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Performance characteristics of a shake flashlight

Conference Paper · May 2017

DOI: 10.1109/IEMDC.2017.8002088

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 Performance Characteristics of a Shake Flashlight

Jacek F. Gieras1 Life Fellow, IEEE, Adrian Kucharski1, Jozef Piechowski 1

1
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology and Life Sciences, Bydgoszcz, Poland,
e-mail: jacek.gieras@utp.edu.pl

Abstract—The paper deals with an analysis and experimental

tests on a shake flashlight. A shake flashlight has a built-in linear
moving-magnet generator with stationary coil. Analytical
equations for the induced EMF, current, voltage, electromagnetic
force and power have been derived. A special shaker for
experimental tests have been designed and fabricated. The
results of laboratory tests have been compared with analytical
calculations. The output electric power, in comparison with other
energy harvesting devices, is high; in the investigated shake
flashlight from 10 mW do 170 mW. A NiMH battery that is
charged by shaking the flashlight allows for lighting the LED
from several seconds to a few minutes.
Keywords— energy harvesting; electromagnetic devices; linear
generator; moving-magnet generator; flashlight, analysis;
laboratory tests
II. CONSTRUCTION OF SHAKE FLASHLIGHT
The commercial waterproof shake flashlight and its parts
are shown in Fig. 1 [13]. A moving PM induces EMF in a
round coil embracing the PM. The coil is inside a hollow clear
plastic tube. There are fixed rubber bumpers at each side of
the tube. Sometimes, these bumpers are replaced by repulsor
PMs [10]. When one shakes the flashlight, the PM goes back
and forth through the coil generating electrical energy. The
current is then rectified and the DC power is stored in a NiMH
rechargeable battery.

I. INTRODUCTION
Kinetic energy harvesting devices can be divided into two
groups:
• acceleration/vibration and spring mass system devices,
e.g., kinetic watches (Asulab [1], Seiko [2]), cantilever
beam vibration generators, moving-magnet linear
generators, etc.;
• repeated straining physical deformation devices, e.g.,
piezoelectric generators or magnetic shape memory
generators.
The shake flashlight is a moving-magnet linear generator.
A permanent magnet (PM) passes back and forth through a coil
and induces an EMF in it. An electrical current is then stored
in a capacitor or rechargeable battery. Shake flashlights belong
to the group of acceleration/vibration energy harvesting
devices.
Although there is a lot of commercial information on shake
flashlights, technical papers dealing with the analysis and
laboratory tests on built-in linear PM generators are scarce [3-
5]. Analytical approach is given in [4], while experimental tests
on linear PM generators for shake flashlights with some
Fig. 1. Investigated shake flashlight with rechargeable battery: (a)
guidelines how to build them are discussed in [5]. flashlight; (b) flashlight without housing. 1 – coil, 2 – PM, 3 – PCB (switch
Several patents on linear PM generators and their side), 4 – NiMH battery, 5 – PCB (battery side), 6 – switch, 7 – compartment
for LED and lenses.
applications to shake flashlights have been granted between
1998 and 2010, e.g., [6-11]. Shake flashlights operate on the
same principle as free-piston generators [12], i.e., a moving The investigated shake flashlight uses 3.6 V NiMH
magnet induces EMF in a multi turn ring-shaped stationary rechargeable battery with the capacity of 80mAh.
coil. The generated AC electrical energy is rectified and stored Specifications of the flashlight are given in Table I.
in a capacitor or rechargeable battery.

978-1-5090-4281-4/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

 TABLE I. SPECIFICATIONS OF INVESTIGATED SHAKE FLASHLIGHT

Specification Value
hc = 28 mm; din = 18 mm; dout =
Dimensions of coil
26 mm; dmean = 22 mm
Number of turns of coil N = 3000
Diameter of bare conductor 0.1 mm
Coil resistance at room temperature Rc = 463 Ω
Coil inductance Lc = 0.85 mH
Dimensions of cylindrical PM hM = 23 mm; dM = 15 mm
PM material sintered NdFeB
Mass of PM m = 30 g
H = 100 mm Din = 15 mm Dout =
Dimensions of plastic tube
18 mm
Length of tube available for PM HM = 83 mm
Available path for PM HM – hM = 83 – 23 = 60 mm

The cylindrical PM is magnetized axially. The magnetic

flux lines in the longitudinal section of the flashlight as
obtained from the 2D FEM are plotted in Fig. 2.
The distribution of the magnetic flux density excited by
the PM in the longitudinal section of the flashlight as obtained Fig. 3. Magnetic flux density distribution in the vicinity of the PM as obtained
from the 2D FEM is shown in Fig. 3. The magnetic flux from the 2D FEM. 1 – coil, 2 – PM, 3 – plastic tube (guiderail for PM).
density in the coil is low, from 0.1 to 0.4 T, dependent on
III. ANALYTICAL APPROACH
position of the PM related to the coil. Low magnetic flux
density is due to lack of an external mild steel magnetic According to right-hand rule (E = B l v), the peak and rms
circuit. EMFs are, respectively
E m = Bm lmean Nv (1)
1
E= Bm l mean N v (2)
σf
where Bm is the peak magnetic flux density, lmean is the
mean length of turn, N is the number of turns of the coil, v =
dx/dt is the linear speed, and σf is the form factor (mean-to-
peak EMF). For sinusoidal EMF σf = √2. Since the
electromagnetic power Pe = EI = Fev , the electromagnetic
braking force acting on the moving PM is

1
Fe = NBm l mean I = De v (3)
σf
where De is the electromagnetic damping coefficient due to
retardation of the PM by the coil-induced current. For the
tested shake flashlight with N = 3000 and current I = 0.03 A,
Fig. 2. Magnetic flux lines in the vicinity of the PM as obtained from the 2D the electromagnetic force is very small and equal to Fe = 0.43
FEM. 1 – coil, 2 – PM. Only half of the linear PM generator has been shown. N. For the current I = 0.015 A the force drops to Fe = 0.3 N.
Using a full bridge (fully controlled) single-phase rectifier, the
An axially magnetized single PM is not an optimum no-load DC voltage is
solution. A better solution would be radial magnetization of 2Em 2
the PM with minimum two poles as, for example, in a tubular Vdc = = NBm l mean v = 4 N f Bm l mean X m (4)
linear synchronous motor. To increase the linkage flux with π π
the coil, some external mild-steel magnetic circuit, e.g., in In eqn (4) v = 2π Xm, where Xm is the magnitude of
form of a cage construction around the coil [5] can be added. oscillations of the PM. The resistance of the coil is Rc. For the
resistive load RL the DC current under load is
 Vdc 4
I= = N f Bm lmean X m (5)
Rc + R L Rc + R L
The voltage across the load resistance RL and active power
absorbed by the load are, respectively

V = IR L ; PL = I 2 RL (6)
Assuming that the mechanical compliance K → ∞, the
force balance equation can be written as

d 2x dx
m 2
+ ( Dm + De ) = Fext (7)
dt dt
where m is the mass of the PM, x is the axial coordinate in
direction of the PM movement, Dm is the mechanical damping
(friction between PM and plastic tube), De = Fe/v is the
electromagnetic damping (reaction of coil-induced current on Fig. 4. Shaker and laboratory set up: (a) front view; (b) top view; (c)
the magnetic field of the PM), Fe is according to eqn (3) and laboratory set up. 1 – base, 2 – electric motor with transmission, 3 -
transformer, 4 – rectifier with radiator, 5 – disk driven by the motor, 6 –
Fext is the external force (human motion force). horizontally oscillating table, 8 – side support, 8 – bearings of table, 9 - clamps
for mounting the shake flashlight, 10 – linear generator of flashlight, 11 -
junction with crank shaft, 12 – crank shaft, 13 – PCB electronic components
IV. SHAKER and load resistances.

In order to perform experimental tests, a shaker with
horizontally oscillating table has been designed. The table is
driven with a DC electric motor via step-down gear and crank
shaft.
The frequency of PM oscillation of the shake flashlight
depends on the frequency of oscillation of the horizontal table
and can be controlled by the input voltage supplied to the
electric motor. The shaker is shown in Fig. 4. The minimum
frequency of oscillation at which the PM induces EMF at no
load is approximately f = 2.4 Hz

V. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS AND THEIR COMPARISON WITH

CALCULATIONS

A. No-load test
The objective of this experiment is to obtain no-load
characteristics as functions of the frequency f of oscillations.

Fig. 5. No-load test: (a) flashlight PM linear generator connected to

oscilloscope and voltmeter; (b) frequency fout of the generator output voltage
versus frequency f of the shaker.

The linear generator of the flashlight is not loaded, i.e., the
load impedance ZL → ∞). Only digital voltmeter and
oscilloscope are connected to the output terminals of the linear
generator. The amplitude of oscillations Xm = 30 mm.
Fig. 6. No-load voltage (EMF) versus frequency f of the shaker: (a) peak EMF;
(b) rms EMF. Comparison of experiments with calculations.
No-load characteristics are plotted in Figs 5, 6 and 7. The
frequency fout of generated voltage is higher than the frequency
f of oscillation of the shaker (Fig. 5b). The waveform of
generated voltage is nonsinusoidal. As the frequency increases,
the voltage waveform becomes closer to sinusoid (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Output waveforms of no-load instantaneous voltage as functions of
time for: (a) f = 2.42 Hz (100 ms/division, 1.0 V/division ); (b) 4.37 Hz (50
ms/division, 5.0 V/division); (c) 6.22 Hz (50 ms/division, 10.0 V/division) and
(d) 8.43 Hz (10 ms/division, 10.0 V/division).
B. Load test
The connection diagram for the load test is shown in Fig. 8.
The AC output voltage of the PM linear generator is rectified
by a full-wave bridge rectifier. The following load resistances
RL have been used: 243.0 Ω, 489.0 Ω, 905.0 Ω, 2.92 kΩ. The
frequency of oscillations of the shaker is variable while the
magnitude of oscillations is Xm = 30 mm and kept constant.
Calculations have been done on the basis of eqns (1) to (6).
Fig. 8. Connection diagram for load test.
Fig. 9. Comparison of voltages and current under load obtained from
experimental tests and calculations: (a) DC voltage and generator rms voltage
versus frequency f of the shaker; (b) DC current and rms current versus
frequency f of the shaker. The load resistance is RL = 243 Ω.
Fig.9 shows the DC voltage, generator rms voltage, DC
current and rms current versus frequency f of the shaker under
resistive load RL = 243 Ω obtained from experimental tests and
calculations. Fig. 10a shows the DC power and generator
active power versus frequency f of the shaker at RL = 243 Ω
obtained from experimental tests and calculations. Fig. 10b
shows generator output active power versus generator output
frequency fout at RL = const. Fig. 11 shows waveforms of the
generator output voltage V(fout) and rectified voltage Vdc(fout)
under load RL = 489 Ω and constant frequency of the shaker f =
const.
Fig. 9 indicates that the minimum shaker frequency under
load at which the voltage and current can be measurable is
approximately f = 3.0 Hz (2.4 Hz at no load). The minimum
output rms voltage of the PM generator at this frequency is
about 2.0 V (Fig. 9a).

Fig. 10. Generator output power: (a) DC power and generator active power
versus frequency of the shaker f at RL = 243 Ω; (b) measured generator output
active power versus generator output frequency fout at RL = const.
Fig. 11. Voltage waveforms under load (50.0 ms/division, 5.0 V/division):
(a) generator output voltage V(fout) at RL = 489 Ω, f = 3.4 Hz; ( b) generator
output voltage at RL = 489 Ω, f = 8.55 Hz; (c) rectified voltage without parallel
capacitor; (d) rectified voltage with parallel capacitor 100 μF.
The difference between calculations and tests results is
amongst others due to distorted generator output voltages and
currents. In calculations, the form factor σf = √2, i.e. as for
sinusoidal voltages and currents. The output voltages of the
PM generator are asymmetrical with regard to the time axis.
Rectified voltage (Fig. 11c) in the circuit without parallel
capacitor has the form of a series of five-pulse groups. Each
five pulses have different magnitudes. Some pulses are as high
as 28 V (Fig. 11c). A parallel capacitor improves the quality of
the rectifier output voltage, but there are still pulsations of
about 6 V (Fig. 11d).
The threshold voltage is 3.6 V as for the most of portable
electronic devices. As the load resistance increases, the
threshold voltage becomes lower. As the frequency f of
vibration increases, the current, voltage and output power of
the PM generator increase too. There is almost linear increase
in the voltage, current (Fig. 9) and output power (Fig. 10a),
while the output power at the load resistance RL = const is
approximately proportional to the output frequency square of
the PM generator (Fig. 10b). For the load resistance RL = 243
Ω the frequency of the generated waveforms decreases in
comparison with no-load operation, because the relatively high
current in the coil produces electromagnetic braking force,
which retards the PM.
VI. OPERATION WITH RECHARGEABLE BATTERY
The investigated commercial flashlight generator charges a
NiMH battery. The nominal voltage of the tested rechargeable
batteries is 3.6 V and capacity 80 mAh or 40 mAh. The circuit
diagram for tests is shown in Fig. 12. It is similar to the circuit
built-in in the flashlight, but allows for performing variety of
tests and it is mounted on a separate external PCB. Switches S1
and S2 are used for connection of the capacitor C, rechargeable
battery B or both. Capacitor C can also be used for stabilization
of the DC voltage. Switches S3 and S4 are used for changing
the load: either LEDs or load resistance RL. The output AC
voltage of linear PM generator is rectified by a 4-diode full-
wave bridge rectifier.
Fig. 12. Circuit diagram for testing the flashlight PM generator operated
with a NiMH battery.
Fig. 13. Output voltage for 80 mAh battery charged with frequency f =5.83
Hz: (a) AC voltage of PM linear generator (50 ms/division, 2.0 V/division); (b)
rectified DC voltage (50 ms/division, 500 mV/division).
Fig. 14. Output voltage for 80 mAh battery charged with frequency f = 8.75
Hz: (a) AC voltage of PM generator (50 ms/division, 2.0 V/division); (b)
rectified DC voltage (50 ms/division, 1.0 V/division).
 When the battery is charged, the output voltage of the PM
generator is closer to sinusoidal waveform than with a resistive
load (compare Fig. 11a,b, Fig. 13 a and Fig. 14a). Asymmetry
between positive and negative portion of waveforms is smaller
than under resistive load, but there are still interferences. After
rectification, voltage ripple is also much smaller, maximum 1.0
V.
Fig. 15. Battery terminal voltages versus time of charging.
Fig. 16 Battery current versus time of charging.
Fig. 16 Power absorbed by batteries versus time of charging.
Fig. 15 shows the DC voltage at the battery terminals
versus time at constant frequency of the shaker f = const. At the
first instant of charging, the initial voltage is between 2.0 to 3.0
V. The higher the frequency f, the higher the initial voltage.
After approximately 2 min, the voltage takes a steady value,
approximately 4.0 V. The steady value of the voltage slightly
increases with the frequency f and also depends on the capacity
of the battery. The lower the capacity of the battery (mAh), the
lower the DC voltage.
Also, after approximately 2 min of charging, the current
becomes practically steady (Fig. 16). The higher the frequency
of oscillations of the shaker, the higher the current.
The power absorbed by the 80 mAh NiMH battery reaches
80 mW at f = 5.92 Hz and drops to 30 mW at f = 4.18 Hz (Fig.
16).
Fig. 17 Charging and fast discharging of 80 mAh battery: (a) charging at f
=4.18Hz (50 s, 1 V) ; (b) fast discharging (1 V, 50 s)
Fig. 18 Charging and discharging of 80 mAh battery: (a) charging at f =
5.92 Hz (50 s/division, 1.0 V/division) ; (b) discharging through load
resistance 243 Ω (25 s/division, 500 mV/division).
Fig. 19 Charging and discharging of 40 mAh battery: (a) charging at f =
5,07 Hz (50 s/division, 1.0 V/division) ; (b) discharging through load
resistance 243 Ω (25 s/division, 1.0/division).
The nominal voltage of the NiMH batteries is 3.6 V, but
they are charged to 4.0 V. The time of charging of the battery
depends on the value of the DC voltage. As the frequency f of
vibration increases, both the AC and DC voltage increases too.
Fast discharging of batteries (Fig. 17b), although good for
laboratory experiments, shortens the lifetime of batteries. In
Fig. 17b the time of fast discharge of the 80 mAh battery is
about 1.0 min, while the initial current is about 36.0 mA
(recommended current is from 8.0 to 16.0 mA). The voltage
ripple during charging decreases as the frequency of vibration f
increases (Fig. 17a and Fig. 18a). The shape of the generated
voltage also looks better. When the battery is discharged via
243 Ω resistor (Fig. 18b and Fig. 19b) the discharge current is
about 14 mA and the time to full discharge is from 10 to 15
min. Charging current at 5.92 Hz (Fig. 18a) is at the level of
18.4 mA and power about 80 mW.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A shake flashlight is an energy harvesting device
converting vibrational energy of human muscles into electrical
energy with the aid of a PM linear generator. The frequency of
input mechanical oscillations is low, typically from 2 to 8 Hz.
The amplitude of input oscillations must be minimum 20 mm
up to 100 mm. The output voltage of the PM linear generator in
comparison with other energy harvesting devices is high, in the
range from 1 to 5 V. The output AC voltage is nonsinusoidal.
As the frequency of oscillations increases, the voltage
waveform at no load becomes closer to sinusoidal waveform.
The output electric power, in comparison with other energy
harvesting devices, is high: in the investigated shake flashlight
from 10 mW to 170 mW at the load resistance RL ≅ 1 kΩ. If the
shake flashlight is equipped with a rechargeable battery, no
parallel capacitor for voltage stabilization is necessary.
The magnetic circuit of the PM linear generator needs
optimization. Axial magnetization of the PM is not
recommended. Much better is radial magnetization to obtain
minimum two radial poles. The more the radial poles, the
better performance. On the other hand, the number of radial
poles greater than 4 extends the length of the PM linear
generator and consequently the length of the flashlight. An
external mild-steel tubular magnetic circuit around the coil is
also recommended. This will significantly increase the
magnetic flux linked with the coil and the magnetic flux
density radial component.
From teaching point of view, the shake flashlight is an
excellent and easy to implement example how the mechanical
energy can be converted into electrical energy [3,14-16].
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