ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[7 ] Wh a t is th e r ea s on for r ever s e s a tu r a tion cu r r en t ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[8 ] Wh a t is t h e for wa r d volta ge d r op of s ilicon d iod e a n d ger m a n iu m d iod e?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[9 ] Dr a w id ea l ch a ra cter is tics of d iod e.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: To ob ta in V-I ch a ra cter is t ics of Zen er d iod e
Th e Zen er d iod e is d es ign ed t o op er a te in r ever s e b r ea k d own r egion .

Zen er d iod e is u s ed for volt a ge r egu la t ion p u r p os e. Zen er d iod es a re
d es ign ed for s p ecific r ever s e b r ea k d own volta ge ca lled Zen er b r ea k d own
volt a ge (VZ). Th e va lu e of VZ d ep en d s on a m ou n t of d op in g. Br ea k d own
cu r r en t is lim it ed b y p ower d is s ip a t ion ca p a cit y of th e zen er d iod e. If p ower
ca p a city of th e Zen er is 1 W a n d Zen er volta ge is 1 0 V, h igh es t rever s e
cu r r en t is 0 .1 A or 1 0 0 m A. If cu r ren t in cr ea s es m or e t h a n th is lim it , d iod e
will b e d a m a ged . For wa r d ch a ra cter is t ics of t h e Zen er d iod e is s im ila r t o
n or m a l PN ju n ction d iod e.
x Con n ect t h e p ower s u p p ly, volt m eter , cu r r en t m eter wit h th e d iod e a s
s h own in t h e figu r e for r ever s e b ia s . You ca n u s e t wo m u lt im eter (on e
to m ea s u r e cu r ren t th r ou gh d iod e a n d oth er to m ea s u re volta ge
a cr os s d iod e)
x Mea s u r e volta ge a cros s d iod e a n d cu r ren t t h r ou gh d iod e. Not e d own
r ea d in gs in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rever s e DC p ower s u p p ly p ola r it y for for wa r d b ia s
x Dr a w VI ch a r a cter is tics for r ever s e b ia s a n d for wa r d b ia s in on e gr a p h
Circ u it diagram (re v e rs e bias )
+ - 1 K
A
+
DC POWER Ze n e r
S UPPY Dio de V
0 -3 0 V
-

Circ u it diagram (fo rward bias ):
+
1 K
-
A
-
DC POWER Ze n e r
S UPPY Dio de V
0 -3 0 V
+
:: WORKS HEET ::

(Vo lt ) (VZ) (IZ)
1. 0
2. 1
3. 2
4. 5
5. 8
6. 10
7. 12
8. 15
9. 18
10. 20
11. 22
12. 25
13. 30


(Vo lt ) (Vd) (Id)
1. 0
2. 0 .2
3. 0 .4
4. 0 .6
5. 0 .8
6. 1
7. 5
8. 10
9. 15
10. 20
11. 25
Draw V-I c h arac t e ris t ic s o f Ze n e r dio de :

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is th e b r ea k d own volta ge of Zen er d iod e u s ed in you r p r a ctica l?

Wh a t is t h e p ower ca p a cit y. Wh a t is t h e m a xim u m cu r r en t t h a t you ca n
p a s s th r ou gh it?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Ca n we op er a te n or m a l PN ju n ct ion d iod e in b r ea k d own r egion for

lon ger d u ra t ion ? Give rea s on
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e s p ecia lt y of Zen er d iod e s o a s we ca n op er a te it in b r ea k d own

r egion for lon ger d u r a t ion
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is t h e d ifferen ce b etween Zen er b rea k d own a n d Ava la n ch e

b r ea k d own ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[5 ] Dr a w Zen er r egu la tor cir cu it to ob ta in r egu la ted DC volta ge 6 .8 V.

Con s id er in g in p u t DC volt a ge in t h e r a n ge fr om 1 0 V t o 3 0 V. Con s id er
loa d r es is ta n ce of 1 0 K
[6 ] Deter m in e m a xim u m a n d m in im u m va lu e of Zen er cu r ren t if va lu e of

s er ies res is ta n ce is 1 K, loa d res is ta n ce is 2 K a n d in p u t va r ies fr om
1 0 V t o 3 0 V. Zen er volt a ge is 5 V.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[7 ] Dr a w ou t p u t wa vefor m in t h e cir cu it of qu es t ion 5 , if we a p p ly AC wa ve of

1 0 V a t th e in p u t.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: To ob ta in ch a ra cter is t ics of ligh t d ep en d a n t res is t or (LDR)
Ligh t d ep en d a n t res is t or is d evice in wh ich r es is ta n ce d ep en d s on in ten s it y

of ligh t . Res is ta n ce of LDR d ecrea s es a s ligh t in t en s it y in cr ea s es . Typ ica l
exa m p le of LDR is Ca d m iu m S u lfid e p h oto cell. Typ ica l r es is ta n ce for b r igh t
ligh t is 2 0 0 DQG IRU GDUN FRQGLWLRQ LW LV DURXQG 0 +RZHYHU WKHVH
va lu es d ep en d s on s ize a n d m a ter ia l u s ed for t h e con s t r u ction of LDR. LDR
ca n b e u s ed a s a ligh t s en s or . We ca n con s t r u ct a u tom a t ic s t reet ligh t
con t r oller , b u r gla r a la r m , a u tom a t ic b r igh tn es s con t r oller for t elevis ion et c.
a p p lica t ion s u s in g LDR.
Pro c e du re :
x Con n ected t h e cir cu it a s p er in s tr u ction fr om th e fa cu lt y

x Con n ect t h e va r ia b le AC s u p p ly t o t h e la m p . S ee a s we ch a n ge AC
s u p p ly, ligh t in t en s ity ch a n ges .
x Now a d ju s t th e la m p in s u ch a wa y t h a t its m a xim u m ligh t fa lls on
LDR.
x Va r y AC s u p p ly wh ich will ch a n ge th e ligh t in ten s it y a n d recor d t h e
r es is ta n ce va lu e in th e ob s er va tion ta b le
x Dr a w t h e AC Volta ge ver s u s cu r ren t flowin g t h r ou gh LDR & ca lcu la te
th e d yn a m ic r es is ta n ce of LDR for ea ch s et t in g of AC volta ge.
:: WORKS HEET ::
Circ u it diagram :
(Dr a w cir cu it t h a t you h a ve u s ed d u r in g p r a ct ica l)

Res is ta n ce a t d a r k con d it ion : ________________________
Res is ta n ce a t n or m a l ligh t : ___________________________
S r n o. AC Volt a ge Res is ta n ce of LDR

(La m p in ten s ity )
10
11
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Draw graph o f In t e n s it y v ariat io n ve rs u s re s is t an c e
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is u n it of Ligh t ? How you m ea s u r e Ligh t?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t d o you m ea n b y p h ot ocon d u ct ive cell?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Lis t a n y t wo p ra ctica l a p p lica t ion s of LDR.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: To b u ild a n d t es t p ra ct ica l cir cu it of LDR (Mea s u re volta ge a t d ifferen t
p oin ts )
Circ u it diagram :
(Dr a w cir cu it d ia gr a m a va ila b le in you r la b or a t or y)
Obs e rvat io n s :
Volt a ge on t h e ter m in a l of th e LDR wh en r ela y is OFF:
V1 = _______________ V2 = _______________
Volt a ge on t h e ter m in a l of th e LDR wh en r ela y is ON:
V1 = _______________ V2 = _______________
Ex plain c irc u it o pe rat io n in brie f:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: To ob ta in ch a ra cter is t ics of s em icon d u ct or p h oto d iod e
Th e s em icon d u ct or p h ot od iod e is a ligh t d etect or d evice wh ich d etects

p r es en ce of ligh t . It is u s ed t o con ver t op t ica l p ower in to elect r ica l cu r ren t .
PN ju n ction Ph ot o d iod e h a ve P typ e a n d N t yp e s em icon d u ctor for m s
ju n ction . Th in P typ e la yer is d ep os ited on N t yp e s u b s t r a te. P-N ju n ct ion
h a s a s p a ce ch a r ge r egion a t th e in ter fa ce of th e P a n d N t yp e m a ter ia l. Ligh t
en ter s th r ou gh P-la yer a s s h own in th e followin g figu r e. Th is d iod e h a s
r ela t ively t h in d ep let ion r egion a r ou n d t h e ju n ction . It is r ever s e b ia s ed to
in cr ea s e wid t h of t h e d ep let ion region . Ph ot on s of ligh t en ter in g in P-la yer
ion ize elect r on -h ole p a ir . Ph oton gen era tes electr on -h ole p a ir in th e
d ep let ion r egion t h a t m oves ra p id ly with t h e d r ift velocity b y th e electr ic
field .
PHOTODIODE
Res p on s ivit y is im p or t a n t tech n ica l ter m r ela ted t o t h e p h otod iod e. It

is r a t io of p h otocu r r en t t o in cid en t op tica l p ower . Res p on s ivity of t h e
p h ot od iod e is p r op or t ion a l t o wid th of th e ju n ction . Ph oto d iod e is u s ed in
fib er op t ic com m u n ica tion a t r eceiver s id e. It d etect s in com in g ligh t fr om t h e
fib er en d a n d con ver t it in to elect r ica l s ign a l. It ca n b e a ls o u s ed in rem ote
con t r ol r eceiver .
x Con n ect t h e p ower s u p p ly, volt m eter , cu r r en t m eter wit h th e
p h ot od iod e a s s h own in t h e figu re
x Ap p ly 1 0 V fr om t h e DC p ower s u p p ly
x In cr ea s e AC p ower given t o la m p t o in cr ea s e in ten s it y
x Mea s u r e r ever s e lea k a ge cu r ren t (p h ot o cu r r en t ) of p h ot od iod e for
d ifferen t ligh t in ten s it y
x Dr a w gra p h of ligh t in t en s ity ver s u s p h otocu r r en t .

Circ u it diagram :
1K
- +
A
LAMP
DC Vo lt a g e
AC 230V 12V 1 0 V or 2 0 V
PHOTODIODE
:: WORKS HEET ::
S r n o. AC Volt a ge Ph ot ocu r r en t
(La m p in ten s ity )
10
11

Draw graph o f Ligh t ve rs u s ph o t o c u rre n t :
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is t h e d ifferen ce b et ween LDR a n d p h ot od iod e? Wh a t t yp e of

con ver s ion ta k es p la ce in p h ot od iod e?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Is p h ot ocu r ren t d ep en d s on wa velen gth of in cid en t ligh t?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: To ob s er ve wa vefor m a t t h e ou tp u t of h a lf wa ve rect ifier with a n d
wit h ou t filter ca p a citor . To m ea s u re DC volta ge, DC cu r r en t, r ip p le fa ct or
wit h a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or
On e of t h e ver y im p or t a n t a p p lica tion s of d iod e is in DC p ower s u p p ly

a s a r ectifier to con ver t AC in to DC. DC Power s u p p ly is th e im p or ta n t
elem en t of a n y electr on ic equ ip m en t. Th is is b eca u s e it p rovid es p ower t o
en er gize a ll elect r on ic cir cu its lik e os cilla t or s , a m p lifier s a n d s o on . In
elect r on ic equ ip m en t s , D.C. p ower s u p p ly is m u s t . For exa m p le, we ca n ’t
th in k of t elevis ion , com p u t er , ra d io, t elep h on e, m ob ile a s well a s m ea s u r in g
in s tr u m en t s lik e CRO, m u lt i-m eter etc. wit h ou t DC p ower s u p p ly. Th e
r elia b ility a n d p er form a n ce of th e elect r on ic s ys t em p r op er d es ign of p ower
s u p p ly is n eces s a r y. Th e fir s t b lock of DC p ower s u p p ly is r ectifier . Rect ifier
m a y b e d efin ed a s a n electr on ic d evice u s ed t o con ver t a c volt a ge or cu r ren t
in to u n id ir ect ion a l volt a ge or cu r r en t. E s s en t ia lly rect ifier n eed s
u n id ir ect ion a l d evice. Diod e h a s u n id ir ect ion a l p r op er ty h en ce s u ita b le for
r ectifier . Rect ifier b roa d ly d ivid ed in to t wo ca tegor ies : Ha lf wa ve r ectifier a n d
fu ll wa ve rectifier . In t h is exp er im en t , you will con s tr u ct h a lf wa ve rect ifier .
Wo rk in g prin c iple o f h alf wave re c t ifie r:
In h a lf wa ve rect ifier on ly h a lf cycle of a p p lied AC volta ge is u s ed .

An ot h er h a lf cycle of AC volt a ge (n ega t ive cycle) is n ot u s ed . On ly on e d iod e
is u s ed wh ich con d u ct s d u r in g p os it ive cycle. Th e cir cu it d ia gr a m of h a lf
wa ve rectifier wit h ou t ca p a cit or is s h own in t h e followin g figu r e. Du r in g
p os itive h a lf cycle of t h e in p u t volta ge a n od e of t h e d iod e is p os it ive
com p a r ed wit h th e ca t h od e. Diod e is in for wa r d b ia s a n d cu r r en t p a s s es
th r ou gh th e d iod e a n d p os itive cycle d evelop s a cr os s t h e loa d r es is ta n ce R L.
Du r in g n ega t ive h a lf cycle of in p u t volt a ge, a n od e is n ega t ive wit h r es p ected
to ca t h od e a n d d iod e is in rever s e b ia s . No cu r r en t p a s s es th r ou gh t h e d iod e
h en ce ou t p u t volta ge is zer o.

Ha lf wa ve rectifier wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or con ver t AC volt a ge in to
p u ls a t in g DC volta ge. Filter ca p a cit or is u s ed t o ob ta in s m ooth DC volt a ge.
Con s tr u ct followin g cir cu it to p er for m t h is p r a ct ica l.
Prac t ic al Circ u it diagram :
1 N4 0 0 7
+
C A +
2 3 0 V AC 1000u V
i n pu t 12 V -
10K
-
Lis t of com p on en t s :
[1 ] Tr a n s for m er In p u t : 2 3 0 V AC, ou t p u t : 1 2 V AC, 5 0 0 m A [2 ] Diod e 1 N4 0 0 7
[3 ] Res is tor 1 0 K [4 ] Ca p a cit or 1 0 0 0 µF [5 ] Toggle S wit ch
Con s tr u ct cir cu it on t h e gen er a l p u r p os e PCB. Keep t oggle s wit ch OFF t o

p er for m p ra ct ica l of h a lf wa ve r ect ifier wit h ou t filter ca p a citor a n d ON to
con n ect filter ca p a citor .
:: WORKS HEET ::
Wav e fo rm s : [1 ] With ou t filt er ca p a cit or :
In p u t Wa vefor m a t s econ d a r y of t ra n s for m er :
Ou tp u t wa vefor m :

[2 ] With filt er ca p a cit or :
Obs e rvat io n s :
[1 ] With ou t filt er ca p a citor
AC In p u t volta ge (r m s ) Vr m s = ___________
DC ou t p u t volt a ge VDC = ___________
DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________
AC ou tp u t volt a ge (Rip p le volta ge) Vr : __________
Rip p le fa ctor : (Vr / VDC ) = ______________
[2 ] With filt er ca p a cit or
DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Defin e r ip p le fa ctor
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is t h e effect of loa d res is ta n ce on r ip p le volta ge in p r es en ce of filter

ca p a cit or ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e effect of va lu e of filt er ca p a cit or on r ip p le volta ge?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is t h e PIV n eces s a r y for t h e d iod e if tr a n s for m er of 2 4 V is u s ed ?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is th e m a t h em a tica l r ela t ion s h ip b et ween r m s in p u t AC volta ge a n d

DC ou t p u t volta ge in h a lf wa ve rectifier with a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: To ob s er ve wa vefor m a t th e ou t p u t of fu ll wa ve r ect ifier with a n d
wit h ou t filter ca p a citor . To m ea s u re DC volta ge, DC cu r r en t, r ip p le fa ct or
wit h a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or
Fu ll wa ve r ect ifier u t ilizes b oth th e cycle of in p u t AC volta ge. Two or

fou r d iod es a re u s ed in fu ll wa ve rect ifier . If fu ll wa ve rectifier is d es ign ed
u s in g fou r d iod es it is k n own a s fu ll wa ve b r id ge r ect ifier . Fu ll wa ve r ect ifier
u s in g t wo d iod es wit h ou t ca p a cit or is s h own in t h e followin g figu r e. Cen ter
ta p p ed t ra n s for m er is u s ed in t h is fu ll wa ve rect ifier . Du r in g th e p os it ive
cycle d iod e D1 con d u ct s a n d it is a va ila b le a t th e ou t p u t . Du r in g n ega t ive
cycle d iod e D1 r em a in s OFF b u t d iod e D2 is in for wa r d b ia s h en ce it
con d u ct s a n d n ega t ive cycle is a va ila b le a s a p os itive cycle a t t h e ou t p u t a s
s h own in t h e followin g figu r e. Note th a t d irect ion of cu r r en t in t h e loa d
r es is ta n ce is s a m e d u r in g b oth th e cycles h en ce ou t p u t is on ly p os it ive
cycles .
Adv an t age s o f fu ll wave re c t ifie r o ve r h alf wave re c t ifie r:
x Th e r ect ifica t ion efficien cy is d ou b le th a n h a lf wa ve rectifier

x Rip p le fa ctor is les s a n d r ip p le frequ en cy is d ou b le h en ce ea s y t o filt er
ou t .
x DC ou t p u t volt a ge a n d cu r r en t is h igh er h en ce ou t p u t p ower is h igh er .
x Bet ter tr a n s for m er u t iliza t ion fa ct or

x Th er e is n o DC s a t u ra tion of core in t ra n s for m er b eca u s e t h e DC
cu r r en t s in t wo h a lves of s econ d a r y flow in op p os it e d irect ion s .
Dis advan t age s :
x Requ ires cen ter ta p t r a n s for m er

x Requ ires t wo d iod es com p a red t o on e d iod e in h a lf wa ve rectifier .
Prac t ic al Circ u it diagram :
1 N4 0 0 7
+
C A +
2 3 0 V AC 1000u V
i n pu t -
10K
-
1 2 -0 -1 2 Vr m s 1 N4 0 0 7
[1 ] Tr a n s for m er (cen t er ta p p ed ) 1 2 -0 -1 2 V AC, 5 0 0 m A
[2 ] Diod e 1 N4 0 0 7 ---- 2 No. [3 ] Res is t or 1 0 K
[4 ] Ca p a cit or 1 0 0 0 µF [5 ] Toggle S wit ch

p er for m p r a ct ica l of fu ll wa ve r ect ifier wit h ou t filt er ca p a cit or a n d ON to
:: WORKS HEET ::
Wav e fo rm s :
[1 ] With ou t filt er ca p a citor :


Obs e rvat io n s :
DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________

DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is t h e fr equ en cy of AC com p on en t a t t h e ou t p u t of fu ll wa ve
r ect ifier ? Give rea s on .
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is t h e d iffer en ce in DC ou t p u t volt a ge in h a lf wa ve a n d fu ll wa ve
r ect ifier for th e s a m e AC in p u t ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e PIV n eces s a r y for t h e d iod e if t ra n s for m er of 2 4 -0 -2 4 V is

u s ed ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is th e m a t h em a tica l r ela t ion s h ip b et ween r m s in p u t AC volta ge a n d

DC ou t p u t volta ge in h a lf wa ve rectifier with a n d wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM: To ob s er ve wa vefor m a t th e ou tp u t of b r id ge r ect ifier wit h a n d with ou t

filt er ca p a citor . To m ea s u re DC volta ge, DC cu r r en t , r ip p le fa ct or wit h a n d
wit h ou t filter ca p a citor
Th e Br id ge r ect ifier is a cir cu it , wh ich con ver ts a n a c volta ge t o d c volta ge

u s in g b ot h h a lf cycles of th e in p u t a c volt a ge. Th e Br id ge r ect ifier cir cu it is
s h own in t h e followin g figu r e.
Th e cir cu it h a s fou r d iod es con n ected to for m a b r id ge. Th e a c in p u t

volt a ge is a p p lied to th e d ia gon a lly op p os it e en d s of t h e b r id ge. Th e loa d
r es is ta n ce is con n ected b etween th e ot h er t wo en d s of t h e b r id ge. For t h e
p os itive h a lf cycle of t h e in p u t a c volta ge, d iod es D1 a n d D2 con d u ct,
wh erea s d iod es D3 a n d D4 rem a in in th e OFF s ta te. Th e con d u ct in g d iod es
will b e in s er ies wit h t h e loa d r es is ta n ce R L a n d h en ce t h e loa d cu r r en t flows
th r ou gh R L. For t h e n ega t ive h a lf cycle of t h e in p u t a c volta ge, d iod es D3 a n d
D4 con d u ct wh er ea s , D1 a n d D2 rem a in OFF. Th e con d u ctin g d iod es D3
a n d D4 will b e in s er ies wit h th e loa d res is t a n ce R L a n d h en ce t h e cu r ren t
flows t h r ou gh R L in th e s a m e d irect ion a s in t h e p reviou s h a lf cycle. Th u s a
b i-d ir ect ion a l wa ve is con ver ted in t o a u n id ir ect ion a l wa ve.

Th e cir cu it d ia gr a m of t h e b r id ge r ect ifier wit h filt er ca p a cit or is s h own
in t h e followin g figu r e. Wh en ca p a cit or ch a r ges d u r in g th e fir s t cycle, s u rge
cu r r en t flows b eca u s e in itia lly ca p a citor a ct s lik e a s h or t cir cu it . Th u s , s u r ge
cu r r en t is ver y la r ge. If s u r ge cu r r en t exceed s ra ted cu r r en t ca p a cit y of th e
d iod e it ca n d a m a ge t h e d iod e. To lim it s u r ge cu r r en t s u rge res is ta n ce is
u s ed in s er ies a s s h own in t h e figu r e. S im ila r s u r ge r es is ta n ce ca n b e u s ed
in h a lf wa ve a s well a s cen ter -ta p p ed fu ll wa ve rectifier a ls o.
Br id ge r ect ifier p a ck a ge (com b in a t ion of fou r d iod es in for m of b r id ge) is

ea s ily a va ila b le in th e m a r k et for va r iou s cu r r en t ca p a cit ies r a n gin g fr om
5 0 0 m A t o 3 0 A. For la b ora tor y p u r p os e you ca n u s e 1 A p a ck a ge.
Adv an t age s o f bridge re c t ifie r:
x No cen ter ta p is r equ ir ed in t h e t ra n s for m er s econ d a r y h en ce

tr a n s for m er d es ign is s im p le. If s tep p in g u p a n d s tep p in g d own n ot
r equ ir ed t h a n t ra n s for m er ca n b e elim in a ted . (In S MPS u s ed in TV
a n d com p u ter , 2 3 0 V is d ir ect ly a p p lied to t h e in p u t of b r id ge rectifier ).
x Th e PIV of th e d iod e is h a lf t h a n in cen ter t a p fu ll wa ve r ect ifier
x Tr a n s for m er u t iliza t ion fa ct or is h igh er th a n in cen ter ta p p ed fu ll wa ve
r ectifier
x S m a ller s ize t ra n s for m er requ ir ed for given ca p a cit y b eca u s e
tr a n s for m er is u t ilized effect ively d u r in g b oth AC cycles .
Dis advan t age s o f bridge re c t ifie r:
x Requ ires Fou r d iod es (Bu t p a ck a ge is low cos t )

x For wa r d volta ge d r op a cr os s two d iod es . Th is will r ed u ce efficien cy
p a r ticu la r ly wh en low volt a ge (les s t h a n 5 V ) is r equ ired .
x Loa d r es is ta n ce a n d s u p p ly s ou r ce h a ve n o com m on p oin t wh ich m a y
b e ea r t h ed .

Prac t ic al c irc u it diagram :
D1
D3
C +
2 3 0 V AC DC
i n pu t + V Ou t pu t
D2 -
A
-
D4
[1 ] Tr a n s for m er 1 2 V AC, 5 0 0 m A
[2 ] Diod e 1 N4 0 0 7 ---- 4 No. or 1 A b r id ge r ect ifier p a ck a ge
[3 ] Res is tor 1 0 K [4 ] Ca p a cit or 1 0 0 0 µF [5 ] Toggle S wit ch

p er for m p r a ct ica l of fu ll wa ve r ect ifier wit h ou t filt er ca p a cit or a n d ON to
:: WORKS HEET ::
Wav e fo rm s :
[1 ] With ou t filt er ca p a citor :

Obs e rvat io n s :
DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________
DC cu r r en t: IDC =______________

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is t h e m a th em a t ica l exp res s ion for r ip p le fa ct or . Wh a t is t h e r ip p le

fa ct or of b r id ge rect ifier wit h ou t filter ca p a cit or ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is th e m a th em a tica l r ela t ion s h ip b et ween r m s AC in p u t a n d DC

ou tp u t fr om t h e b r id ge r ect ifier wit h a n d with ou t filter ca p a cit or ? If
t r a n s for m er of 2 4 V is u s ed , wh a t is t h e DC ou t p u t volt a ge wit h a n d
wit h ou t filt er ca p a cit or ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e PIV n eces s a r y for t h e d iod e if t ra n s for m er of 1 2 -0 -1 2 V is

u s ed ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is t h e efficien cy of fu ll wa ve b r id ge r ectifier ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 0
AIM: To ob ta in ch a ra cter is t ics of ligh t em it t in g d iod e (LE D)
LE D is s em icon d u ct or ju n ct ion d iod e wh ich em it s ligh t wh en cu r ren t

p a s s es t h r ou gh it in for wa r d b ia s con d it ion . P typ e of s em icon d u ctor
con s is t s of la r ge n u m b er of h oles wh ile N t yp e of s em icon d u ct or con s is t s of
la r ge n u m b er of elect r on s . At zer o b ia s (n o volt a ge a cr os s ju n ct ion ),
d ep let ion region exis t s a n d it s ep a r a te ou t t wo r egion s . Wh en LE D is for wa r d
b ia s ed , b a r r ier p oten t ia l red u ces a n d d ep let ion region b ecom es n a r r ow.
E lect r on cr os s es t h e d ep let ion r egion a n d r ecom b in es with h oles . S im ila r ly
h oles cr os s es d ep letion r egion a n d r ecom b in e wit h electr on s . Ea ch
r ecom b in a tion of h ole a n d elect r on p r od u ces p h ot on (ligh t ) Th e in t en s it y of
ligh t em it ted d ep en d s on th e n u m b er of m in or ity ca r r ier s a va ila b le for
r ecom b in a tion . Wa velen gt h (or fr equ en cy) of em it ted ligh t d ep en d s on b a n d -
ga p en er gy. Th e ligh t em it tin g d iod e wor k s b y th e p r oces s of s p on ta n eou s
em is s ion .
Ligh t s ou r ce m a ter ia l m u s t h a ve d ir ect b a n d ga p . In a d irect b a n d ga p

s em icon d u ct or m a ter ia l elect r on a n d h ole r ecom b in e d irect ly a cr os s b a n d
ga p with ou t n eed of th ir d p a r ticle to con s er ve m om en tu m .
Ligh t s ou r ce m a ter ia ls a r e m a d e fr om com p ou n d of gr ou p -III (Al,Ga ,In )

a n d gr ou p -V (P,As ,S b ) elem en t .Th e wa velen gt h gen er a ted b y th e LE D
d ep en d s on b a n d ga p en er gy a n d b a n d ga p en er gy d ep en d s on d op in g level of
a b ove elem en t s . Let u s u n d er s ta n d rela t ion b et ween frequ en cy of em is s ion
a n d en er gy.
Ph ot on en er gy is rela ted to t h e em it ted fr equ en cy b y th e LED.
hc
Ph ot on en ergy E hf
O
c Velocity of light
(b eca u s e f )
O wavelength
Wh ere h = Pla n k ’s con s t a n t = 6 .6 2 5 ×1 0 -3 4 J -S
c = Velocit y of th e ligh t = 3 ×1 0 8 m / s
O = Wa velen gt h of em it t ed ligh t

x Con n ect t h e p ower s u p p ly, volt m eter , cu r r en t m eter wit h th e LE D a s

s h own in t h e cir cu it d ia gra m .
x Mea s u r e volta ge a cros s LE D a n d cu r ren t t h r ou gh th e LE D. Not e d own
r ea d in gs in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le a n d a ls o ob s er ves ligh t com in g fr om
LE D.
x Rever s e DC p ower s u p p ly p ola r it y for rever s e b ia s
x Dr a w VI ch a r a cter is tics for for wa r d b ia s a n d r ever s e b ia s in on e gr a p h
Circ u it diagram (fo rward bias )
+ - 1 K
A
+
DC POWER LED
S UPPY V
0 -2 0 V
-
Circ u it diagram (re v e rs e bias ):
+
1 K
-
A
-
DC POWER LED
S UPPY V
0 -2 0 V
+

:: WORKS HEET ::

(Vo lt ) (Vd) (Id)
1. 0
2. 0 .5
3. 1
4. 2
5. 5
6. 10
7. 15
8. 20

(Vd) (Id)
1. 0
2. 2
3. 5
4. 10
5. 15
6. 20

Dr a w V-I ch a ra cter is tics of t h e LE D:
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t a r e th e a p p lica t ion s of LE D?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] On wh ich fa ctor s color em itted fr om th e LE D d ep en d s ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Give t yp ica l va lu es of LE D volt a ge a n d cu r r en t?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 1
AIM: To ob s er ve wa vefor m s a t t h e ou t p u t of cla m p er cir cu its
Diod es a re wid ely u s ed in clip p in g a n d cla m p in g cir cu it s . Cla m p in g cir cu its

a re u s ed t o ch a n ge DC level (a vera ge level) of t h e s ign a l wh ich a d d s or
s u b tr a ct s DC va lu e wit h t h e s ign a l. In cla m p in g, s h a p e of wa vefor m rem a in s
s a m e on ly offs et va lu e (DC level) will ch a n ge. Pos it ive cla m p in g a d d s p os it ive
DC level in t h e s ign a l wh ile n ega t ive cla m p in g a d d s n ega t ive DC level in t h e
s ign a l. Ca p a cit or is wid ely u s ed in t h e cla m p in g cir cu it. Typ ica l cla m p in g
wa vefor m s for t h e s in u s oid a l s ign a l is s h own b elow for p os it ive cla m p in g
a n d n ega tive cla m p in g.
Cla m p in g cir cu it is u s ed in vid eo a m p lifier of televis ion r eceiver to res t ore

DC level of vid eo s ign a l t o p r es er ve overa ll b r igh tn es s of th e s cen e. Cla m p in g
cir cu it is a ls o u s ed in offs et con tr ol of fu n ct ion gen era tor . Zer o offs et m ea n s
n o DC va lu e is a d d ed in t h e AC s ign a l.
Circ u it o pe rat io n :
Typ ica l cir cu it op era tion of t h e p os it ive cla m p in g a n d n ega t ive cla m p in g is
given b elow.

Po s it ive c lam pin g:
Con s id er t h a t 4 V p ea k to p ea k s ign a l wit h zer o offs et is a p p lied a t t h e in p u t

of th e cla m p in g cir cu it. On t h e fir s t n ega t ive h a lf cycle of th e in p u t s ign a l,
d iod e D t u r n s ON b eca u s e a n od e volta ge is gr ea ter t h a n ca th od e volta ge.
Ca p a cit or ch a r ges t o t h e n ega tive p ea k volta ge let u s s a y -2 V in ou r
exa m p le. Th e va lu e of R s h ou ld b e h igh s o t h a t it will n ot d is ch a r ge t h e
ca p a cita n ce. After com p let ion of n ega t ive cycle, p os it ive cycle s ta r t s a n d
d iod e t u r n s OFF. Ca p a cita n ce volta ge is in s er ies wit h t h e in p u t volt a ge. As
p er t h e Kir ch off’s la w ou t p u t volt a ge will b e a d d ition of in p u t volt a ge a n d
ca p a cita n ce volta ge. In p u t s ign a l is p os it ive s win g of +2 V a n d ca p a cit or
volt a ge is +2 V. Th u s d u r in g th e p os itive p ea k of t h e in p u t volt a ge t ot a l
ou t p u t volta ge will b e +4 V. We ca n con s id er t h a t d u r in g t h e p os it ive cycle
ca p a citor a ct s lik e a b a tter y a n d a d d s +2 V in th e in p u t . Wa vefor m s a re
d r a wn h ere con s id er in g id ea l d iod e, n o lea k a ge in t h e ca p a cita n ce u n d er
id ea l s itu a t ion s wh ich will b e d ifferen t in p r a ct ica l s it u a t ion s .
Ne gat ive c lam pin g:
In a n ega t ive cla m p in g cir cu it p ola r ity of d iod e is r ever s e th a n in p os it ive

cla m p in g. In ou r s ign a l in p u t s win gs fr om -2 V t o +2 V (p ea k t o p ea k 4 V).
Diod e tu r n s ON d u r in g th e p os it ive cycle a n d ch a r ge is s t or ed in t h e
ca p a citor . Ca p a cit or will ch a r ge u p t o +2 V in ou r exa m p le. Du r in g t h e
n ega tive cycle t h is volt a ge will b e in s er ies with t h e in p u t volt a ge a n d gives
tot a l ou t p u t -4 V d u r in g n ega t ive p ea k of th e in p u t s ign a l.

x Con n ect fu n ct ion gen er a t or with CRO. Set s in e wa ve wit h 4 V p ea k t o

p ea k . E n s u r e t h a t offs et volta ge is 0 .
x Con n ect t h e fu n ct ion gen er a t or a t t h e in p u t of t h e cla m p in g cir cu it
x Ob s er ve ou t p u t wa vefor m s on t h e CRO for d ifferen t cla m p in g cir cu its
a n d d ra w ou tp u t wa vefor m s .
:: WORKS HEET ::
Draw c irc u it diagram s (as pe r c irc u it available in t h e labo rat o ry o r
c irc u it c o n n e c t e d o n bre adbo ard):

Wav e fo rm s :
[1 ]In p u t Wa vefor m :
Ou tp u t wa vefor m for cir cu it 1 :
Co n c lu s io n :
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Dr a w ou t p u t wa vefor m for th e followin g cir cu it s if in p u t of 4 V p ea k -

t o-p ea k wit h zer o offs et is a p p lied .
C1
D2
4 Vpp 10K
+2V
C1
D2
4 Vpp 10K
+2V

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 2
AIM: To ob s er ve wa vefor m s a t t h e ou t p u t of clip p er cir cu it s
Clip p in g cir cu it is u s ed t o s elect for t ra n s m is s ion t h a t p a r t of a n a r b it ra r y

wa vefor m wh ich lie a b ove or b elow s om e refer en ce level. Clip p in g cir cu it
“clip s ” s om e p or tion of th e wa vefor m . Clip p in g cir cu it a r e a ls o r efer red t o a s
volt a ge lim iter s . Cla m p in g cir cu it p r es er ves s h a p e of t h e wa vefor m wh ile
clip p in g cir cu it d oes n ot p r es er ve s h a p e of wa vefor m . Clip p in g cir cu it u s es
s om e r efer en ce level. Wa vefor m a b ove or b elow t h is r efer en ce level is clip p ed .
Clip p in g cir cu its a re a ls o k n own a s volt a ge lim iter or a m p lit u d e lim iter or
s licer s . S om e clip p er cir cu its a re exp la in ed h ere.
Po s it ive c y c le c lippe r c irc u it s :
Pos itive cycle clip p er cir cu its a re s h own in t h e figu re wit h s er ies a n d s h u n t
d iod e. Tr a n s fer ch a ra cter is tics a n d ou t p u t wa vefor m for s in u s oid a l in p u t is
s h own .
Fo r s e rie s dio de :
x Wh en vi(t)<0 , Diod e D is in ON con d it ion , in p u t wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t

th e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t)>0 , Diod e D is in OFF con d it ion , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou t p u t a n d ou tp u t r em a in s zer o.

Fo r s h u n t dio de :
x Wh en vi(t)<0 , Diod e D is in ON con d it ion wh ich b yp a s s t h e s ign a l to t h e

gr ou n d a n d h en ce in p u t wa vefor m is n ot a va ila b le a t t h e ou t p u t .
x Wh en vi(t)>0 , Diod e D is in OFF con d it ion a n d a ct s lik e a OFF s wit ch ,
in p u t wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t th e ou t p u t.
For n ega t ive cycle clip p er , p ola r it y of d iod e is rever s e.
S e rie s dio de po s it ive c lippin g wit h po s it ive re fe re n c e :
In t h e cir cu it s h own in t h e followin g figu r e, DC r eferen ce volt a ge is

u s ed . Th is is u s efu l of we d o n ot wa n t to clip en t ire p os it ive cycle b u t s om e
p or t ion of p os it ive h a lf cycle.
x Wh en vi(t)<VR , Diod e D is in ON con d it ion , in p u t wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t

th e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t)> VR , Diod e D is in OFF con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou t p u t a n d ou tp u t r em a in s zer o. Th u s p or t ion of ou t p u t
cycle clip s a s s h own in th e wa vefor m .
S e rie s dio de po s it ive c lippin g wit h n e gat ive re fe re n c e :
If wa n t to clip en t ire p os it ive h a lf cycle a lon g wit h s om e p or t ion of t h e

n ega tive cycle t h en n ega t ive DC refer en ce ca n b e u s ed a s s h own in th e
followin g figu r e. In th is ca s e on ly s om e p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle p a s s es t o
th e ou tp u t.

x Wh en vi(t)<-VR , Diod e D is in ON con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t
th e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t )> -VR , Diod e D is in OFF con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou tp u t a n d ou t p u t r em a in s con s ta n t equ a l t o VR . Th u s
en t ir e p os itive cycle a n d s om e p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle b elow –VR clip s .
S e rie s dio de n e gat ive c lippin g wit h re fe re n c e :
Nega t ive clip p in g ca n b e a ch ieved b y ch a n gin g p ola r it y of th e d iod e.

Nega t ive clip p er with n ega tive r efer en ce volt a ge is s h own in t h e followin g
figu r e. Th is will clip s om e p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle.
x Wh en vi(t)>-VR , Diod e D is in ON con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t

th e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t )< -VR , Diod e D is in OFF con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou tp u t a n d ou tp u t volt a ge r em a in s con s t a n t wh ich is
equ a l to –VR.
S h u n t dio de po s it ive c lippin g wit h n e gat ive re fe re n c e vo lt age :
S h u n t d iod e p os itive clip p in g wit h n ega t ive referen ce volta ge is a s

s h own in t h e followin g cir cu it . Th is will clip en t ire p os it ive cycle a n d s om e
p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle a s s h own in th e wa vefor m .
x Wh en vi(t)<-VR , Diod e D is in OFF con d it ion (op en cir cu it) a n d in p u t

wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t t h e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t)> -VR , Diod e D is in ON con d ition , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou t p u t a n d n ega t ive volt a ge –VR is exten d ed t o t h e
ou t p u t . Ou t p u t volt a ge r em a in s con s ta n t equ a l t o VR . Th u s en t ir e p os it ive
cycle a n d s om e p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle b elow –VR clip s .

S h u n t dio de n e gat iv e c lippin g wit h n e gat ive re fe re n c e :
Nega t ive clip p in g with n ega t ive r efer en ce volt a ge ca n b e a ch ieved b y

r ever s in g p ola r it y of t h e d iod e. S om e p or tion of n ega t ive cycle clip s .
x Wh en vi(t)>-VR , Diod e D is in OFF con d it ion (op en cir cu it) a n d in p u t

wa vefor m is a va ila b le a t t h e ou tp u t.
x Wh en vi(t ) < -VR , Diod e D is in ON con d it ion , in p u t wa vefor m is n ot
a va ila b le a t t h e ou t p u t a n d n ega t ive volt a ge –VR is exten d ed t o t h e
ou t p u t . Ou t p u t volt a ge r em a in s con s ta n t equ a l t o VR . Th u s en t ir e p os it ive
cycle a n d s om e p or t ion of n ega t ive cycle b elow –VR clip s .
x Con n ect fu n ct ion gen er a t or with CRO. Set s in e wa ve wit h 6 V p ea k t o

p ea k . E n s u r e t h a t offs et volta ge is 0 .
x Con n ect t h e fu n ct ion gen er a t or a t t h e in p u t of t h e clip p in g cir cu it
x Ob s er ve ou t p u t wa vefor m s on t h e CRO for d ifferen t clip p in g cir cu it s
a n d d ra w ou tp u t wa vefor m s .
:: WORKS HEET ::
Draw c irc u it diagram s (as pe r c irc u it available in t h e labo rat o ry o r
c irc u it c o n n e c t e d o n bre adbo ard):
Cir cu it 1 :

Cir cu it 2 :
Cir cu it 3 :
Cir cu it 4 :

Wav e fo rm s :
[1 ]In p u t Wa vefor m :

Co n c lu s io n :
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Dr a w ou t p u t wa vefor m for t h e followin g cir cu it s if s in u s oid a l s ign a l of

6 V p ea k -t o-p ea k wit h zer o offs et is a p p lied a t th e in p u t . Con s id er
r efer en ce volta ge VR = +2 V

Consider Zener voltage 2.5V
VR = -3 V

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 3
AIM: To ob ta in com m on em itter ch a ra cter is tics of NPN tr a n s is t or
Tr a n s is tor is t h r ee t er m in a l a ct ive d evice h a vin g ter m in a ls collector , b a s e

a n d em it ter . Tr a n s is t or is wid ely u s ed in a m p lifier , os cilla t or , elect r on ic
s wit ch a n d s o m a n y oth er elect r on ics cir cu it s for va r iety of a p p lica t ion s . To
u n d er s ta n d op er a t ion of t h e t ra n s is tor , we u s e t h ree con figu r a t ion s com m on
em it ter , com m on b a s e a n d com m on collect or . In t h is p r a ct ica l, we will
u n d er s ta n d com m on em it ter con figu ra tion . As t h e n a m e s u gges t, em it ter is
com m on b et ween in p u t a n d ou t p u t. In p u t is a p p lied t o b a s e a n d ou tp u t is
ta k en fr om collect or .
We will ob ta in in p u t ch a r a cter is t ics a n d ou t p u t ch a r a cter is t ics of com m on

em it ter (CE ) con figu r a t ion . We will con n ect va r ia b le DC p ower s u p p ly a t VBB
a n d VCC t o ob ta in ch a ra cter is tics . In p u t volta ge in CE con figu r a t ion is b a s e-
em it ter volta ge Vb e a n d in p u t cu r r en t is b a s e cu r ren t Ib . Ou t p u t volt a ge in
CE con figu r a t ion is collect or t o em itter volt a ge VCE a n d ou t p u t cu r r en t is
collect or cu r ren t Ic. We will u s e m u lt i-m eter to m ea s u r e t h es e volta ges a n d
cu r r en t s for d iffer en t ch a ra cter is t ics . Collect or to em it ter ju n ction is r evers e
b ia s ed a n d b a s e t o em it ter ju n ct ion is for wa r d b ia s ed . Th e CE con figu r a t ion
is wid ely u s ed in a m p lifier cir cu its b eca u s e it p r ovid es volta ge ga in a s well
a s cu r ren t ga in . In CB con figu r a tion cu r r en t ga in is les s t h a n u n it y. In CC
con figu r a t ion volta ge ga in is les s t h a n u n it y. In p u t res is t a n ce of CE
con figu r a t ion is les s th a n CC con figu r a tion a n d m ore t h a n CB con figu r a t ion .
Ou tp u t r es is ta n ce of CE con figu r a t ion is m or e t h a n CC con figu r a t ion a n d
les s t h a n CB con figu r a t ion .

:: WORKS HEET ::
Circ u it s e t u p fo r in pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
1K
Ib
100K
A Q1 Vcc
Vbe
VBB V
x Con n ect cir cu it a s s h own in t h e cir cu it d ia gra m for in p u t

ch a ra cter is tics
x Con n ect va r ia b le p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V a t b a s e cir cu it a n d collect or
cir cu it .
x Keep Vcc fix a t 0 V (Or d o n ot con n ect Vcc)
x In cr ea s e VBB fr om 0 V t o 2 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of b a s e cu r ren t Ib
a n d b a s e t o em it ter volt a ge Vb e in th e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for Vcc = +5 V a n d Vcc = +1 0 V
x Dr a w in p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vb e on X a xis a n d Ib on Y a xis .
Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Vc c = 0 V Vc c = +5 V Vc c =+1 0 V
Vbe Ib Vbe Ib Vbe Ib

In pu t Ch arac t e ris t ic s :
Circ u it s e t u p fo r o u t pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
Ic
1K
A
Ib
100K
A Q1 Vcc
Vbe V Vce
VBB
x Con n ect cir cu it a s s h own in t h e cir cu it d ia gra m for ou t p u t

cir cu it .
x Keep b a s e cu r r en t fix (In itia lly 0 )
x In cr ea s e VCC fr om 0 V t o 3 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of collect or cu r r en t
Ic a n d collect or t o em itt er volta ge Vce in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for b a s e cu r r en ts Ib = 5 µA, 5 0 µA, 1 0 0 µA.
In cr ea s e b a s e cu r ren t b y in cr ea s in g VBB .
x Dr a w ou t p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vce on X a xis a n d Ic on Y a xis .

Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Ib = 0 Ib = 5 µA Ib = 5 0 µA Ib = 1 0 0 µA
Vc e Ic Vc e Ic Vc e Ic Vc e Ic
Ou t pu t Ch arac t e ris t ic s :

Co n c lu s io n :
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] How to ch eck t ra n s is tor wit h h elp of m u ltim eter ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[2 ] How to ch eck t yp e of t r a n s is t or (NPN or PNP) with h elp of m u lt im eter ?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Defin e cu r ren t ga in of t h e t ra n s is tor in CE con figu r a t ion . Wh a t is t h e DC
cu r r en t ga in you ob t a in in t h is p r a ct ica l?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 4
AIM: To ob ta in com m on b a s e ch a r a cter is t ics of NPN t r a n s is tor
In a com m on b a s e con figu r a tion , b a s e t e r m in a l is c o m m o n b e t w e e n

in p u t a n d o u t p u t . Th e o u t p u t is t a k e n fr o m c o lle c t o r a n d t h e in p u t
vo lt a ge is a p p lie d b e t w e e n e m it t e r a n d b a s e . Th e b a s e is gr o u n d e d
b e c a u s e it is c o m m o n . To o b t a in o u t p u t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , w e w ill
m e a s u r e c o lle c t o r c u r r e n t fo r d iffe r e n t va lu e o f c o lle c t o r t o b a s e
vo lt a ge (V C B ). In p u t c u r r e n t is e m it t e r c u r r e n t Ie a n d in p u t vo lt a ge
is Ve b . To p lo t in p u t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w e w ill p lo t Ve b ve r s u s Ie .
C u r r e n t ga in fo r C B c o n fig u r a t io n is le s s t h a n u n it y . C B
c o n figu r a t io n is u s e d in c o m m o n b a s e a m p lifie r t o o b t a in vo lt a ge
ga in . O u t p u t im p e d a n c e o f c o m m o n b a s e c o n fig u r a t io n is ve r y h ig h .
C B a m p lifie r is u s e d in m u lt i- s t a ge a m p lifie r w h e r e im p e d a n c e
m a t c h in g is r e q u ir e d b e t w e e n d iffe r e n t s t a ge s .
Ci rc u i t d i a g ra m t o o b t a i n i n p u t c h a ra c t e ri s t i c s :
Ie
10K
Q1 1K
A
Vcc
VEE V
Veb
Ci rc u i t d i a g ra m t o o b t a i n o u t p u t c h a ra c t e ri s t i c s :
Ie Ic
10K
Q1 1K
A A
Vcc
VEE V Vcb

:: WORKS HEET ::
Ex pe rim e n t Pro c e du re t o o bt ain in pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :

x Con n ect va r ia b le p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V (VE E ) a t em it ter b a s e cir cu it a n d
a n oth er p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V a t collect or b a s e cir cu it (Vcc).
x Keep Vcc fix a t 0 V (Or d o n ot con n ect Vcc)
x In cr ea s e VE E fr om 0 V t o 2 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of em it ter cu r r en t Ie
a n d em it ter to b a s e volt a ge Veb in th e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for Vcc = +5 V a n d Vcc = +1 0 V
x Dr a w in p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Veb on X a xis a n d Ie on Y a xis .
Ex pe rim e n t Pro c e du re t o o bt ain o u t put c h arac t e ris t ic s :

x Con n ect va r ia b le p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V a t em it ter cir cu it a n d collect or
cir cu it .
x Keep em itter cu r ren t fix (In it ia lly 0 )
x In cr ea s e VCC fr om 0 V t o 3 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of collect or cu r r en t
Ic a n d collect or t o b a s e volta ge Vcb in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for b a s e cu r r en ts Ie = 1 m A, 5 m A a n d 1 0 m A.
In cr ea s e em it ter cu rr en t b y in crea s in g VE E .
x Dr a w ou t p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vcb on X a xis a n d Ic on Y
a xis .
Obs e rvat io n t able fo r in pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Vc c = 0 V Vc c = +5 V Vc c =+1 0 V
Ve b Ie Ve b Ie Ve b Ie

Obs e rvat io n t able fo r o u t pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Ie = 0 Ie = 1 m A Ie = 5 m A Ie = 1 0 m A
Vc b Ic Vc b Ic Vc b Ic Vc b Ic

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is ea r ly effect? Ha ve you ob s erved ea r ly effect in you r exp er im en t ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Com p a re com m on b a s e a n d com m on em it ter con figu r a t ion

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[3 ] J u s t ify t h e s ta tem en t : Com m on b a s e a m p lifier is u s ed a s b u ffer

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Wh a t is t h e va lu e of p h a s e s h ift b et ween in p u t a n d ou t p u t s ign a l in

com m on b a s e a n d com m on em it ter a m p lifier ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 5
AIM: To ob ta in com m on collect or ch a ra ct er is t ics of NPN t ra n s is tor
In com m on collector con figu r a tion , collector ter m in a l is com m on b et ween

in p u t a n d ou t p u t . In p u t is a p p lied b etween b a s e a n d collect or . Ou t p u t is
ta k en fr om em itter a n d collector . Volta ge ga in of CC con figu r a t ion is les s
th a n u n it y. CC a m p lifier is u s ed t o p r ovid e cu r ren t ga in . It h a s ver y h igh
in p u t im p ed a n ce a n d ver y low ou t p u t res is t a n ce h en ce it is u s ed to con n ect
low im p ed a n ce loa d to s ou r ce wh ich is h a vin g h igh ou t p u t im p ed a n ce. Th u s ,
it ca n b e u s ed a s im p ed a n ce m a t ch in g. E m it t er cu r r en t is a p p r oxim a tely
equ a l t o collector cu r r en t , h en ce ou t p u t ch a ra cter is tics of CC con figu r a t ion
is ver y m u ch s a m e a s CE con figu r a tion . However , in p u t ch a r a cter is t ics of
CE a n d CC a r e qu ite d ifferen t .
Ci rc u i t d i a g ra m t o o b t a i n i n p u t c h a ra c t e ri s t i c s :
Vcb V
Ib
100K
Vcc
A Q1
VBB 1K
Ci rc u i t d i a g ra m t o o b t a i n o u t p u t c h a ra c t e ri s t i c s :
Ib
100K
Vcc
A Q1
V
VBB Vce
1K
Ie
A

:: WORKS HEET ::

x Con n ect va r ia b le p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V (VBB ) a t b a s e-em it ter cir cu it a n d
a n oth er p ower s u p p ly 0 -3 0 V a t collect or em it ter cir cu it (Vcc).
x Keep Vce fix a t 0 V (Or d o n ot con n ect Vcc)
x In cr ea s e VBB fr om 0 V t o 2 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of b a s e cu r r en t Ib
a n d collect or t o b a s e volta ge (Vcb ) in t h e ob s er va tion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for Vce = +1 V a n d Vce = +2 V
x Dr a w in p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vcb on X a xis a n d Ib on Y a xis .
Ex pe rim e n t Pro c e du re t o o bt ain o u t put c h arac t e ris t ic s :

cir cu it .
x Keep b a s e cu r ren t fix (In itia lly 0 )
x In cr ea s e VCC fr om 0 V t o 3 0 V, n ot e d own rea d in gs of em it ter cu r r en t Ic
a n d collect or t o em itter volta ge Vce in t h e ob s er va t ion ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for b a s e cu r r en ts Ib = 1 0 µA, 5 0 µA a n d
1 0 0 µA. In cr ea s e b a s e cu r r en t b y in crea s in g VBB .
x Dr a w ou t p u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vce on X a xis a n d Ie on Y a xis
for d iffer en t va lu es of b a s e cu r r en t s .
Obs e rvat io n t able fo r in pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Vc e = 0 V Vc e = +1 V Vc e =+2 V
Vc b Ib Vc b Ib Vc b Ib

Obs e rvat io n t able fo r o u t pu t c h arac t e ris t ic s :
Tr a n s is tor : __________
S r. No . Ib = 0 µA Ib = 1 0 µA Ib = 5 0 µA Ib = 1 0 0 µA
Vc e Ie Vc e Ie Vc e Ie Vc e Ie

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t is t h e in p u t a n d ou t p u t im p ed a n ce of CC con figu r a tion com p a r ed

t o CE a n d CB con figu r a t ion ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[2 ] J u s t ify: It is b et ter t o u s e com m on -collector a m p lifier b etween com m on

em it ter a m p lifier a n d loa d -s p ea k er .
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Com p a re volta ge ga in a n d cu r r en t ga in of CC a m p lifier with CB a n d CE
a m p lifier .
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t is em it ter follower ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 6
AIM: To u n d er s ta n d wor k in g of t r a n s is t or a s a s witch . To d r a w DC loa d lin e
for given cir cu it
Tr a n s is tor ca n b e op era ted in th ree r egion : cu t-off r egion , a ct ive region a n d

s a t u ra t ion r egion . Wh ile u s in g t ra n s is tor in a m p lifier cir cu it, we a re u s in g
a ct ive region . If t r a n s is t or op era ted in cu t -off a n d s a tu r a t ion r egion in
a m p lifier , clip p in g of wa vefor m s will occu r . Wh en we u s e tr a n s is t or a s a
s wit ch , on ly two r egion s cu t -off a n d s a tu r a t ion a re u s ed . In s a tu r a t ion
r egion t ra n s is t or a cts a s ON s witch . In cu t -off r egion , t ra n s is tor a ct s a s OFF
s wit ch . We a r e u s in g on ly two p oin t s of DC loa d lin e wh ile u s in g t r a n s is t or
a s a s wit ch .
Circ u it diagram :
1K
A Ib
LED
Ib
SW 10K
12V
A Q1 V
Vce
+5V

x Ad ju s t collect or s u p p ly Vcc = +1 2 V a n d b a s e s u p p ly VBB =+5 V
x You m a y u s e b a s e volt a ge s u p p ly s wit ch in s tea d of s wit ch s h own in
th e cir cu it d ia gr a m .
x Mea s u r e b a s e cu r r en t wh en s wit ch is OFF (It will b e zer o). Mea s u re
collect or cu r r en t a n d volt a ge b et ween collector a n d em itter . LE D is off
b eca u s e t ra n s is t or is in cu t-off r egion ,
x Now a p p ly b a s e volta ge +5 V, LE D will b e ON. Mea s u r e collector
cu r r en t a n d collect or -em it ter volta ge. Tr a n s is tor is in s a t u ra t ion
r egion .

:: WORKS HEET ::
Obs e rvat io n s :
[1 ] S wit ch off (VBB =0 ): Ib = _________ VCE = __________ Ic = ________
[2 ] S wit ch ON (VBB =+5 V): Ib = _________ VCE = __________ Ic = ________
Dr a w DC loa d lin e a n d s h ow s a t u ra tion a n d cu t off p oin t s :
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t a r e th e a p p lica t ion s of tr a n s is tor a s a s witch ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t s h ou ld b e r a t io of collect or res is t a n ce t o b a s e r es is ta n ce wh ile

d es ign in g t ra n s is tor s wit ch ? Wh a t is h a r d s a tu r a t ion ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Dr a w ou tp u t wa vefor m wh en followin g wa vefor m is a p p lied a t t h e b a s e

cir cu it .
In p u t wa vefor m a p p lied a t b a s e:
s
s

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 7
AIM: To ob s er ve in p u t -ou tp u t wa vefor m s of com m on em it ter (CE ) a m p lifier .
To m ea s u r e ga in of a m p lifier a t d ifferen t frequ en cies a n d p lot
fr equ en cy res p on s e
Com m on em itter a m p lifier is u s ed t o a m p lify wea k s ign a l. It u tilizes

en er gy fr om DC p ower s u p p ly t o a m p lify in p u t AC s ign a l. Bia s in g of
tr a n s is t or is d on e t o t ie Q p oin t a t t h e m id d le of th e loa d lin e. In t h e cir cu it
s h own , volt a ge d ivid er b ia s is for m ed u s in g r es is t or s 1 0 K a n d 2 .2 K. Du r in g
p os itive cycle, for wa r d b ia s of b a s e-em itt er ju n ction in crea s es a n d b a s e
cu r r en t in crea s es . Q p oin t m oves in u p wa r d d ir ect ion on loa d lin e a n d
collect or cu r ren t in cr ea s es t im es t h a n b a s e cu r r en t . ( is cu r r en t ga in ).
Collect or r es is tor d r op IcRc in cr ea s es d u e t o in cr ea s e in collect or cu r ren t Ic.
Th is will r ed u ce collect or volta ge. Th u s d u r in g p os it ive in p u t cycle, we get
n ega tive ou t p u t cycle. Wh en in p u t is n ega tive cycle, for wa rd b ia s of b a s e-
em it ter ju n ct ion a n d b a s e cu r ren t will red u ce. Collect or cu r r en t red u ces (Q
p oin t m oves d own s id e). Du e t o d ecr ea s e in collect or cu r r en t , collect or
r es is ta n ce volta ge d r op IcRc red u ces a n d collect or volta ge in cr ea s es . Ch a n ge
in collector volt a ge is m u ch h igh er th a n a p p lied b a s e volt a ge b eca u s e les s
b a s e cu r r en t va r ia tion ca u s es la r ge collect or cu r r en t va r ia t ion d u e t o cu r r en t
ga in B . Th is la r ge collector cu r r en t fu r th er m u lt ip lied b y collect or r es is ta n ce
Rc wh ich p r ovid es la r ge volta ge ou t p u t . Th u s CE a m p lifier p r ovid es volta ge
ga in a n d a m p lifies th e in p u t s ign a l. Wit h ou t em it ter r es is t a n ce ga in of
a m p lifier is h igh es t b u t it is n ot s ta b le. E m itt er res is ta n ce is u s ed t o p r ovid e
s t a b ilit y. To com p en s a te effect of em it ter r es is ta n ce em itter b yp a s s ca p a cit or
is u s ed wh ich p r ovid es AC gr ou n d t o th e em it ter . Th is will in cr ea s e ga in of
a m p lifier .
CE a m p lifier d oes n ot p r ovid e con s ta n t volt a ge ga in a t a ll fr equ en cies .

Du e t o em it ter b yp a s s a n d cou p lin g ca p a cit or s r ed u ces ga in of a m p lifier a t
low fr equ en cy. Rea cta n ce of ca p a cit or is h igh a t low fr equ en cy, h en ce
em it ter b yp a s s ca p a citor d oes n ot p r ovid e p er fect AC gr ou n d (E m it t er
im p ed a n ce is h igh ). Th er e is volta ge d rop a cr os s cou p lin g ca p a cit or a t low
fr equ en cy b eca u s e of h igh r ea cta n ce a t low fr equ en cies . Ga in of CE a m p lifier
a ls o red u ces a t ver y h igh frequ en cy b eca u s e of s t ra y ca p a cit a n ces . Au d io
fr equ en cy t ra n s is t or s lik e AC1 2 7 , AC1 2 8 wor k s for a u d io fr equ en cy r a n ge.
It d oes n ot p r ovid e la r ge volta ge ga in for fr equ en cy gr ea ter t h a n 2 0 KHz.
Med iu m fr equ en cy t r a n s is t or s a re BC1 4 7 / BC1 4 8 / BC5 4 7 / BC5 4 8 p r ovid es
volt a ge ga in u p to 5 0 0 KHz. High fr equ en cy tr a n s is t or s lik e
BF1 9 4 / BF5 9 4 / BF2 0 0 p r ovid es ga in a t r a d io frequ en cies in th e MHz r a n ge.

If we a p p ly la r ge s ign a l a t t h e in p u t of CE a m p lifier , t r a n s is t or d r iven
in to s a t u r a t ion r egion d u r in g p os it ive p ea k a n d cu t-off r egion d u r in g
n ega tive p ea k (Q p oin t r ea ch es t o s a tu r a t ion a n d cu t -off p oin t s ). Du e to t h is
clip p in g occu r s in a m p lified s ign a l. S o we h a ve t o a p p ly s m a ll s ign a l a t t h e
in p u t a n d en s u r e th a t tr a n s is t or op era tes in a ct ive region .
Circ u it diagram :
+12V
1K 10uF
Function 22K CRO
Generator
10uF
BC547
100uF
4.7K
100
Ex pe rim e n t al pro c e du re :
x Con n ect fu n ct ion gen er a t or a t t h e in p u t of t h e a m p lifier cir cu it.
x S et in p u t volta ge 1 0 m V a n d frequ en cy 1 0 0 Hz.
x Con n ect CRO a t t h e ou t p u t of t h e a m p lifier cir cu it .
x Ob s er ve a m p lified s ign a l a n d m ea s u r e ou t p u t volta ge
x In cr ea s e frequ en cy fr om t h e fu n ct ion gen era tor a n d r ep ea t a b ove s tep
x Note d own r ea d in gs of ou t p u t volt a ge in th e ob s er va t ion t a b le for

fr equ en cy ra n ge fr om 1 0 0 Hz t o 1 0 MHz
x Ca lcu la te volta ge ga in for d iffer en t fr equ en cies a n d ga in in d B. Plot

fr equ en cy res p on s e.

:: WORKS HEET ::
Draw c irc u it diagram fro m t h e bo ard available in t h e labo rat o ry :
In p u t volta ge: Vi = 1 0 m V
S r. No. Frequ en cy Ou t p u t volt a ge Vo Ga in A = Vo/ Vi Ga in in d B=

a t t h e in p u t 2 0 log1 0 (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Dr a w fr equ en cy res p on s e of CE a m p lifier (you ca n a ls o u s e loga r ith m ic
gr a p h or u s e log s ca le)
Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t will b e em itt er cu r r en t in t h e given cir cu it d ia gr a m in a b s en ce of

in p u t AC s ign a l?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Dr a w DC loa d lin e of CE a m p lifier circu it . S h ow Q p oin t on it.
[3 ] Dr a w ou tp u t wa vefor m wh en followin g wa vefor m is a p p lied a t t h e CE

a m p lifier cir cu it
In p u t wa vefor m a p p lied a t b a s e: (Pea k to p ea k volta ge is 2 V)

[4 ] Wh a t is b a n d wid th ? Wh a t is t h e a p p roxim a te b a n d wid t h of CE a m p lifier
t h a t you h a ve u s ed d u r in g you r p ra ctica l.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[5 ] Wh a t is t h e effect on ga in of a m p lifier if va lu e of Rc in crea s es ?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[6 ] Wh a t a r e th e d ifferen t b ia s in g m et h od s ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[7 ] Wh a t h a p p en s if em itter b yp a s s ca p a cit or is r em oved fr om t h e cir cu it ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 8
AIM: To ob s er ve in p u t -ou t p u t wa vefor m s of com m on collector (CC) a m p lifier .
To m ea s u r e ga in of a m p lifier a t d ifferen t frequ en cies a n d p lot
fr equ en cy res p on s e
Th e com m on collect or (CC) a m p lifier is a ls o k n own a s em it ter follower . It is

u s ed a s a cu r ren t a m p lifier . Volta ge ga in of CC a m p lifier is les s t h a n u n ity
wh ile cu r r en t JDLQLV &&DPSOLILHUKDVKLJKLQSXWLPSHGDQFHDQGORZ
ou t p u t im p ed a n ce. Th er e is n o p h a s e r ever s a l b etween in p u t a n d ou t p u t .
Circ u it diagram :
+12V
10uF
Function 27K CRO
Generator
10uF
SL-100
39K
2.7K
x Mea s u r e E m itter volt a ge in a b s en ce of in p u t AC s ign a l.
x S et in p u t volta ge 1 V a n d fr equ en cy 1 0 0 Hz.
x Ob s er ve ou t p u t s ign a l a n d m ea s u r e ou t p u t volta ge
x Dr a w in p u t a n d ou tp u t s ign a l

:: WORKS HEET ::
Obs e rvat io n s :
DC Volt a ge in a b s en ce of in p u t s ign a l: VE = ______ V
AC In p u t volta ge: Vi = 1 V
In p u t Wa vefor m
Ou t p u t Wa vefor m

Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t will b e em itt er volta ge a n d cu r r en t in t h e given cir cu it d ia gra m in

a b s en ce of in p u t AC s ign a l?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is t h e equ a t ion of cu r r en t ga in in CC a m p lifier ? Wh a t is t h e cu r r en t

ga in of CC a m p lifier u s ed in la b ora t ory?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Ca n we con n ect lou d s p ea k er in s tea d of em it ter res is ta n ce?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 9
AIM: To m ea s u re ga in of two s ta ge RC cou p led a m p lifier
To a ch ieve h igh er ga in , we ca n u s e m u lt i-s ta ge a m p lifier wh ere ou t p u t of

on e a m p lifier is con n ected t o in p u t of n ext a m p lifier . Am p lifier s a re
con n ected in ca s ca d e a r r a n gem en t s o it is a ls o ca lled ca s ca d e a m p lifier .
Ou tp u t of fir s t a m p lifier is con n ected t o in p u t of s econ d a m p lifier b y
cou p lin g d evice lik e cou p lin g ca p a cit or . Dir ect cou p lin g or tr a n s for m er
cou p lin g is a ls o u s ed . Ca p a cit or cou p lin g is u s ed to cou p le AC s ign a l fr om
ou t p u t of fir s t a m p lifier t o in p u t of s econ d a m p lifier . Cou p lin g ca p a cit or d oes
n ot p a s s DC s ign a l s o DC b ia s in g of s econ d s ta ge is n ot a ffected b y fir s t
s t a ge a n d vice-ver s a . In th is p r a ct ica l, we will u s e ca p a cit or cou p lin g wh ich
is a ls o k n own a s t wo s t a ge RC cou p led a m p lifier . Typ ica l cir cu it d ia gra m is
s h own b elow:
+12V +12V
1K 10uF 1K 10uF
Function 22K 22K CRO
Generator
10uF
V2 V3
BC547 BC547
V1
100uF 100uF
4.7K 4.7K
100 100
In t h is cir cu it d ia gra m , ou tp u t of fir s t s ta ge is con n ected t o in p u t of t h e

s econ d s t a ge b y cou p lin g ca p a cit or of 1 0 µF. RC n et wor k is for m ed b y t h is
cou p lin g ca p a citor a n d volt a ge d ivid er b ia s of th e n ext s t a ge. In p u t s ign a l V1
is a m p lified b y fir s t a m p lifier . Am p lified s ign a l fr om fir s t a m p lifier is V2
wh ich is fu r th er a m p lified b y s econ d a m p lifier . Ou t p u t s ign a l fr om t h e
s econ d a m p lifier is V3 . If ga in of a m p lifier 1 is A1 t h en V2 =A1 V1 . If ga in of
a m p lifier 2 is A2 t h en V3 =A2 V2 . Fr om t h is r ela t ion s h ip , V3 =A1 A2 V1 . Th is
th eoret ica l overa ll ga in of ca s ca d e a m p lifier is A = V3 / V1 = A1 A2 . However
p r a ctica lly over a ll ga in is s ligh t ly les s t h a n A1 A2 b eca u s e of loa d in g effect of
s econ d s ta ge on th e fir s t s ta ge. Overa ll b a n d wid t h of a m p lifier will d ecrea s e.

x S et in p u t volta ge V1 =1 m V a n d fr equ en cy 1 0 0 Hz.
x Con n ect CRO a t t h e ou t p u t of t h e fir s t a m p lifier cir cu it a t p oin t V2 .
x Ob s er ve a m p lified s ign a l a n d m ea s u r e ou t p u t volta ge a t V2
x Fin d ou t ga in of fir s t a m p lifier A1 =V2 / V1 .
x Ob s er ve a m p lified s ign a l a t t h e ou tp u t of s econ d a m p lifier a n d

m ea s u re ou t p u t volta ge a t V3
x Fin d ou t ga in of s econ d a m p lifier A2 =V3 / V2 .
x Fin d overa ll ga in of a m p lifier A = V3 / V1 = A1 A2
x In cr ea s e frequ en cy fr om t h e fu n ction gen era tor a n d r ep ea t a b ove s tep s
x Note d own r ea d in gs of ou t p u t volt a ge in th e ob s er va t ion t a b le for

fr equ en cy ra n ge fr om 1 0 0 Hz t o 1 0 MHz
x Ca lcu la te volta ge ga in A1 a n d A2 for d ifferen t frequ en cies a n d ga in in

d B. Plot fr equ en cy res p on s e.
:: WORKS HEET ::

In p u t volta ge: V1 = 1 0 m V
S r. Fr eq. a t Ou t p u t Ou t p u t Ga in Ga in A=A1 A2 A in
No. th e volt a ge volt a ge A1 =V2 / V1 A2 =V3 / V2 dB
in p u t V2 V3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Dr a w fr equ en cy res p on s e of CE a m p lifier (you ca n a ls o u s e loga r ith m ic


Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh a t a r e th e a d va n ta ges of m u lt is ta ge a m p lifier ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t will h a p p en if we in crea s e in p u t volta ge in t wo s ta ge RC cou p led

a m p lifier u s ed in you r p r a ct ica l to 1 0 m V?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[4 ] Wh a t a r e th e d ifferen t cou p lin g m et h od s ? Wh a t is t h e a d va n ta ge a n d

d is a d va n ta ge of d ir ect cou p lin g?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 0
AIM: To ob ta in ch a ra cter is t ics of field effect t ra n s is t or (FE T)
Th e Field E ffect Tr a n s is t or (FE T) is a t h r ee ter m in a l d evice. Th r ee ter m in a ls

a re Dra in (D), S ou r ce (S ) a n d Ga te (G). In FE T, cu r r en t flow is d u e t o on ly
on e t yp e of ch a r ge p a r ticles , eit h er elect r on s or h oles . S o FE T is k n own a s
u n ip ola r d evice. Th e n a m e “field effect” is d er ived fr om th e fa ct th a t t h e
cu r r en t is con t r olled b y a n elect r ic field s et u p in th e d evice b y a n exter n a lly
a p p lied volta ge. Th u s FE T is a volt a ge con t r olled d evice wh ile b ip ola r
tr a n s is t or is cu r r en t con t r olled d evice.
Th e Field E ffect Tr a n s is t or (FE T) ca n b e b r oa d ly cla s s ified in t o followin g

ca tegor ies :
&d
:&d DK^&d
: D &d
E W
&d &d DK^&d DK^&d
E W E W
DK^&d DK^&d DK^&d DK^&d
In th is exp er im en t we will ob t a in ou t p u t ch a r a cter is t ics of N-ch a n n el FE T

u s in g CS ( Com m on s ou r ce) Con figu r a t ion . It is a ls o k n own a s d r a in
ch a ra cter is tics . Ba s ic con s t r u ct ion of N-ch a n n el FE T a n d it s s ym b ol a re
s h own in th e followin g figu r e. Wh en ga te t o s ou r ce volta ge VGS is zer o, N t yp e
ch a n n el is op en s o d r a in cu r r en t will flow t h r ou gh it. As we in cr ea s e
n ega tive volta ge on t h e ga te ter m in a l, VGS =-1 V, -2 V, -3 V et c., d r a in cu r ren t
r ed u ces . Th e r ed u ct ion in d r a in cu r r en t is d u e t o red u ction in wid t h of
ch a n n el. As we in cr ea s e n ega tive ga te volt a ge, wid t h of d ep let ion region
s p r ea d s in t h e ch a n n el. Dep letion r egion (gen era ted field d u e t o r ever s e b ia s )
d oes n ot h a ve ch a r ge ca r r ier s s o wid t h of ch a n n el will r ed u ce. As we
in cr ea s e n ega t ive va lu e of VGS , p en et ra tion of d ep let ion r egion (field ) will b e
m or e a n d m or e d u e t o wh ich ch a n n el b ecom es n a r r ower . At on e p oin t d ra in
cu r r en t red u ces to zer o wh en en t ire ch a n n el will b e clos ed d u e to
p en etr a t ion of d ep let ion r egion . Th e va lu e of VGS a t wh ich d r a in cu r ren t
r ed u ces t o zer o is ca lled cu t -off volta ge VGS (off). Nor m a lly Dr a in cu r ren t

r ed u ces t o zer o a t VGS =-Vp . Th u s VGS (off) = -VP wh er e VP is p in ch -off volt a ge.
Pin ch -off volt a ge VP is t h e va lu e of volt a ge VDS a t wh ich d r a in cu r r en t
b ecom es con s ta n t .
Circ u it diagram :
1K
Id
A
Ig
10K
0-12V
A Q2 V
Vds
0-10V
x Con n ect cir cu it a s s h own in t h e cir cu it d ia gra m for ou t p u t (d r a in )

x Con n ect va r ia b le p ower s u p p ly 0 -1 0 V a t ga te cir cu it a n d 0 -1 2 V a t
d r a in cir cu it .
x Keep ga te t o s ou r ce volt a ge zer o (VGS =0 ).

x In cr ea s e d r a in s u p p ly Vd d fr om 0 V to 1 2 V, n ot e d own r ea d in gs of
d r a in cu r ren t Id a n d d r a in t o s ou r ce volta ge Vd s in t h e ob s er va t ion
ta b le.
x Rep ea t a b ove p r oced u r e for d ifferen t ga te t o s ou r ce volta ges VGS = -1 ,
-2 , -3 , -4 et c. Note d own r ea d in g of Ga te to s ou r ce volta ge a t wh ich
d r a in cu r r en t r em a in s zer o. Th is is cu t -off volt a ge VGS (off).
x Note d own p in ch -off volt a ge for a ll va lu es of VGS .
x Dr a w ou tp u t ch a ra cter is t ics cu r ve. Plot Vd s on X a xis a n d Id on Y
a xis .
:: WORKS HEET ::
Draw c irc u it diagram o f t h e c irc u it available in t h e labo rat o ry :

FE T: __________
S r. No . VGS =0 V VGS = -1 V VGS = -2 V VGS = -4 V
Vds Id Vds Id Vds Id Vds Id

Co n c lu s io n :
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Com p a re b ip ola r ju n ction t r a n s is t or (BJ T) a n d field effect tr a n s is t or

(FE T). Dis cu s s r ela t ive a d va n ta ges a n d d is a d va n ta ges .
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Wh a t is p in ch -off volta ge? Wh a t is t h e r ela t ion s h ip b et ween d r a in cu r ren t

a n d p in ch -off volta ge?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

[3 ] Wh a t is t ra n s -con d u ct a n ce? Defin e tr a n s -con d u cta n ce for FE T. Dr a w
t yp ica l t r a n s con d u cta n ce cu r ve of FET fr om t h e ob s er va t ion s you h a ve
t a k en for ou t p u t ch a r a cter is t ics .
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Tr a n s con d u ct a n ce cu r ve:
[4 ] Fin d n u m b er s of a n y t wo J FE T a n d its s p ecifica t ion s fr om t h e web s ite
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 1
AIM: To m ea s u r e ga in FE T com m on s ou r ce (CS ) a m p lifier
Com m on s ou r ce FE T a m p lifier is u s ed t o a m p lify wea k s ign a l. S m a ll AC

s ign a l is a p p lied a t ga te ter m in a l via cou p lin g ca p a cit or . Ga te r es is ta n ce
p r ovid es s elf b ia s . In p u t AC s ign a l p r ovid es va r ia t ion s in Ga te t o s ou rce
volt a ge VGS . Beca u s e of ch a n ge in VGS , d r a in cu r r en t Id a ls o ch a n ges . If we
a p p ly s in u s oid a l in p u t s ign a l, s in u s oid a l va r ia t ion in d r a in cu r r en t p r od u ces
s in u s oid a l ou t p u t a t d ra in t er m in a l. Du r in g p os itive in p u t s ign a l, VGS
in cr ea s es wh ich will ca u s e in cr ea s e in d r a in cu r r en t . Dr a in volta ge
d ecrea s es d u e t o d r op a cr os s d r a in res is t a n ce in crea s es . Th u s we get 1 8 0 0
p h a s e s h ift b et ween in p u t a n d a m p lified ou t p u t s ign a l.
Ou tp u t volt a ge fr om FE T a m p lifier ca n b e given a s :
Vou t = -g m Vgs R D
Wh ere, gm = t r a n s con d u cta n ce of FE T
R D = Dr a in res is ta n ce
Vgs = Va r ia t ion in ga t e t o s ou r ce volta ge d u e to in p u t s ign a l
Min u s s ign in th e equ a tion in d ica tes , 1 8 0 0 p h a s e s h ift . Ga in of a m p lifier is

r a t io of ou t p u t volta ge to in p u t volta ge.
Vout
A g m RD
Vgs
Beca u s e of t h e n on -lin ea r t ra n s con d u ct a n ce cu r ve of FE T, CS

a m p lifier d is tor t s la r ge s ign a ls . It ca n a m p lify s m a ll s ign a l with ou t
in tr od u cin g n on -lin ea r it y in t o it . For la r ge s ign a l, it in t r od u ces n on -lin ea r it y
ca lled s qu a r e la w d is t or t ion . Th is is d u e t o p a r a b olic tr a n s con d u cta n ce
cu r ve of FE T. S wa m p in g r es is t or ca n b e u s ed wit h s ou r ce ter m in a l t o
p r ovid e loca l feed b a ck . Th is will s wa m p ou t n on -lin ea r ity of t h e
tr a n s con d u cta n ce cu r ve.
Differen t t yp es of b ia s in g tech n iqu es a re u s ed for CS a m p lifier . Ga te

b ia s is s im ila r t o b a s e b ia s in BJ T, s elf b ia s , volta ge d ivid er b ia s , cu r r en t -
s ou r ce b ia s et c. Cir cu it d ia gr a m of CS a m p lifier wit h s elf b ia s is s h own h ere.

Circ u it diagram :
+12V
4.7K 1uF
Function CRO
Generator
1uF
100uF
100K
270
x S et in p u t volta ge 1 0 0 m V a n d fr equ en cy 1 0 0 Hz.
x Ob s er ve ou t p u t s ign a l a n d m ea s u r e ou t p u t volta ge
x In cr ea s e fr equ en cy of t h e in p u t s ign a l a n d r ep ea t a b ove s tep s for

d ifferen t fr equ en cies
:: WORKS HEET ::

In p u t volta ge: Vi = 1 0 0 m V
S r. No. Frequ en cy Ou t p u t volt a ge Vo Ga in A = Vo/ Vi Ga in in d B=
a t t h e in p u t 2 0 log1 0 (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Dr a w fr equ en cy r es p on s e of CS a m p lifier (you ca n a ls o u s e loga r ith m ic


Co n c lu s io n :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Qu e s t io n s :
[1 ] Wh y ga te b ia s is n ot p r efer red for FET a m p lifier ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[2 ] Fr om t h e d a ta s h eet of FE T 2 N5 9 5 1 IDS S =1 0 m A a n d VGS=-3 .5 V.

Ca lcu la te t h e d r a in cu r r en t of FE T for VGS =-1 V, -2 V a n d -3 V ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
[3 ] Ca n we u s e FE T a s elect r on ic s wit ch ? If yes h ow?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 2
AIM: To tes t in d ivid u a l cir cu it p r ep a r ed b y t h e s tu d en t
Nam e o f t h e c irc u it :
Circ u it diagram :
Lis t o f c o m po n e n t u s e d:
To t al c o s t o f c o m po n e n t :
Qu alit y o f s o lde rin g:
(Rem a r k s b y t h e fa cu lt y)

Te s t in g pro c e du re :
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Re s u lt s :
(Res u lt s d ep en d s on cir cu it d ia gra m , p r ep a re ob s er va tion t a b le, d ra w

wa vefor m s a s p er you r cir cu it d ia gr a m , a t t a ch m or e p a ges if n eed ed )

Basic Electronics Best Lab Manual PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Electronics Best Lab Manual PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BAS IC ELECTRONICS

Go v e rn m e n t En gin e e rin g Co lle ge , Rajk o t

_____________________________________________ En rollm en t No.

______________ of B.E . (E .C.) S E M-III h a s s a t is fa ct orily com p leted

th e te rm wor k of t h e s u b ject BASIC ELECTRONICS p res cr ib ed

b y Gu ja r a t Tech n ologica l Un iver s it y d u r in g th e a ca d em ic term

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

2. To ob t a in V-I ch a r a ct er is t ics of PN ju n ction d iod e

7. To ob s er ve wa veform a t t h e ou tp u t of h a lf wa ve r ect ifier with

x Write readings in the observation table

x Draw waveforms in the given space

Suggest list of circuits that student will build individually

x DC power supply using IC 7805, 7812 or LM 317

x Automatic street light switch

x Siren using LM-555 timer

x Automatic water tank overflow alarm

x Automatic Emergency light

x Sinusoidal waveform generator

x Overvoltage under-voltage protection switch

x Simple intercom circuit

x DTMF Encoder/decoder circuit

x Telephone ring generator circuit

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

C.R.O. (Ca t h od e Ra y Os cillos cop e) is t h e in s tr u m en t wh ich is u s ed to

La tes t d igita l s t or a ge os cillos cop e d is p la y volt a ge a n d frequ en cy d ir ect ly on

1 . Con n ect fu n ct ion gen er a t or ou tp u t a t th e in p u t of C.R.O. a t ch a n n el 1

Fun c t io n Ve rt ic al Vo lt / div Am plit u de Ho riz o n t Tim e / d Tim e Fre q.

Draw o bs e rve d wave fo rm s :

S in e wa ve: (Am p litu d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

Tr ia n gu la r wa ve: (Am p litu d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )

Ra m p : ((Am p lit u d e : ________ Fr equ en cy: _____________ )

[2 ] Wh a t is th e h igh es t fr equ en cy t h a t ca n b e m ea s u r ed b y C.R.O. a va ila b le

[3 ] Wh a t is h igh es t volt a ge th a t ca n b e m ea s u red b y C.R.O. a va ila b le in you r

[4 ] Wh a t you will d o t o m ea s u re volta ge wh ich is grea ter t h a n volt a ge lim it of

[5 ] Wh y AC/ DC in p u t cou p lin g p u s h -b u t t on s wit ch is given ?

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

[7 ] Wh a t t yp e of d eflect ion m ech a n is m u s ed in C.R.O. to d eflect elect r on

[8 ] How to t es t wh eth er C.R.O. p r ob e is in wor k in g con d it ion or n ot ?

Th e s em icon d u ctor d iod e is for m ed b y d op in g P-t yp e im p u r it y in on e s id e

At t h e ju n ction in it ia lly free ch a r ge ca r r ier s fr om b oth s id e r ecom b in e

Wh en volta ge is n ot a p p lied a cr os s th e d iod e, d ep let ion r egion for m s a s

[1 ] For wa r d -Bia s Con d it ion : Wh en th e +Ve ter m in a l of t h e b a t ter y is

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

x Con n ect t h e p ower s u p p ly, volt m eter , cu r r en t m eter wit h th e d iod e a s

Circ u it diagram (fo rward bias )

S r. No . S u pply v o lt age Dio de v o lt age Dio de c u rre n t

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

S r. No . S u pply v o lt age Dio de v o lt age Dio de c u rre n t

Dr a w V-I ch a ra cter is tics of PN ju n ct ion d iod e:

[1 ] Lis t im p or t a n t s p ecifica t ion s of th e d iod e

[2 ] Wh a t is b rea k d own volt a ge? Wh a t is t h e b r ea k d own volt a ge of d iod e

[3 ] Wh a t is t h e h igh es t for wa r d cu r r en t in th e d iod e 1 N4 0 0 7 a n d 1 N5 0 0 2 ?

[4 ] Lis t d ifferen t t yp es of th e d iod e

[5 ] Lis t a p p lica t ion s of t h e d iod e?

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

[6 ] How t o ch eck d iod e wit h h elp of m u lt im eter ?

Th e Zen er d iod e is d es ign ed t o op er a te in r ever s e b r ea k d own r egion .

Circ u it diagram (re v e rs e bias )

  WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

S r. No . S u pply v o lt age Dio de v o lt age Dio de c u rre n t

S r. No . S u pply v o lt age Dio de v o lt age Dio de c u rre n t

Draw V-I c h arac t e ris t ic s o f Ze n e r dio de :

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

S in e wa ve: (Am p litu d e : Fr equ en cy: _____ )

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

Tr ia n gu la r wa ve: (Am p litu d e : Fr equ en cy: _____ )

Ra m p : ((Am p lit u d e : Fr equ en cy: _____ )

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

Circ u it diagram (fo rward bias )

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

Circ u it diagram (re v e rs e bias )

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd

WZdDEd 'KsZEDEdE'/EZ/E'K>>' Z:<Kd