Accepted Manuscript

Title: Water conservation through rainwater harvesting using

different building forms in different climatic regions

Authors: N. İpek Şahin, Gülten Manioğlu

PII: S2210-6707(18)30630-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.10.010
Reference: SCS 1286

To appear in:

Received date: 20-4-2018

Revised date: 10-8-2018
Accepted date: 6-10-2018

Please cite this article as: Şahin Nİ, Manioğlu G, Water conservation through rainwater
harvesting using different building forms in different climatic regions, Sustainable Cities
and Society (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.10.010

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WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH RAINWATER HARVESTING USING DIFFERENT BUILDING FORMS

IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS

N. İpek ŞAHİN, Ms Architect , Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gülten MANİOĞLU

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*
Corresponding author:

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e-mail adress: ipekyula@hotmail.com (N. İpek ŞAHİN)

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Full postal adress: İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi , Ulaşım Planlama Müdürlüğü, Bakırköy Ek

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Hizmet Binası, Osmaniye Mahallesi Çobançeşme Koşuyolu Bulvarı, No: 3, 34146

Bakırköy/İSTANBUL
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Highlights
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 This study investigated whether building form, which affects energy consumption and building
performance has any effect on water conservation. Regarding the relationship between the
climatic region and building form in public housing developments in this study, the amount of
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rainwater that can be harvested which changes depending on several variables including
precipitation amount and yield coefficient was discussed and compared. Based on the findings
the following conclusions are made in this study.
 The amount of rainwater collected on a building depends not only on surface yield coefficient
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and the precipitation that occurs in the climatic region the building is in, but also depends on
rainwater catchment area which is a direct result of the building form.
 Since different rainwater catchment areas can be created depending on the building form in
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housing developments that have the same number of apartments, occupants and land area but
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different building forms, the amount of rainwater harvest also differs.

 Depending on the roof catchment area, yield coefficient of the surface and annual precipitation,
the amount of rainwater harvested can increase even more in horizontally developed projects
than in vertically developed projects.
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 Therefore projects with building forms that are designed irrespective of climate should also be
evaluated in relation to rainwater harvest and water conservation before construction starts.
 Buildings forms that enable increased rainwater catchment areas should be used especially in
climates in which annual precipitation volume is low.
 Depending on the number of occupants in public housing projects, only a small percentage of
annual water consumption can be met by harvested rainwater. Therefore along with rainwater
 harvesting which is one of the most important water conservation strategies, other strategies
should also be implemented.
 Because the building form variable, which has a direct effect on rainwater harvest, also affects
not only energy conservation but also water conservation, correct decisions about this variable
can contribute to sustainable, climate responsive design.
 Although certain water savings can be achieved by harvesting rainwater in buildings, the effects
of annual precipitation in regions where housing developments are built, water consumption
levels which vary depending on the socio-economical status and culture of occupants, all of
which we cannot control during the design stage on the water conservation of buildings should
also be considered. For calculation of rainwater that can be harvested in future studies, variables
such as seasonal precipitation amounts, effects of days with extreme precipitation and rainwater

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tank volumes can also be used in calculations to find number of days in a year on which

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rainwater can be harvested. By including these variables it can be possible to have more detailed
results and contribute to the discussions on water consumption.

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ABSTRACT

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Rainwater harvesting on buildings is directly related with water collection surfaces and thus with the
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building form. In this study, the amount of rainwater obtained using different building forms in
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different climatic regions were analysed comparatively. Two scenarios were used in this study.
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In the first scenario, 2 different public housing developments with different building forms and roof
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styles but with same occupant numbers and same site area in Bursa in the temperate-humid climate

region and Diyarbakir in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated in relation to rainwater collection
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and water conservation. In the second scenario, a typical project developed by TOKİ for the

temperate climate region was also applied to the hot-dry climatic region and the amount of collected
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rainwater was evaluated taking into account also the characteristics of climatic region.
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The study found that in the first scenario 18% and 7%, and in the second scenario 13% and 5% of
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annual water consumption only in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively (toilet flushing, sinks

and bathtubs) was met by collected rainwater in Development 1. These values were 34% and 13%

respectively for Development 2.

Keywords: Water Consumption in Buildings; Rainwater Harvesting; Greywater reuse; Climate

Responsive Design

1. Introduction

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As water demand increases by population growth, fast urbanization and industrialization, the water

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resources are becoming scarcer due to increased population, environmental pollution, unconscious

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water consumption and climate changes.

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Although the world's population has increased by three fold in the 20th century, the use of water

resources has increased by six fold. It is possible that the current water shortage can grow into a

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water crisis in some parts of the world including the Middle East in the next 20-25 years [1].
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Therefore water resources are considered to be one of the most strategic natural resources in the
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21st century.
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When countries are classified according to their water reserves: countries with water availability less
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than 1,000 m³ per person are classified as "water poor", countries with water availability between

1,000 - 3,000 m³ per person are classified as "water scarce". Countries with water availability
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between 3,000 - 10,000 m³ are classified as "water rich" [2]. With water availability of 1,500 - 1,600

m³/per capita per year Turkey has far lower water supplies than the global average. 16% of the total
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water consumption in Turkey as of 2016 (7 billion m³) is used for domestic purposes (drinking and

domestic use in buildings) [3]. Domestic water is used in buildings for daily household chores and
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daily water consumption. Climate conditions, living standards and cultural habits significantly affect

domestic water consumption. Typical domestic water use is consumed as follows 40% in sinks and

bathtubs; 12% in kitchens, 13% for laundry, 25% for toilet flushing, 5% to water gardens and 5% for

cleaning [4]. Reducing water consumption for domestic uses, which corresponds to a considerable

amount in residential buildings, has become a necessity for water conservation. Different water
conservation strategies are used in the world for this purpose and Turkey needs to implement these

strategies as quickly as possible. With rainwater harvesting (collection and use of rainwater)

methods, which have become increasingly popular, it is possible to achieve water conservation in

residential buildings.

In traditional architecture collecting rainwater in water wells or cisterns in rainy seasons and using it

as and when necessary was one of the most common solutions. Rainwater harvesting which has

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been used for almost a thousand years, combined with modern technology has become a method

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widely used in many countries around the world where fresh water resources are limited. However

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there are still problems for this process to become widespread. Vast amounts of empirical data is

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needed for modelling in system selection, problems such as longer payback periods found in financial

evaluation represents an obstacle for widespread use of rainwater harvesting systems. In order to

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eliminate these problems governments should support research and development policies for such
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systems. However water shortages experienced in Turkey and in many parts of the world make it a
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necessity to update and promote the use of this traditional method.

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Many sources in the literature emphasize that water needed for domestic uses such as toilet
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flushing, house cleaning and garden watering does not need to be at drinking water standard.

[5,6,7]. Use of rainwater in buildings has been discussed actively in many countries for many years.
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Governments encourage and support the use of rainwater harvesting techniques by providing tax
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rebate or reductions in water bills and subsidizing certain portions of initial investment costs. At the
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same time, various laws and regulations are enacted to make rainwater harvesting more appealing

for a wider public [8]. Accordingly, different percentages of water savings are possible in different
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countries depending on the precipitation figures and areas of use [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. To give

examples from Asian countries where harvested rainwater is widely used; the use of rainwater in

public organizations and office buildings has been continuously increasing in Japan since 1980s [14].

In 2009 the Water Resources Agency in Taiwan enacted the Water Law, which made the use of
rainwater for domestic purposes mandatory. The new Law [15] stipulates that new buildings with an

area bigger than 1000m² have rainwater harvesting systems to cover a minimum 5% of the total

water consumption in these buildings. In the USA, use of harvested rainwater changes from state to

state and there are over 100,000 residential buildings that use rainwater. In the UK, many people

use traditional rainwater harvesting methods and advanced rainwater harvesting systems, which

were only introduced recently in the country. Installation and use of such a system is regulated by

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laws [14]. Additionally, rainwater use in arid regions where water resources are limited can provide

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water safety up to 80% [16].

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Rainwater is a natural water resource that can be collected and used in many areas where drinking

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water and water for general use is necessary. With rainwater harvesting, 12% - 100 % water savings

is possible depending on the amount of precipitation, water consumption per person, economic self-

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sufficiency of a household, roof type, number of occupants and the life cycle of the technology used
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[17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. After a simple treatment process, rainwater can be used for all domestic uses
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in a house and thus water conservation can be achieved. Surface areas such as roofs, terraces and
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courtyards from which rainwater is collected can vary according to the building form. Building forms
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should be designed to meet users' requirements for thermal comfort depending on the external

climatic elements prevailing throughout the year. The amount of rainwater collected with the help of
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the building form also varies depending on the annual precipitation figures in each climate region.

Therefore the amount of rainwater collected in different climate regions cannot be estimated
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without the knowledge of precipitation amounts and the building forms used.
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Since land costs and commercial requirements have long been considered as priorities, vertical
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urbanization has been preferred more to meet increasing needs for housing in parallel to the

increased population. Due to the above reasons, standard building forms are designed in all climatic

regions without taking into account climatic requirements, multi-storey buildings and dense

settlement design. When building forms are not designed according to the conditions of each
climatic region, the amount of rainwater collected inevitably varies. There are studies which

investigate collection of rainwater using different building forms and the relationship between

building forms and climatic regions [23, 24]. In the study conducted in several regions of Brazil with

different precipitation amounts, water savings as a result of rainwater use in single storey buildings

was 33.6%-35.5% [25] while water saving as a result of rainwater use in multiple-storey buildings was

14.7% - 17.7% [26]. Water savings by collecting and using rainwater in office buildings with a bigger

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roof surface was found to be 62% [27] Rainwater harvesting capacities of residential buildings in

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different roof areas in 5 different cities in South Brazil were evaluated [28]. Twelve single-family

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houses of different construction standards were selected for hydrological performance and economic

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feasibility of rainwater harvesting system in the city of Belém, Pará, Brazil [29].

The building form variable has a major influence on energy conservation in architectural design. This

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study investigates the effect of the same variable (building form) on water conservation. Therefore
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the amount of rainwater collected using different building forms, in different climatic regions were
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evaluated in the scenarios in this study. The findings of this study can contribute to the climate
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responsive architectural design process by integrating water conservation criteria in the process.
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2. Effects of Building Forms in Rainwater Harvesting

Building form consists of all of the geometric variables of a building including shape factor (the ratio
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of building length to building depth in the plan), building height, roof type (flat, saddle and pitched
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roof), roof slope, facade slope and is the most important parameter that affects climate responsive
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design to obtain optimum benefits from climate elements [30]. Building form is a factor that varies

depending on local and climatic requirements. In climate responsive architecture, climate responsive
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building forms are used in each different climate region.

The need for solar radiation has a priority in temperate-humid climate regions, as the heating period

is longer. Therefore primary living areas in houses in these regions are designed to face east, south

and west. The building form in temperate-humid climate regions is more flexible and various
recesses and projections are prescribed for buildings in this region. For example bay windows with

plenty of window areas allow maximum solar radiation during winter and cools down the facade and

thus house interior with the shadow they provide during summer. Large window surfaces are used to

let abundant sunlight in. In temperate-humid climate region it is necessary to be protected from

winter winds but also use summer winds to dissipate humidity. Therefore opposing inlets and outlets

are considered in planning residential buildings to achieve sufficient air movement in summer

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months. Roofs are designed according to precipitation patterns and have generally pitched and

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saddle roof designs. Eaves are very wide and therefore provide protection for the building from rain

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in winter and from sunlight during summer [31].

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As the cooling period is longer in hot-dry climate regions, compact building forms are preferred in

planning as much as possible to reduce the surface area that is exposed to sunlight. The house type,

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which is used most frequently in the hot-dry climate region in Turkey are houses with courtyards.
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Courtyards both reduce floor temperature by evaporation, by using water and plants to provide
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shady areas to allow the use of outdoor areas during the daytime [31].
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Dense settlements, low-rise buildings which provide protection from sunlight and wind should be
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preferred (if wind brings humidity, then the plan should allow winds in) in the hot-dry climatic region

where cooling is required for the greater part of the year.

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The most important aspect for a housing development is that the streets surrounded by high house
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walls should be very narrow. In this way streets have areas in shade throughout the day. As
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precipitation is low in these regions, roofs are flat (Flat roofs also provide secondary living areas for

hot summer nights) [32].

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If developments consist of building forms designed according to the climate region they are in, this

will have a positive effect on the energy conservation. However, in recent years standard type

vertical development projects designed by TOKI are increasingly preferred and built in every city

without taking into account characteristics of each climate region. In these projects, variables
including roof surface, roof type and courtyard surface that come with the building form also play a

significant role in the amount of rainwater harvested. Therefore rainwater harvesting on building

forms designed irrespective of the climate, should also be evaluated in terms of water conservation.

Based on this data the study first aims to perform an evaluation on the amount of rainwater

harvested when housing developments with the same density and area have different building forms

in different climate regions. In the second stage of the study, the amount of rainwater that could be

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harvested when housing developments designed with different building forms for different climatic

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regions are applied in the same climatic region is evaluated.

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2.1. Use of Rainwater in Buildings

Due to the reason such as fast depletion and pollution of fresh water resources today, water

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conservation is achieved by using rainwater as an alternative resource to water gardens and for
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domestic uses and thus domestic water consumption is significantly reduced.
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Rainwater harvested from roofs undergoes some minor treatment before use and becomes the
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cleanest alternative water resource with a wide range of uses. Rainwater collected from airports,

military zones, stadiums, touristic facilities and buildings with sufficient roof areas and undergone
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minor water treatment is one of the most important strategies of water conservation in buildings
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[33]. With a simple rainwater tank, rainwater harvested can be used to wash cars, fill swimming

pools or ornamental pools and to water gardens with additional piping systems (underground or
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surface). After being treated and checked carefully for water quality harvested rainwater can be used
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in washing machines, in showers and in baths.

In this study, the amount of rainwater that can be harvested depending on the climate region and
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the building forms used in public housing projects is calculated. After which to what extent harvested

rainwater can contribute to water conservation is evaluated using comparative methods.

2.2. Calculation of the amount of rainwater harvested on buildings

The amount of rainwater collected on roofs varies depending on catchment area, precipitation per

m² and yield coefficient, which is based on rainwater collection capacity of roof and other surfaces

on which rainwater is collected (courtyard, terrace etc). Importantly different surface materials can

affect both the quality of water and the yield coefficient which determines rainwater collection

capacity [34,35, 36].

According to DIN 1989 standard "Rainwater harvesting systems - planning, installation, operation and

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maintenance" is described as “Yield coefficient ratio of the rainwater annually flowing into the

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rainwater harvesting system to the total amount of rainwater in the accompanying precipitation

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area.” [37]

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There are many studies on different roof materials with different surfaces, which determine the yield

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coefficient. Yield coefficient figures used in these studies range between 0.70-0.95 [36,
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38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. There are many reasons for the use of such a wide range of
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yield coefficient including climatic (rain, dominant wind and humidity rate) and architectural (slope,
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roof materials, surface roughness, leaks, unevenness) reasons.

In this study yield coefficients of different roof types with different surfaces were calculated
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according to the standard DIN 1989 "Rainwater harvesting systems - Planning, installation, operation

and maintenance".
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The amount of rainwater collected on roofs is calculated by multiplying catchment area, precipitation
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per m², the rainwater collection capacity of roof and other surfaces from which rainwater is collected
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(courtyard, terrace etc), by variables such as yield coefficient and hydraulic filter efficiency which is a

constant value in the following equation (Eq 1).

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ER = AA . e . hN . n (1)

ER = Rainwater yield in litres per year (litre),

AA = The collection area square meters (m²),

e = The yield coefficient (%),

hN = The quantity of precipitation in litres per square meter (l/m²) or millimetres (mm),

n = The hydraulic filter efficiency (accepted as 0.9).

Yield coefficients of different types of roof with different surface areas are as follows: 0.8 for sloping

roof (e.g. pitched roof), flat roof without gravel (e.g. flat roof) and asphalt surfaces; 0.6 for flat roof

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with gravel; 0.5 for wide green roof, sidewalk surface/composite sidewalk surface (courtyard paved

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with cobblestone); and 0.3 for intensive green roof [37].

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3. Materials and Methods

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Since annual precipitation amount differs in each climate region depending on the season, the total

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volume of harvested water also changes depending on the building form. This study investigates
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water conservation through rainwater harvesting using different building forms in different climate
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regions.
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In this study, the amount of rainwater obtained using different building forms in different climate

regions were compared and evaluated. Two scenarios were used in this study.
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In the first scenario, 2 different public housing developments with different building forms and roof
PT

styles but with the same occupant numbers and same site area in Bursa in the temperate-humid

climate region and Diyarbakir in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated in relation to rainwater
E

collection and water conservation. The amount of rainwater collected on different roof catchment
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systems, in a vertically developed public housing project with pitched roofs by the Housing

Development Administration (TOKI) in Bursa, and in a horizontally developed public housing project
A

with flat roofs in Diyarbakir was calculated. Taking into account the characteristics of hot-dry climate

regions, these figures were compared with the amount of water consumed to evaluate the

contribution of rainwater harvesting in water conservation.

In the second scenario, a typical project developed by TOKI for the temperate climatic region was

also applied in the hot-dry climate region, the volume of harvested rainwater was evaluated taking

into account the characteristics of climatic region. Since annual precipitation amount differs in each

climatic region, the total volume of harvested water also changes depending on the building form.

This study investigates water conservation through rainwater harvesting using different building

forms in different climate regions.

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In order to achieve the objectives of the study, various data including annual precipitation

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amount per m² in cities in different climatic regions included in the study, the number of

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occupants in buildings with different forms in housing developments, different rainwater

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catchment areas with different yield coefficients on buildings and yield coefficients of surfaces

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were collected. Annual water consumption of each housing development and the annual
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rainwater amount that can be harvested on buildings with different forms in each housing
A
development was calculated. The percentage of harvested rainwater that meets the need for
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annual water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms (toilet flushing, sink and bathtub) is

shown. Since seasonal and monthly precipitation amounts differ in Bursa (temperate-humid)
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and Diyarbakır (hot-dry), all comparative evaluations were made using annual figures. For

calculation of rainwater that can be harvested; only the annual time span was used, daily and
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seasonal precipitation amounts were not taken into consideration. Therefore, variables such as
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the days with extreme precipitation, rainwater tank volume and consequently potential water
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losses due to tank overflow were not taken into account.

3.1. Study Area

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In this study, 2 different public housing developments with different building forms and roof styles

but with the same occupant numbers and same areas in Bursa in the temperate-humid climate

region and Diyarbakir in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated. The buildings evaluated have

building forms that are designed according to climate responsive design principles. In Bursa, a
vertically developed public housing project with pitched roof was planned and built by Housing

Development Administration (TOKİ) (Development 1). In Diyarbakir, a horizontally developed public

housing project that includes building forms with flat roofs and courtyards in parallel to the climate

responsive design principles of the hot-dry climate region (Development 2). In this study the amount

of rainwater collected from different catchment areas on roof and courtyards is calculated and to

what extent this volume of rainwater meets the daily water consumption per person is determined.

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In Nilüfer Hasanağa Mass Housing Development of the Housing Development Administration (TOKİ)

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on Bursa-Balıkesir Highway, there are 1584 apartments and some recreational facilities (Figure 1).

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There are 3 different building plans, which consist of 9 buildings type B, 20 Buildings type C, and 6

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Buildings type D in the project (Figures 2-3-4).

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On Diyarbakır-Şanlıurfa Highway, in Cumhuriyet Neighbourhood in Diyarbakir, a new public housing
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project was developed which has buildings with courtyards in parallel to characteristics of the hot-
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dry climate region (Figure 5). Accordingly, two traditional building plans with courtyards (Building A
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and Building B) were drawn. The above mentioned public housing project was planned to have the

same land area (174533 m²) and number of occupants (6336 occupants) with the public housing
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project in Bursa (Figure 5). There are 50 Buildings type A (4 storey) and 49 Buildings type B (4 storey)

in the public housing project in Diyarbakir (Figure 6-7).

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3.2. Data Collection

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Assumptions concerning calculations of rainwater amounts are as follows.

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 Daily water consumption per person in Diyarbakir and Bursa was assumed to be 100
A

litres per person per day, according to the principle of a minimum 100 litres of potable

water requirement per person in houses with bathtubs in the Turkish Standard TS 1258

Rules for Calculation for Installation Water Supply on Building [50].

  The core section of the building plans in Development 1 were assumed to have flat roofs and

other sections were assumed to have pitched roofs in the calculations. Rainwater yield

coefficient for pitched roofs and flat roofs according to DIN standard 1989 1:2002-04.01

"Rainwater harvesting systems - planning, installation, operation and maintenance" is

calculated as 0.8.

 The roof types in the buildings in Development 2 are flat roof without gravel and the rainwater

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yield coefficient is 0.8, the rainwater yield coefficient for courtyards is 0.5.

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 Average annual precipitation for the year 2012 is 810mm for Bursa and 625.9mm for

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Diyarbakir [51].

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 It was assumed that rainwater could be harvested only from roofs in Buildings type B,

C and D in Bursa (Development 1) and from roofs and courtyards using the advantages

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of the building form in Buildings type A and B in Diyarbakir (Development 2).
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 4 people were assumed to live in each apartment in the public housing projects in
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Development 1 and Development 2.

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 The following percentages are normally used for different elements in a house that
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consume water: 25% for toilet flushing, 40% sinks and bathtubs [4] but for the purpose

of this study 25% was accepted as water consumption percentage of toilet flushing, 65%
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was accepted as water consumption percentage of bathrooms (toilet flushing, sink and

bathtub).
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
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Information about the number of occupants, apartments, floors, roof area, courtyard area,

number of buildings and land area in Building types B, C and D in Development 1 and Building
A

types A and B in Development 2 is shown in Table 1.

Since the number of occupants in both housing developments is the same, the annual total water

consumption is also the same but distribution among buildings is different.

3.4. Results and Discussion

Use of rainwater harvesting technologies in buildings is important for sustainable use of water

resources and water savings. In this study in the first scenario, the rainwater amount collected from

different building forms with the same number of occupants and site area but developed for

different climate regions, namely Bursa in the temperate-humid and Diyarbakir in hot-dry climate

region were calculated and comparatively evaluated. In the second scenario, building forms in a

typical project developed for the temperate climate region was also applied in the hot-dry climate

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region and the amount of collected rainwater was calculated. Different findings were obtained for

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the two scenarios, which were evaluated, based on the calculations. The findings of the study were

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evaluated separately and the results were shown as graphs.

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3.4.1. Scenario 1

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Annual rainwater amount collected from roof catchment areas in Development 1 and in
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Development 2 calculated according to the equation given in section 2.2 and annual water
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consumption in the same buildings are shown in Figures 8-9.
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The annual rainwater collected per person in Development 1 is 1650 litres and in Development

2 is 3124 litres calculated according to the data for the total annual rainwater collected from the
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catchment areas in Figure 10. The rainwater amount per person collected in Diyarbakir is 89%
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more than that collected in Bursa.

4.5% of the annual water supply requirement is met with the rainwater amount collected from
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the roofs in Development 1 and 8.5% of the annual water supply requirement is met with the
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rainwater amount harvested from the roofs and courtyards in Development 2.

Considering daily household water consumption rates, the coverage rate of annual rainwater
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harvested to total water consumption in toilet flushing and in bathrooms in Buildings B, C and

D in Development 1 (Figure 11) and in Buildings A and B in Development 2 (Figure 12) are

calculated.
13% and 5% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building B,

18% and 7% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building C

and 31% and 12% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in

Building D can be met with the amount of rainwater harvested in 1 year in Development 1.

When the calculations were repeated for Development 2; the amount of rainwater collected in

one year was found to be enough for 32% and 12% of water consumption in toilet flushing and

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bathrooms respectively in Building A and 36% and 14% of the water consumption in flush

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tanks and bathrooms respectively in Building B.

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18% of the annual water supply required only for toilet flushing is met with the rainwater

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harvested from the roofs in the Buildings B, C and D in Development 1 and 34 % of the annual

water supply required only for toilet flushing is met with the rainwater harvested from the roofs

and courtyards in Buildings A and B in Development 2. U

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7% of the annual water supply requirement for use in toilet flushing and bathroom use is met
A

with the rainwater amount harvested from the roofs in Development 1. 13% of the annual water
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supply requirement for use in toilet flushing and bathroom use is met with the rainwater amount
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harvested from the roofs and courtyards in Development 2.

3.4.2. Scenario 2
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In this stage of the study, the amount of rainwater collected in the public housing development

(Development 1), which has the building forms designed for temperate-humid climate in Bursa, but
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applied for Diyarbakır by neglecting the climatic region’s properties is evaluated in relation to water

conservation. A vertically developed public housing project which includes building forms with
A

pitched roofs irrespective of the characteristics of hot-dry climate region and a horizontally

developed public housing project, which includes building forms with flat roofs and courtyards in

parallel to the design principles of the hot-dry climate region (Development 2) are compared in

relation to the rainwater harvest.

The annual rainwater amount collected from roof catchment areas in Development 1 and

Development 2 calculated according to the formula given in section 2.2, the annual water

consumption in the same buildings are shown in Figures 13 and 9.

The annual rainwater collected per person is calculated according to the data of total rainwater

collected from roof catchment areas in Figure 14, is 1274 litres in Development 1 and 145%

higher in Development 2 reaching to 3124 litres in Diyarbakir.

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3.4% of annual water requirement in Development 1 and 8.5% of annual water requirement in

Development 2 in Diyarbakir is met.

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Considering daily household water consumption rates, the coverage rate of annual rainwater

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harvested to total water consumption in toilet flushing and in bathrooms in Buildings B, C and

D in Development 1 Diyarbakır (Figure 15).

U
N
10% and 4% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building B,
A
14% and 5% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building C
M

and 24% and 9% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building

D can be met with the amount of rainwater harvested in 1 year in Development 1 in Diyarbakır.
ED

When the calculations were repeated for Development 2; the amount of rainwater collected in

one year was found to cover 32% and 12% of water consumption in toilet flushing and
PT

bathrooms respectively in Building A and 36% and 14% of water consumption in toilet flushing
E

and bathrooms respectively in Building B.

CC

13% and 34% of the annual water requirement for toilet flushing, 5% and 13% of the annual

water requirement for use in bathrooms is met with the rainwater volume harvested on the roofs
A

in Development 1 and Development 2 respectively in Diyarbakır.

Rainwater catchment areas on horizontally developed buildings with flat roofs and courtyards,

which are recommended for Diyarbakır according to the climate responsive design criteria, are

bigger than the rainwater catchment areas in buildings in Bursa. Only a very small percentage
of annual water requirements of horizontally developed public housing projects can be met with

harvested rainwater. Therefore in the first stage of the study, the volume of rainwater collected

per person is more in Diyarbakir than Bursa despite the fact Bursa's annual precipitation is

higher than that of Diyarbakir. Since the same conditions apply also for the second stage of the

study, it was found that the amount of rainwater collected per person in this stage is also more

in the horizontally developed buildings with courtyards, which are in accordance with the

T
climate responsive design criteria.

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The most effective use of rainwater in both scenario 1 and 2 was found in the alternative in

R
which collected rainwater is only used in toilet flushing in Building B in the Housing

SC
Development with 2 types of buildings and horizontally developed architecture in Diyarbakır.

4. Conclusion
U
This study investigated whether building form, which affects energy consumption and building
N
performance has any effect on water conservation. Regarding the relationship between the climatic
A

region and building form in public housing developments in this study, the amount of rainwater that
M

can be harvested which changes depending on several variables including precipitation amount and
ED

yield coefficient was discussed and compared. Based on the findings the following conclusions are

made in this study.

PT

 The amount of rainwater collected on a building depends not only on surface yield
E

coefficient and the precipitation that occurs in the climatic region the building is in, but
CC

also depends on rainwater catchment area which is a direct result of the building form.

 Since different rainwater catchment areas can be created depending on the building form in
A

housing developments that have the same number of apartments, occupants and land area

but different building forms, the amount of rainwater harvest also differs.
  Depending on the roof catchment area, yield coefficient of the surface and annual

precipitation, the amount of rainwater harvested can increase even more in horizontally

developed projects than in vertically developed projects.

 Therefore projects with building forms that are designed irrespective of climate should also be

evaluated in relation to rainwater harvest and water conservation before construction starts.

 Buildings forms that enable increased rainwater catchment areas should be used especially in

T
climates in which annual precipitation volume is low.

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 Depending on the number of occupants in public housing projects, only a small percentage of

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annual water consumption can be met by harvested rainwater. Therefore along with rainwater

SC
harvesting which is one of the most important water conservation strategies, other strategies

should also be implemented.

 U
Because the building form variable, which has a direct effect on rainwater harvest, also affects
N
not only energy conservation but also water conservation, correct decisions about this variable
A
can contribute to sustainable, climate responsive design.
M

Although certain water savings can be achieved by harvesting rainwater in buildings, the effects of
ED

annual precipitation in regions where housing developments are built, water consumption levels

which vary depending on the socio-economical status and culture of occupants, all of which we
PT

cannot control during the design stage on the water conservation of buildings should also be

considered. For calculation of rainwater that can be harvested in future studies, variables such as
E

seasonal precipitation amounts, effects of days with extreme precipitation and rainwater tank
CC

volumes can also be used in calculations to find number of days in a year on which rainwater can be

harvested. By including these variables it can be possible to have more detailed results and
A

contribute to the discussions on water consumption.

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ED
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A
 Figure 1. Nilüfer Hasanağa TOKİ Buildings in Bursa

T
R IP
SC
U
N
A
M
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Figure 2. Building B Plan and Roof Plan

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CC
A
 Figure 3. Building C Plan and Roof Plan

T
R IP
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U
N
A
M
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Figure 4. Building D Plan and Roof Plan

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<InlineImage9>
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Figure 5. The land for the public housing project in

A

Diyarbakir and Layout Plan.

 T
Figure 6. Building A Plan and Roof Plan

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U
N
A
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Figure 7. Building B Plan and Roof Plan

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CC
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 8000000
7008000 7008000
7000000

6000000

5000000 4672000

4000000
3131784
3000000

2000000

1000000 361584
224532

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0
Building B Building C Building D

IP
Annual amount of mains water consumption in Building B-C-D in Bursa (liter)
Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas in Building B-C-D in Bursa (liter)

R
SC
Figure 8. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected

from roof areas in Buildings B-C-D in Development 1.

U
N
A
2500000 2336000 2336000
M

2000000
ED

1500000

1000000
PT

500000
189272.16 210846.933
E

0
CC

Building A Building B

Annual amount of mains water consumption in Development 2 in Diyarbakır (liter)

Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas and courtyards in Development 2 in Diyarbakır (liter)
A

Figure 9. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected

from roof areas and courtyards in Buildings A-B in Development 2.

 250000000 231264000 231264000

200000000

150000000

100000000

T
50000000
19795107.7
10453860

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0
DEVELOPMENT 1 DEVELOPMENT 2

R
Annual amount of mains water consumption in Development 1 and Development 2 (liter)

SC
Annual amount of rainwater collected from the catchment areas in Development 1 and Development 2
(liter)

U
Figure 10 Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater
N
collected from Development 1 and Development 2.
A
M

DEVELOPMENT 1
ED

5000000 4555200 4555200

4000000
3036800
PT

3000000

2000000 1752000 1752000

1168000
E

1000000
224532 313784 361584
CC

0
Building B Building C Building D

Annual amount of mains water consumption in bahtrooms (liter)

A

Annual amount of mains water consumption in toilet flushing (liter)

Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas (liter)

Figure 11. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual

amount of rainwater collected from roof areas of buildings B-C-D in Development 1 in Bursa.
 DEVELOPMENT 2
1600000 1518400 1518400
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
584000 584000
600000

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400000 210846.933
189272.16

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200000
0
Building A Building B

R
Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms (liter)

SC
Annual amount of mains water consumption in toilet flushing (liter)
Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas and courtyards (liter)

U
Figure 12. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual
N
amount of rainwater collected from roof areas and cortyards of buildings A-B in Development 2 in
A
Diyarbakır.
M
ED

8000000
7008000 7008000
7000000
PT

6000000

5000000 4672000
E

4000000
CC

3000000

2000000
A

1000000
173499.5 241988 279401.8
0
Building B Building C Building D

Annual amount of mains water consumption in Building B-C-D in Development 1 in Diyarbakır (liter)

Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas in Building B-C-D in Development 1 in Diyarbakır
(liter)
Figure 13. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected

from roof areas of Buildings B-C-D in Development 1 in Diyarbakır.

250000000 231264000 231264000

200000000

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150000000

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100000000

R
50000000
19795107.7

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8077865
0
DEVELOPMENT 1 DEVELOPMENT 2

Annual amount of mains water consumption in Development 1 and Development 2 in Diyarbakır (liter)

U
Annual amount of rainwater collected from catchment areas in Development 1 and Development 2 in
N
Diyarbakır (liter)
A
Figure 14. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater
M

collected from Development 1 and Development 2 in Diyarbakır.

ED
E PT
CC
A
 DEVELOPMENT1 IN DIYARBAKIR
5000000 4555200 4555200
4500000
4000000
3500000 3036800
3000000
2500000
2000000 1752000 1752000
1500000 1168000

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1000000
500000 173499.5 241988 279401.8

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0
Building B Building C Building D

R
Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms (liter)
Annual amount of water consumption in toilet flushing (liter)

SC
Annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas (liter)

U
Figure 15. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual

amount of rainwater collected from roof areas of buildings B-C-D in Development 1 in Diyarbakır.
N
A
M
ED
E PT
CC
A
 Table 1. Number of occupants, apartments, floors, roof area, courtyard area, number of

buildings and land area in Development 1 and in Development 2.

number
number of total total total total
number of number roof core courtyard
apartments number roof courtyard land
building of occupants of area area area

T
in one of area area area
buildings in one floors (m²) (m²) (m²)

IP
building occupants (m²) (m²) (m²)
building

R
B 9 192 48 12 385 330 _ -
Development 1

SC
C 20 192 48 12 537 480 _ -
6336 17925 174533

D 6 128 32 8 507 113 _ -

U
N
A 50 64 16 4 400 - 32
Development 2

A
6336 40874 4883 174533
B 64 16 4 426 - 67
M

49
ED
E PT
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A