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PII: S0260-8774(15)00043-6
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.02.002
Reference: JFOE 8059
Please cite this article as: Dapčević Hadnađev, T., Hadnađev, M., Pojić, M., Rakita, S., Krstonošić, V., Functionality
of OSA starch stabilized emulsions as fat replacers in cookies, Journal of Food Engineering (2015), doi: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.02.002
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Functionality of OSA starch stabilized emulsions as fat replacers in cookies
Veljko Krstonošićb
a
University of Novi Sad, Institute of Food Technology, Bul. cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad,
Serbia
b
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacy, Hajduk Veljkova 3,
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop novel semi-plastic shortenings based on starch sodium
The effects of incorporation of structured oil (in the form of 50 and 70% oil-in-water
emulsions) instead of unstructured oil (50 and 70%) or traditional shortening (100%
vegetable fat) in cookie formulation were determined by measuring the rheological properties
of cookie dough, textural properties of cookie (break strength), spread, colour, moisture and
sensory attributes.
It was determined that vegetable fat replacement with emulsions and unstructured oil affected
the decrease in dough elastic modulus and increase in cookie firmness. Cookies containing oil
in the form of emulsion expressed higher dough strength and lower cookie spread in
comparison to those containing unstructured oil. Although all the cookies were sensory
characteristics.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 21 485 3811; +381 62520778(M. Hadnađev).
E-mail addresses: tamara.dapcevic@fins.uns.ac.rs (T. Dapčević Hadnađev), miroslav.hadnadjev@fins.uns.ac.rs (M. Hadnađev),
milica.pojic@fins.uns.ac.rs (M. Pojić), sladjana.rakita@fins.uns.ac.rs (S. Rakita), veljkokrst@yahoo.co.uk (V. Krstonošić)
Keywords: cookie, emulsion, oil structuring, OSA starch, rheology, texture
1 Introduction
The increasing demands for functional food products that address specific health benefits
have been stimulated by modern consumers being more and more aware of the relationship
between the diet and their health status (Palzer, 2009). These dietary concerns are mostly
associated with the reduced intake of fat and sugar due to the risk of obesity, diabetes, cancer,
high blood cholesterol and coronary heart diseases (Sudha et al., 2007; Palzer, 2009; Zoulias
et al., 2000). Therefore, the formulation of low-fat products has become a high priority for
the different branches of food industry (Lucca and Tepper, 1994). The development of
products with reduced fat content is a special challenge considering the functionality of fat in
foodstuffs affecting desirable appearance, flavour, aroma, texture and mouthfeel (Lucca and
The "cookie" as it is known in the USA, or the "biscuit" as it is known in the UK is a small
product usually of flat shape baked to a moisture content of less than 5% comprising three
major ingredients: flour, fat and sugar (Manley, 2001; Pareyt and Delcour, 2008). Fats
traditionally used in the production of cookies are in solid or semi solid form – predominantly
dough, which implies a high content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (Baltsavias et al., 1999).
Since the consumption of sweet foods starts pretty early and is more prevalent among young
population and children it is justified to find alternative cookie formulations as one way of an
intervention strategy for prevention of obesity and other health disorders especially in
children (Foltz et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2010). Therefore, food technologists and scientist
have made great efforts to produce cookies with reduced fat and/or sugar levels (Drewnowski
of fat mimetics (protein- and carbohydrate-based) to partially or fully replace fat phase
(Laguna et al., 2014; Zoulias et al., 2002), substitution of hydrogenated or saturated fats with
vegetable oils in order to improve the quality of the fat employed (Tarancón et al., 2014) or
The aim of this paper was to investigate the effect of substituting 100% of vegetable fat with
reduced fat formulations composed of unstructured vegetable oil or with vegetable oil
structured in the form of emulsions. Emulsions proposed as fat replacers in this study were
starch sodium octenyl succinate (OSA starch) stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Therefore,
both effects of fat reduction and fat structuration on dough rheological properties, as well as
2.1 Materials
Wheat flour (moisture 11.1%, protein 9.7%, ash 0.45% db, Farinograph parameters: water
absorption 56.5%, development time 2.0 min, stability 11.5 min, softening degree 51 BU)
was procured from milling company Slap - Tamnavac (Ub, Serbia). Sodium bicarbonate
(≥99.5%, p.a) was purchased from Carl Roth (Karlsruhe, Germany), vegetable fat-shortening
(refined palm and sunflower oil, 34-36 °C melting point range) was obtained from Puratos
12688, was procured by Cargill (France). The modification process involved esterification of
waxy maize starch by octenyl succinic anhydride and physical modification by drum drying.
Starch sodium octenyl succinate contained <3 % octenyl succinyl groups, which made it food
grade starch (Kettlitz et al., 2005). Anhydrous dextrose was also provided by Cargill,
(France), while cold-pressed sunflower oil, salt, granulated sugar and skimmed milk powder
2.2 Methods
The emulsification was performed in a water bath at 25°C, using disperser Ultraturrax T-25
(IKA® Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Staufen, Germany). Oil in water emulsions were prepared
by slowly adding cold pressed sunflower oil (50% and 70%) into water containing previously
dissolved 2% of OSA starch calculated on emulsion mass (Table 1) under continuous mixing
Five cookie dough formulations having different fat phases (Table 1) were prepared. The
dough was made in a planetary mixer (Conti s.r.l., Italy), according to formulations listed in
Table 2, to obtain the same moisture content of all doughs (18%). After the homogenization,
dough was sheeted to a thickness of 4 mm using a pilot scale dough sheeter (Mignon, Italy)
and shaped using a circular cutter (d = 49 mm). Cookies were baked at 170 °C for 12 min in a
convection oven (MIWE gusto® CS, Germany). After baking, the cookies were cooled for 2
Rheological behaviour of tested samples was determined using a HAAKE Mars rheometer
(Thermo Scientific, Karlsruhe, Germany). The rheometer was equipped with a 35-mm
parallel plate measuring geometry. The plates were serrated in order to prevent the sample
slippage. The materials being tested were placed on the lower plate, and the upper plate was
lowered until the measuring gap was reached (2.5 mm for cookie dough and 1 mm for
emulsions). The excess of the material was trimmed and the edges were sealed with a paraffin
oil (for dough samples) to prevent the dough from drying during measurements. The sample
was left to rest for 10 min before measurements, to allow the relaxation of residual stresses.
Frequency sweeps tests were carried out from 0.1 to 10 Hz, under a 10-Pa strain level for
cookie dough samples and 1 Pa for emulsions, which were within a linear viscoelastic region
of all samples. The data of frequency sweeps were plotted as G'(f) and G"(f) in double
logarithmic diagram and experimental data of G' or G" versus f were fitted using the
following equations:
where G' and G" are storage (elastic) and loss (viscous) modulus; K' and K" are coefficients
which represent the storage and loss modulus at 1 Hz, respectively (Peressini et al., 2000); n'
and n" are the coefficients which represent the slope of the curve in a log–log plot of G' and
energy stored in the material and recovered from it per cycle of sinusoidal deformation (G'),
Steady shear measurements of fat phases were performed in the range of shear rate 0–100 1/s.
Shear rate was linearly increased for 2 min, then held on maximum shear rate for 1 min, and
afterwards linearly decreased for 2 min. Values of apparent viscosities, recorded at ascending
A MB45 Moisture Analyzer (Ohaus, USA) was used to determine moisture content of
cookies. Samples were grinded in a laboratory mill Foss Knifetec 1095 (FOSS, Hillerød,
The mean cookie diameter and thickness were determined using a digital caliper. The longest
and the shortest cookie diameters were measured and consequently the values of mean cookie
diameters (D) were calculated. The thickness (T) was measured as cookie height, i.e. length
between the top and the bottom of the cookie. Spread ratio parameter (D/T) was calculated as
the ratio between the mean cookie diameter and the mean thickness values (Jacob and
Cookies' upper surfaces colour was measured in triplicates 24 h after baking using a Minolta
Chroma Meter CR-400 (Sensing Inc., Japan) colorimeter (8 mmØ contact area). The
instrument was calibrated using a standard light white reference tile and the measurements
were performed under standard illuminant D65. The obtained results were expressed
respectively).
Cookie hardness i.e. break strength was measured by a TA.XTPlus Texture analyzer (Stable
Micro Systems, UK) using a 3-Point Bending Rig (HDP/3PB) and 50 kg load cell in a
compression mode at 2.5 mm/s pre-test speed, 2 mm/s test speed and 10 mm/s post-test speed
and a gap distance of the base plate of 55 mm. Textural analyses were conducted 24 h, 72 h
(3 days) and 120 h (5 days) after baking at 23 °C, in seven replicates per batch.
Sensory analysis was performed by a group of 8 semi-trained panellists, both male and
female (3 males and 5 females, aged between 30 and 50 years), who were previously
introduced with techniques of sensory analysis (Resurrecion, 2008). The panellists evaluated
each cookie attribute (shape and surface appearance, cross-section structure, chewiness,
flavour and overall acceptability) applying a 5 points hedonic scale (1 — dislike very much, 5
— like very much). Shape and surface appearance was characterized by the shape uniformity
as well as the surface colour, the roughness and the existence of cracks. The cross-section
structure was characterized by visually assessed dryness, compactness and crumbliness of the
cross section. The chewiness was described by cohesiveness and oral hardness at first chew,
dryness (degree to which the sample lacks moisture) and adhesiveness (degree of adhesion of
the chewed material to the palate). Taste and odour was jointly evaluated as flavour since
these sensory parameters are often intertwined in human experience, so the majority of
people are not able to distinguish between the taste and olfactory perception (Mann, 2003).
The cookies were considered acceptable if their mean scores for overall acceptability were
above 3.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance with Tukey's test, which was performed
using Statistica 8.0 (Statsoft, Tulsa, USA). The significance of differences among the mean
In order to investigate the effect of fat reduction on the rheological properties of cookie
dough and final cookie quality, the utilization of different fat phases was tested. The fat
phases used within this study (vegetable fat, 70% oil-in-water emulsion, 50% oil-in-water
emulsion and vegetable oil), were characterized with different rheological properties.
Apparent viscosity values, determined at 50 1/s for vegetable fat, 70% oil in water emulsion,
50% oil in water emulsion and vegetable oil, were 9.027±0.243 Pas, 7.574±0.172 Pas,
2.207±0.034 Pas and 0.046±0.001 Pas, respectively. Vegetable fat and emulsion, since being
viscoelastic, were also tested using dynamic oscillation measurement and obtained
The incorporation of these rheologically different fat phases (Table 1) in cookie formulations
has yielded doughs of different consistency. Generally, all the examined cookie doughs
dependence of both - the storage and loss moduli, which increased with the increasing
frequencies. Moreover, all the samples had higher values of the storage modulus than those of
the loss modulus, suggesting that their elastic properties were more pronounced than viscous
ones. These results were in agreement with the other authors who also reported solid-like
behaviour of cookie dough (Dapčević Hadnađev et al., 2013; Lee and Inglett, 2006).
model to the experimental storage (G') and loss modulus (G") vs. frequency data (Table 3).
Table 3 also reports the values of tan δ (G"/G') obtained at 1 Hz. The control sample had the
highest K' and K" values (storage and loss modulus at 1 Hz) and the lowest value of tan δ, as
expected. Moreover, the lowest values of n' and n" indicated lower frequency-dependent
structural stability of control cookie dough in comparison to fat reduced doughs. The
obtained results were in accordance with Baltsavias et al. (1997) who found that fat reduction
or substitution of solid fats by liquid oil resulted in significant decrease in the stiffness of a
cookie dough. According to Manohar and Rao (1999) the ability of fats to produce stiffer
doughs can be ascribed to a higher solid fat index (SFI) of fats in comparison to that of oils.
When added to dough fats uniformly coat flour particles exhibiting the lubricating effect.
Conversely, oils are dispersed as droplets in dough matrix, yielding cohesive dough. In
addition, vegetable fat, used in this study, contained emulsifier E471, thus enhancing its
capacity for incorporation and retention of air (Jacob and Leelavathi, 2007). However, oil
reduction to 50% led to dough hardening, since the absence of fatty phase enabled gluten to
absorb water and develop during mixing. According to Sudha et al (2007), if fat is present in
sufficient amount, its coats the flour particles, and thus inhibits gluten development. The
similar findings were reported by Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) and Manohar and Rao (1999).
However, when oil was used as structured (70% and 50% emulsions), the dough strength
increased, as revealed by K' and K" values. Since emulsion water phase contained
pregelatinized OSA starch, which can absorb water and form gel-like structure (Dapčević
Hadnađev et al., 2014), it contributed to the formation of elastic network, which increased the
dough consistency. This phenomenon was reported for different carbohydrate based fat
The effects of replacing vegetable fat with structured and unstructured oil, on cookie moisture
The moisture content ranged from 3.05 to 4.47% being in accordance with values reported by
Laguna et al. (2014). In comparison to control cookie, the cookies containing oil had higher
Spread (diameter) of cookie, as one of the important quality parameters, increased with the
substitution of fat with reduced amount of vegetable oil (70% unstructured O/W system).
Further oil reduction to 50% (50% unstructured O/W system) led to the decrease in cookie
spread. Consequently, these cookies were characterized with higher cookie thickness. This
effect correlated well with the rheological properties of doughs. Due to the increased elastic
properties of cookie dough containing 50% unstructured O/W system, the less lateral
expansion during baking was exhibited in comparison to dough with 70% unstructured O/W
system, leading to cookies of lower spread. Incorporation of oil in structured form further
decreased cookie spread in comparison to cookie prepared with unstructured oil. Namely,
ability of OSA starch emulsifier to absorb available water in cookie dough and form elastic
network provoked elastic shrinkage after baking. Moreover, in OSA starch containing
emulsion, there was less water available for gluten component which increased its stiffness
Colour characteristics (L*, a*, b* values) of cookies prepared with different fat phases are
shown in Table 5. The browning of the biscuit surface (decreased lightness) was induced by
non-enzymatic browning (Maillard reactions) which involves the interaction of reducing
sugars with proteins, but also due to starch dextrinisation and sugar caramelisation
(Chevallier et al., 2000). Surface colour measurements revealed that L* values decreased for
all fat reduced samples in comparison to control one, implying their darker colour. The
reason for such behaviour might be lower fat content acting as a plasticizer covering all
powder ingredients (flour, sugar etc.) which resulted in higher amount of sugar involved in
Maillard reaction of browning. Moreover, although all cookie recipes contained the same
amount of sugar and the dough moisture was kept constant, the weight of obtained dough
samples was different (404.02g for control sample, 382.17 - 365g for fat reduced samples).
Consequently, sugar content in fat reduced cookie dough was higher (21-21.9%) in
comparison to that of control dough sample (19.8%). Also, according to Chevallier et al.
(2000), protein content had negative correlation with whiteness and due to the smaller mass
of obtained dough for fat reduced samples, the protein content was higher. The increase in a*
and decrease in L* parameters are also indicator of browning progress (Lara et al., 2011). The
obtained values of L*, a* and b* were not significantly different for 50% and 70% fat
reduction. However, the emphasized differences were observed for cookie samples prepared
with 70% unstructured O/W system and 70% emulsion. Namely, the emulsion containing
cookies had lower L* values (they were darker) than that prepared with oil. The reason for
such behaviour could be related to presence of pregelatinized OSA starch with enhanced
water binding capacity, which therefore formed a paste and caused lower water availability
and consequently lower mobility of Maillard reactions participating species. The differences
in L* values between cookies prepared with 50% emulsion and 50% unstructured O/W
system were not so evident due to the higher water content in 50% emulsions and
parameters of cookies. The measurements of the breaking strength revealed that all cookie
samples with lower fat content expressed higher breaking strength values, i.e. they were
harder in comparison to control cookie sample (Figure 2). The obtained findings were in
accordance with Jacob and Leelavathi (2007), Goldstein and Seetharaman (2011), Laguna et
al. (2014) and Pareyt et al. (2009). Although control cookie dough exhibited the highest
viscoelastic properties (Table 3) and dough prepared with 50% unstructured O/W system and
50% emulsion expressed higher viscoelastic properties than samples containing 70%
unstructured O/W system and emulsion, control cookies exhibited the lowest and cookies
with 50% fat reduction the highest breaking strength values. The similar results were also
observed by Goldstein and Seetharaman (2011) and Jacob and Leelavathi (2007) who
revealed that dough firmness measurements were not in the correlation with breaking strength
measurements. Generally, in dough cookie preparation, plastic fats, such as shortenings, are
able to entrap and retain air, which is not the case if liquid oils are employed. Namely, during
mixing process, liquid oils are dispersed throughout the dough in the globules forms which
are less effective in their shortening and aerating roles (Hartnett and Thalheimer, 1979).
Moreover, according to Kamel (1994), large quantities of air could be incorporated in liquid
oils during mixing process, but could not be retained during baking resulting in harder cookie
texture. Regardless of the texture measuring time, cookie samples prepared with emulsions
expressed the higher breaking strength values in comparison to oil containing cookies at the
same fat reduction level. These results were in agreement with the values of thickness (Table
4). Cookies with higher thickness were also characterized by higher breaking strength values.
During the cookie storage over 5 days only slight increase in break strength was observed
It was observed that control sample had the highest scores for surface appearance which was
smooth and uniform. Cookies containing unstructured O/W system were characterized with
significantly lower surface appearance scores, being uneven and shrunken which was in
agreement with Sudha et al. (2007). Moreover, the emulsion containing cookies had higher
scores for surface appearance in comparison to those containing unstructured O/W system
(Fig. 4). The reason for such behaviour could be related to different rheological
characteristics which could hence influence surface characteristics as well as cookie texture.
Concerning the textural properties, the control sample was characterized with the highest
scores, while the emulsion containing cookie samples had the lower scores being in
agreement with the breaking strength. The fat reduction resulted in harder cookies which
consequently developed dry mouthfeel, lacking the lubricity and moistness imparted by fat
which ultimately was reflected in lower texture scores (Sudha et al. 2007). There were no
significant differences in flavour properties as well as cross section properties of all cookie
samples.
Concerning the overall acceptance, it can be observed that all cookies were sensory
acceptable. The control cookie acquired the highest scores, while the increase in the fat
reduction induced the decrease in overall acceptance of cookies. However, the response
distribution (standard deviations) suggested that cookies with the highest fat reduction
expressed wider range of scores in comparison to the control one. This could be related to
different sensory preferences of the evaluators for this kind of products. Similar results were
provided by Swanson (1998) who found that reduced fat cookies elicited a wider range of
The substitution of fat in cookies with lower amount of unstructured vegetable oil, as
nutritionally improved alternative, resulted in the reduction of dough strength, the increase in
cookie hardness, the decrease in spread and lower scores for sensory attributes. The
incorporation of structured oil in the form of OSA starch stabilized emulsions, in contrast to
the unstructured oil, yielded firmer doughs, harder cookies, lower spread, higher moisture and
better surface characteristics. Although, the cookies containing unstructured and structured
performed in order to improve the chewiness and surface appearance as the most affected
sensory properties.
Acknowledgements
This research was administered by funds of the Ministry of Education, Science and
of Provincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development through the project
number114-451-1446/2014-03.
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Control 100 - - -
70% emulsion - 70 28 2
50% emulsion - 50 48 2
*
shortening composed of refined palm and sunflower oil
**
cold-pressed sunflower oil
Table 2. Composition of cookie dough samples containing different fat phases
Sugar 40 40 40 40 40
Salt 1 1 1 1 1
powder
Sodium bicarbonate 1 1 1 1 1
Dextrose 1 1 1 1 1
Fat phase 32 32 32 32 32
Table 3. Dynamic oscillatory parameters of cookie doughs containing different fat phases (a, b)
O/W system
O/W system
phases(a)
(mm) (mm)
(a)
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations; values in columns followed by the same lowercase letter
Sample L* a* b*
novel cookies shortenings based on OSA starch stabilized emulsions were developed
they were used as fat replacers in cookies and compared to vegetable fat an oil
fat replacement with structured and unstructured oil led to dough strength decrease
oil containing cookies were harder than fat containing cookies
oil structuring decreased cookie spread and improved surface appearance