NATIONAL LEVEL STUDENT TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM

…………… electrify your education.

Organised by….

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
JNTU ANANTAPUR(AUTONOMOUS)
SELECTED
PAPERS
LIST OF SELECTED PAPERS
NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

· E01 THE SOLAR CHIMNEY 2

· E02 ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND RENEWABLE ENERGY 15

SOURCES

· E03 NONCONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES WASTE TO

ELECTRICAL ENERGY(WTEE) TECHNOLOGY GENERATING
WEALTH FROM GARBAGE 26

· E04 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION 36

· E05 PHOTOVOLATAIC CELLS 50

· E06 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES 61

· E07 PLANT CONDITION MONITORING BY USING INFRARED

THERMOGRAPHY 70

· E08 GREEN ENERGY SOURCES(WITH WORKING MODEL) 83

· E09 FUTURE TRENDS IN ENERGY CONVERSION BY USING

NUCLEAR ENERGY 95

· E10 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES 106

· E11 MEMS AND NANO TECHNOLOGY 118

· E12 WIND ENERGY AND SOLAR ENERGY CONSERVATION 125

· E13 FACTS BASED REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION OF WIND

ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM 134

· E14 ENERGY FROM OCEANS 146

· E15 A HYBRID SOLAR WIND POWER GENERATION SYSTEM 156

POWER ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL

_ PE01 ACTIVE POWER FILTERS. 169

_ PE02 A DSP BASED ON-LINE UPS. 183

_ PE03 SIMULATION & ANALYSIS OF PWM INVERTER USING

MATLLAB. 192

_ PE04 A SURVEY OF POWER ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS IN

AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGIES. 206

_ PE05 A NOVEL ACTIVE POWER FILTER FOR HARMONIC.

SUPPRESSION. 214

_ PE06 POWER QUALITY. 227

_ PE07 SOFT COMPUTING PARADIGM FOR HYBRID FUZZY

CONTROLLERS. 240

_ PE08 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. 248

_ PE09 DESIGN OF BUCK CONVERTER. 261

_ PE10 EXPERT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR FAULT DIAGNOSIS TO

IMPROVE POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY. 271

_ PE11 POWER QUALITY INNOVATION IN HARMONIC FILTERING. 277

_ PE12 RADIO FROM THE INTERNET. 288

_ PE13 SERVO CONTROL SYSTEMS 2 DIGITAL SERVO MECHANISMS. 297

_ PE14 DECENTRALISED ARCHITECTURE FOR POWER ELECTRONIC 308

.
SYSTEM DESIGN BASED ON BIONICS.

_ PE15 FUZZY GAIN SCHEDULING FOR AGC IN ASINGLE AREA 318

SYSTEM NEGLECTING DEAD BAND AND GRC
POWER SYSTEMS

PS01 POWER QUALITY IN ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS 329

PS02 HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 336

PS03 ELIMINATION OF TRANSFORMER INRUSH CURRENTS BY

CONTROLLED SWITCHING 346

PS04 HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 360

PS05 POWER SYSTEM AUTOMATION AND CONTROL BY

SUPERVISORY CONTROL & DATA ACQUYSITION SYSTEM 373

PS06 VAR COMPENSATION 383

PS07 WITRICITY 395

PS08 REALTIME CONTROL POWER SYSTEMS 409

PS09 UNWIRED CHARGING 419

PS10 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN DISTRIBUTED POWER

SYSTEMS 428

PS11 A SOLUTION TO REMOTE DETECTION OF ILLEGAL

ELECTRICITY USAGE VIA POWER LINE COMMUNICATIONS 436

PS12 PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS USING METAL

OXIDE ARRESTER 446

PS13 SIMULTANEOUSAC-DC POWER TRANSMISSION 456

PS14 POWER FORMER 462

PS15 CAPACITOR PLACEMENT FOR LOSS REDUCTION IN RADIAL 470

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
NON
CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY
RESOURCES
 THE SOLAR CHIMNEY

Presented by:

B.N.V.S.PRAVEEN KUMAR B.ANUDEEP

06761A0208 06761A0203
III B.TECH, EEE III B.TECH, EEE
9441110430 9959143909
praveen_lbrce@yahoo.co.in anudeep_145@yahoo.co.in

LAKIREDDY BALI REDDY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.

1
CONTENTS:

ABSTRACT

ENERGY RESOURCES –A THREAT?

DESCRIPTION

THE SOLAR CHIMNEY DETAILS

HOW IT WORKS?

EFFICIENCY

MERITS

USE IN INDIA

DEMERITS

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

 ANIMATION ALSO INCLUDED

2
 THE SOLAR CHIMNEY
ABSTRACT:
Solar and other renewable energy
technologies are essential components of
Energy resources-A threat?
The word resource finds the
a diverse set of options for electric
meaning as ‘a source of help’. We need
power generation in the coming decades.
help always in some kind, after all no
These technologies include the
man can live throughout without any
generation of electricity from sunlight,
help. The greatest help needed by
wind, geological heat ("geothermal"),
today’s machine man is the ‘energy
and crops and organic waste
help’. Till the present day energy is
("biomass"). Our overall vision is that of
sufficient for his needs. But what would
a robust electric power system that
be the condition tomorrow?
emphasizes energy efficiency in supply,
Peeping into future, there stands a house
delivery, and end use, in which power is
with no light in night; wherein there is
supplied by a diverse set of technology
energy neither to cook the raw meat nor
options, including solar and renewable
to preserve it; wherein fan stands a
energy, advanced nuclear technologies,
showpiece and air-conditioner only
and advanced fossil fuel
blocks the window, and TV-the idiot box
technologies. One possible scheme for
–stands a stupid dull mirror. Man
generating electrical power is by means
remains amidst all these tortures as a
of a solar chimney, or solar tower.
worm thrown in the hot sun recklessly.
A solar chimney — often
We must not forget that it’s going to be
referred to as a thermal chimney — is a
our grandchildren in this situation and no
way of improving the natural ventilation
one else.
of buildings by using convection of air
Coming back to present world, there
heated by passive solar energy. A simple
raises a necessity to search for a source,
description of a solar chimney is that of
which is omnipresent and omnipotent to
a vertical shaft utilizing solar energy to
save the homosapien. We roamed round
enhance the natural stack ventilation
the galaxy in search of such an energy,
through a building. A solar chimney
the result of which has led us here. Yes,
power plant has a high chimney (tower),
the same old resource, the solar energy.
with a height of up to 1000 meters, and
this is surrounded by a large collector
roof, up to 3 miles in diameter, that
consists of glass or resistive plastic
supported on a framework.

3
Description:
In its simplest form, the solar The main ventilation shaft: The
chimney consists of a black-painted location, height, cross section and the
chimney. During the day solar energy thermal properties of this structure are
heats the chimney and the air within it, also very important .Tower is the key to
creating an updraft of air in the chimney. the energy production .The efficiency of
The suction created at the chimney's tower depends on the difference in
base can be used to ventilate and cool temperature.
the building below. In most parts of the Relation between size & height of tower
world it is easier to harness wind power determines the power station’s
for such ventilation, but on hot windless efficiency.
days such a chimney can provide These are generally made of reinforced
ventilation where otherwise there would concrete with a life span of 50 years.
be none. Solar energy is converted into The inlet and outlet air apertures:
electrical energy by means of a turbine. The sizes, location as well as
Heat from the sun is used to heat air and aerodynamic aspects of these elements
hence to run a turbine. This concept are also significant.
leads to the unbelievable invention A principle has been proposed
named ‘The solar chimney’. for solar power generation, using a large
greenhouse at the base rather than
There are however a number of relying solely on heating the chimney
solar chimney variations. The basic itself.
design elements of a solar chimney are:
The solar collector : This can be
located in the bottom part of the
chimney or can include the entire shaft.
The orientation, type of glazing,
insulation and thermal properties of this
element are crucial for harnessing,
retaining and utilizing solar gains.
Made up of translucent material such as
glass .Raised several meters above the
ground .Design facilitates air to be
directed in vertical movement with
minimum friction loss .Diameter for
200MW output vary with site
relation.(generally 5 Km).Prototype
details - Polyvinyl fluoride (4.4
hectares),thickness 0.1mm, life span of
10-12 yrs .Heat storing materials are
used.

4
The solar chimney:
The figure next shows the picture Towards its center, the roof
of a solar chimney set up in Manzanares, curves upward to join the chimney,
Spain, in 1982.The idea was originally creating a funnel. It is a massive
given by German structural engineer arrangement and hence can be setup in
Schlaich Bergerman. The solar chimney places where large areas are available.
power plant – converts global irradiance This massive structure has no name
into electricity. Since chimneys are often resemblance with the chimneys in our
associated negatively with exhaust kitchens or in local industries. We are
gases, THIS CONCEPT IS ALSO dealing with something beyond the
KNOWN AS THE SOLAR TOWER present imagination.
POWER PLANT although it is totally
different from the tower concepts. A
solar chimney power plant has a high
chimney (tower), with a height of up to
100 meters, and this is surrounded by a
large collector roof, up to 3 miles in
diameter, that consists of glass or
resistive plastic supported on a
framework.

5
How it works ?
The basic concept is that when
air is heated, it tends to go up in the
atmosphere since its specific volume
increases. This concept is used in the
solar chimney arrangement as shown
schematically below. The sun heats up
the ground (usually black surface) and
the air underneath the collector roof, and
the heated air follows the upward incline
of the roof until it reaches the chimney.
There, it flows at high speed through the
chimney and drives wind generators at
its bottom. The ground under the
collector roof behaves as a storage
medium, and can even heat up the air for
a significant time after sunset.
The efficiency of the solar
chimney power plant is below 2%, and
depends mainly on the height of the
tower, and so these power plants can
only be constructed on land, which is
very cheap or free. Such areas are
usually situated in desert regions.
6
 AIR HEATED BY SUN RAYS
However, the whole power plant
is not without other uses, as the outer
area under the collector roof can also be
utilized as a greenhouse for agricultural
purposes. As with trough and tower
plants, the minimum economical size of
solar chimney power plants is also in the
multi-megawatt range.
Ambient air is drawn into the
glass collector. This is warmed by solar
energy and rises up the chimney. The
current of rising warm air drives a
turbine. The prototype at Manzanares,
Spain worked successfully over several
years. There are proposals for the
construction of commercial plants of up
to 200 MW in India, South Africa,
Australia and other countries. The
capital cost is high but running costs are
very low, the fuel is free and the power
station has a long lifetime. The
technology could become the cheapest
method for the large-scale generation of
solar electricity.
Turbines are robust and quiet in
operation. Pressure-staged wind turbines
are used.
The energy yield from this pressure-
staged turbine is greater than speed-
stepped open-air turbine of the same
diameter .Output achieved is
proportional to the product of volume
flow per unit and the fall in pressure at
the turbine .A turbine regulation system
is used.
The torque produced on the
turbine is the factor that decides the rate
of power produced in the external
circuit. This factor can be calculated in-
order to control the torque of the turbine.
7
Efficiency:
The overall conversion efficiency
from solar energy to electricity is 2-3%.
Where does the other 97% go?
1. There is a temperature drop with
altitude of about 10° C for a 1000
metre chimney. Large quantities
of warm air have to be lifted
from the ground to chimney top.
This is gravitational energy lost.
2. The air that leaves the chimney is
above ambient temperature at
that altitude. This is thermal
energy lost.
3. Ambient air that is drawn into the
collector and is warmed expands
with little increase in pressure.
The majority of solar input is lost
in the simple expansion of air
before it reaches the turbine.
4. None of this is surrendered to the
turbine.
Would a regenerator improve
efficiency? The author proposes a
modified solar chimney where the
paramount consideration is the rigorous
elimination of all energy losses. The
solar collector is sealed and double
glazed with low emissivity glass. The
entire floor area has a solar absorber.
The chimney is well-insulated and
incorporates a heat exchanger along
most of its length.
8
 AIR HEATED BY SUN RAYS
However, the whole power plant
is not without other uses, as the outer
area under the collector roof can also be
utilized as a greenhouse for agricultural
purposes. As with trough and tower
plants, the minimum economical size of
solar chimney power plants is also in the
multi-megawatt range.
Ambient air is drawn into the
glass collector. This is warmed by solar
energy and rises up the chimney. The
current of rising warm air drives a
turbine. The prototype at Manzanares,
Spain worked successfully over several
years. There are proposals for the
construction of commercial plants of up
to 200 MW in India, South Africa,
Australia and other countries. The
capital cost is high but running costs are
very low, the fuel is free and the power
station has a long lifetime. The
technology could become the cheapest
method for the large-scale generation of
solar electricity.
Turbines are robust and quiet in
operation. Pressure-staged wind turbines
are used.
The energy yield from this pressure-
staged turbine is greater than speed-
stepped open-air turbine of the same
diameter .Output achieved is
proportional to the product of volume
flow per unit and the fall in pressure at
the turbine .A turbine regulation system
is used.
The torque produced on the
turbine is the factor that decides the rate
of power produced in the external
circuit. This factor can be calculated in-
order to control the torque of the turbine.
9
 Warm air rises from the solar
collector and drives the turbine. Its
residual energy is then transferred to
incoming air in the heat exchanger –
such energy recovery can be over 95%
efficient. Incoming air enters well up the
chimney at a level ‘h’ from the top,
which is needed to drive the system. The
incoming air is warmed as it travels
down the chimney. It passes through the
turbine and then between the two layers
of glass to ground level, entering the
solar collector from underneath the
absorber.
There are no pumps. The
chimney is open to the air and at
atmospheric pressure. The driver is
gravity – air in the collector is warmed
by solar energy and rises because it is
lighter. This will draw in colder, ambient
air which is heavier.
There will be some energy losses
through the double glazing, through the
walls of the chimney and to gravitation
due to the height ‘h’. Any losses in the
turbine or due to friction in the heat
exchanger will be recycled as heat into
the incoming air.
The main energy loss will be in
the regenerator and will manifest itself in
the exit air having a higher temperature
that ambient air at that altitude, a higher
velocity and a greater volume than
incoming air. The challenge would be to
construct a regenerator of ever higher
efficiency.
The modifications suggested
would perhaps double the capital cost of
the solar chimney. It is an assertion,
however, that its efficiency will be
increased several fold.

The energy losses listed earlier will be

dramatically reduced in this proposal:
• The loss of potential energy for
the exit air is virtually
compensated by the gain in
potential energy for the incoming
air, except that due to ‘h’.
• The loss in thermal energy for
exit air should be dramatically
reduced by the regenerator.
• If the regenerator was 100%
efficient, then the volume of air
entering the chimney per second
will equal the volume of air
leaving the chimney per second.
There will be no nett loss due to
the expansion of air.

10
 ENERGY PRODUCTION COST

PROPORTION OF SOLAR TOWER COAL 2 x C.C

(CENT/kWh) (CENT/kWh) (CENT/KWh)

Investment 5.79 1.99 1.08

Fuel 0.00 1.98 3.36

Personal 0.05 0.39 0.16
Repair 0.25 0.47 0.42
Insurance 0.01 0.14 0.06

Running 0.00 0.59 0.02

cost
Tax 1.07 0.35 0.19
Total 7.17 5.91 5.29

Table: Comparison between the energy production costs of two x 200 MW

solar chimneys and 400 MW coal and combined cycle power plants
according to the present business managerial calculations.

Merits:

Firstly it is not technically
difficult to realize and secondly
it nearly needs nothing of
natural materials.

This unique chimney is also
helpful for green house effect.

The large area under the double
glazed cover can be utilized for
vegetation purpose on basis of
green house effect. Thus the area
is not wasted and as well as, the
energy, derived.
NO CARBON DIOXIDE!
Every process involving
production of power has carbon dioxide
as an unavoidable waste product. But
here there is no combustion and no
carbon dioxide.
Use in India:
A tropical country like India can
potentially generate 200MW power and
this can be of great importance when
utilized properly.

There is zero power input by us

to which there is an output.

11
 INSIDE VIEW OF COLLECTOR AREA
DEMERITS:
• Solar electricity can currently be
more expensive than electricity
generated by other sources.
• Solar electricity is not available
at night and may be unavailable
due to weather conditions;
therefore, a storage or
complementary power system is
required for off-grid
applications.Limited power
density.
• Solar cells produce DC which
must be converted to AC (using a
grid tie inverter) when used in
currently existing distribution
grids. This incurs an energy loss
of 4-12%.
Conclusion:
A power plant with
-A resource energy, which
could not exhaust soon.
-A working medium that is
omnipresent
-An exhaust that
doesn’t harm the atmosphere.
-A massive energy
output, which has become invincible.
Really a boon to the growing world. Let
us ‘invest’ on the chimney and enjoy the
everlasting ‘interest’ with actually no
‘capital’.
12
References: Websites:

1. Schlaich, J., 1995, "The Solar 1. http://www.rmrc.org/order.htm

Chimney: Electricity from the
Sun". C. Maurer, Geislingen, 2. www.midcoast.com/~bo/SelfCo
Germany. mfortingHome.html

2. Von Backström, T.W. & 3. www.enviromission.com.au/proj

Gannon, A.J., 2000, ect/prototype.htm
"Compressible Flow Through
Solar Power Plant Chimneys".
ASME Journal of Solar Energy
Engineering, Vol. 122, No. 3, pp.
138-145.

3. Padki, M.M. & Sherif, S.A., "On

a Simple Analytical Model for
Solar Chimneys". International
Journal of Energy Research, Vol.
23, No. 4, March 25 1999, pp.
345-349.

13
ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
PAPER PRESENTED BY :
Suresh B.N , A.paneendra kumar,
III B.Tech II sem, III B.Tech II sem,
Electrical and Electronics Engg ., Electrical and Electronics Engg.,
MITS, MITS,
Mdanapalli-517325, Madanapalli-517325,
E-mail I.D suresh062a1@gmail.com, E-mail I.D pani_amar@yahoo.com

Chittoor(dist). Chittoor(dist).
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh,
MADANAPALLI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

ABSTRACT:
The one ‘new ‘ source of energy that promises to replace oil and gas, and ultimately coal
is different kind of fusion reactor –the sun. The total amount of incoming solar energy
absorbed by the earth and its atmosphere in one year ----3.8*10^24 J ---is equivalent to
15 -20 times amount of energy stored in all of the world’s reserves of recoverable
hydrocarbons. Indeed, if just 0.005%of this solar energy could be captured using fuel
crops specially designed buildings, wind and water turbines, wave energy converters and
the like, this would supply more use full energy over the year than in currently obtained
by burning fossil fuels.
There are many applications using sun’s rays of such solar water heating, photovoltaic
energy conversion using solar energy are basic ones.

This paper discusses about Solar Electric Power Generation :Solar photo voltaics
i)Introduction
ii)Solar cell principles
iii)Semi conductor Junctions
iv)A basic photovoltaic system for power generation
v)Solar cell modules (solar photovoltaic arrays)
vi)Solar cell connecting arrangements
vii)Battery storage
viii)Inverters
ix)Applications of Solar photovoltaic system
x)Advantages and Disadvantages

Introduction:

Energy Management:
Is the sum of measures planned and carried out to achieve the objective of using the
minimum possible energy while the comfort levels (in offices or dwellings) and the
production rates (in factories) are maintained.

It can be applied to a factory, to an office building, to a sport center, to a dwelling,

and to any kind of building where energy use is required. To make an efficient use of
the energy and, as a consequence, to save it, the actions are focussed on:

• Energy conservation
• Energy recovery
• Energy substitution

Renewable Energy Resources :

Renewable energy sources include both ‘direct’ solar radiation intercepted by collectors
(e.g. solar and flat-plate thermal cells ) and indirect solar energy such as wind hydro
power, ocean energy and biomass resources that can be managed in a sustainable manner.
If broadly interpreted ,the definition of renewable resources also, include the chemical
energy stored in food and non fuel plant products and even the energy in air used to to
dry materials or to cool ,heat and ventilate the interiors of buildings. From an operational
view point, the correct way to treat renewable energy is as a means to reduce the demand
for conventional energy forms ,.Thus ,in performing economic and financial analysis
there is no real distinction between renewable energy technologies and those designed to
improve the efficiency of conventional energy use . Of such solar voltaic energy
conversion is an example of renewable energy resource.

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

INTRODUCTION:
The actual and proposed applications solar energy may be considered in three categories:
a)Direct Thermal Application
b)Solar Electric Applications
i)Solar thermal methods
ii)Photovoltaic Methods
iii)The conversion of solar energy
iv)Wind energy
c)Energy from Biomass and Bio-gas, refers to the conversion into clean fuels or other
energy related product of organic matter derived directly or indirectly from plants which
use solar energy to grow .Biomass materials include agricultural ,forest and animal
residues ,as well as terrestrial and aquatic plants grown especially for the purpose .For a
detail discussion see chapter on Biomass and Biogas.

Other Forms of Solar Energy :Water power, other than tidal power ,also represents the
utilization of solar energy .Heat from the sun causes the evaporation of surface waters,
the vapour rises is condensed in the upper atmosphere ,and falls as rain .The resulting
water that collects at higher elevations has substantial (potential)energy than can be
converted into electrical energy by means of turbine generator at a low level. The
discussion on Hydro-electric power*,is beyond the scope of this book ,only same brief
discussion is there on Micro hydel energy, which is a non-conventional method of
generating electric energy.
It may be noted, too that since fossil fuels –coal, oil, and natural gas-originate from living
matter, their energy is really solar energy that has been converted and stored for millions
of years.In fact, only nuclear energy,geothermal energy, and to a large extent ,tidal
energy, do not originate in the sun .Based on the above classification,direct solar energy
applications are discussed below in the following order:
1)Solar water heating
2)Space heating
3)Space cooling
4)Solar energy:Thermal electric conversion
5)Solar energy :Photovoltaic electric conversion
6)Solar distillation
7)Solar pumping
8)Agricultural and industrial process heat
9)Solar furnace
10)Solar cooking
11)Solar green houses

Solar Electric Power Generation:

Solar Photo-Voltaics
Introduction:
The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the Photovoltaic
effect, that is, the conversion of light(or other electromagnetic radiation ) into electricity.
The photo voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result
of the absorbtion of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices which are used convert
sunlight to electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells .A single
converter cell is called a solar cell or, more generally, a photovoltaic cell, and
combination of such cells designed to incease the electric power output is called a solar
module or solar array.

Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they absorb
light. As photons are received, free electrical charges are generated that can be collected
on contacts applied to the surfaces of the semiconductors. Because solar cells are not heat
engines, and therefore do not need to operate at high temperatures they are adopted to the
weak energy flux of solar radiation, operating at room temperature. These devices have
theoritical efficiencies are less than half this value, and decrease fairly rapidly with
increasing temperature.
The best known application of photovoltaic cells for electrical power generation has been
in space craft, for which the silicon solar cell is most the highly developed type. The
silicon cell consists of a single crystal of silicon into which a doping material is diffused
to form a semiconductor. Since the early days of solar cell development, many
improvements have been made in crystal growing and doping, electrical contact and cell
assembly and production methods .Large number of cells have been manufactured with
areas 2x2 cm, efficiency is the power developed per unit area array divided by the solar
energy flux in the free space(1.353kw/m).
For terrestrial applications, silicon solar cells have been shown operating efficiencies of
about 12to15 percent. Though silicon is one of the earths most abundant materials, it is
expensive to extract(from sand, where it occurs mostly in the form sio )and refine to the
purity required for solar cells. The grater barrier to solar cell application lies in the costs
of the cells themselves. Reducing the cost of silicon cell is difficult because of the cost of
making single crystal .One very promising method is being developed to produce
continuous thin ribbons of single crystal silicon to reduce fabrication costs .Cells made
from the ribbon have so far shown efficiencies of around 8 percent. Several other kinds of
photocells are in the laboratory stage of development .Cadmium sulfide and cds/cu2s
cells are other possibilities .So far ,efficiencies have been in the range of 3 to 8 percent,
and these cells have been less durable then silicon cells owing degradation with exposure
to oxygen, in water vapour and sunlight, especially at elevated temperature. The active
part of the cds cell is a thin poly crystalline layer of cds about 10um thick on which a
layer of cu2s compound perhaps 0.1 um thick is grown. These cells can be made by
deposition on long sheets of substrates a process that might be adoptable to expensive
mass production.
Photovoltaic cells could be applicable to either small or large power plants, since the
function well on a small scale, and may be adoptable to local energy generation on
building roof tops. The cost of energy storage and power conditioning equipment might,
however ,make generation in large stations the most economical method .Solar cells have
also been used to operate irrigation pumps navigational signals, high way emergency call
systems, rail road crossing warnings ,automatic metrological stations ,etc.,in location
where acess to utility power lines is difficult.
APV(photo-voltaic)system consists of :
i)Solar cell array
ii)Load leveller
iii)Storage system
iv)Trackling system (where necessary)
In actual usage, the solar cells are interconnected in certain series or parallel combination
to form modulus .These modulus are hermetically sealed for protection against corrosion,
moisture ,solution and weathering .A combination of suitable modulus constitutes an
array. One square meter of fixed array kept facing south yields nearly 0.5k WH of
electrical energy of normal sunny day if the oprientation of the array is adjusted to face
the sun’s rays at any time the output can increase by 30% .Solar PV system can produce
an out put only if sunlight is present.If it is required to be used during non sunshine
hours, a suitable system of storage batteries will be recquire.
Solar Cell Principles :The photovoltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of
a materials, but the materials that have shown the best performance in sunlight are the
semiconductors as stated above. Once these electrons are created there must be an electric
field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the semiconductor to do
useful work. The electronic fields in most solar cells mils provided by a junction of
materials which have different electronical properties .

To obtain a useful power output from photon interactions in a material and semi-
conductor three processes are required.

1. The photon have to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result in
electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.
2. The electron-hole charge carrier created by the absorbtion must be physically
separated and moved to the edge of the cell.
3. The charge carrier must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful before
they loose their extra potential

For completing the above processes, a solar cell consist .of:

1. Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of incident

solar radiation
2. Region containing a drift field for charge separation, and
3. Charge collecting front and back electrodes.

The photo-voltaic effect can be descried easily for p-n junction in a

semiconductor .In an intrinsic semiconductor such as silicon, each one of the four
valance electron of material atom is tired in a chemical bond ,and there are no free
electrons at absolute zero. If apiece of such a material is on one side by a five
valance electron material, such as arsenic or phosphorus, there will be an excess
electrons in that side, becomes an n-type semiconductor. The excess electrons will
be practically free to move in the semiconductor lattice. When the other side of
the same piece is dopped by a three valence electron material, such as boron, there
will be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type semiconductor. The deficiency
is expressed in terms of excess of holes free to move in lattice. Such a piece of
semiconductor with one side of the p-type and the other of n-type is called a p-n
junction. In this function after the photons are absorbed, the free electrons of the
n-side will tend to flow to the p-side, and the holes of the p-side will tend to flow
to the n region to compensate for their respective deficiencies. This diffusion will
create an electric field Ef from the n-region to the p-region. This field will
increase until it reaches equilibrium for Ve, the sum of diffusion potentials for
holes and electrons. If electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor
materials and the contacts are connected through an external electrical conductor,
the free electrons will flow from the n-type material through the conductor to p-
type material. Here the free electrons will enter the holes and become bound
electrons; thus both free electrons and holes will be removed. The flow of
electrons through the external conductors constitutes an electrical current which
will continue as long as more free electrons and holes being formed by the solar
radiation. This is the basis of photovoltaic conversion, that is, the conversion of
solar energy into electrical energy. The combination of n-type and p-type
semiconductors thus constitutes a photovoltaic ( PV) cell or solar cell. All such
cells generate direct current which can be converted into alternating current if
desired.
The most normal configuration for a solar cell to make a p-n junction
semiconductor is as shown schematically. The junction of the p-type and n -type
materials provides an inherent electrical field which separates the charge created
by the absorption of sunlight. This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p-
type base material into a diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n-type dopant.
Such phosphorous and allowing the n-dopant to diffuse into the surface about
0.2um.The junction is thus formed slightly below the planar surface and the light
impinges perpendicular to the junction. The positive and negative charges created
by the absorption of photons are thus is completely covered by a metallic contact
to remove the charges to the electric load. The collection of charges from the front
of the cell is aided by affine grid of narrow metallic fingers. The surface coverage
of the conducting collectors is typically about 5 per cent in order to allow as much
light as possible to reach active junction area. An antireflective coating is applied
on the top of the cell. Demonstrates how this p-n junction provides an electrical
field that sweeps tae electron in one direction and the positive holes in the other.
If the junction is in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the Fermi energy, uniform
throughout. Since the Fermi level is near the top of the gap of an n-doped material
and near the bottom of p-doped side, an electric field must exist at the junction
providing the charge separation function of the cell. Important characteristic of
the Fermi level is that, in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is always continuous
across the contact between the tow materials.
Each of the individual solar cells will produce power at about 0.5 V with the
current directly proportional to the cells area. The individual cells are connected
in series-parallel combination to meet the voltage, power and reliability
requirements of the particular applications. Space cells are covered with
transparent `Cover slips ` to absorb the high energy particles in space that could
cause damage in the cell and result in a degradation of output. For terrestrial
applications, in solar cell panels have to be encapsulated to protect them from
atmospheric degradation due to oxidation of the metal contacts, which would
cause peeling and open circuit materials such as glass, acrylics or silicon epaxies
are used to provide a clear, weather fight front covering for the panels.
Semiconductor junctions: Modern solar cells make use of
semiconductor materials usually based on single-crystal silicon. When doped with
phosphorous, arsenic, or antimony the silicon becomes an n-type semiconductor
as stated earlier :and when doped with boron, aluminium ,indium ,or gallium ,it
forms a p-type semiconductor is brought into intimate contact with one of the n-
type they form a p-n junction .If two semiconductor materials are derived from
the same element (or compound),such as silicon the system is reffered to as a
homo-junction .It also possible for a p-n junction to be formed from two different
semiconductor materials such as cadmium sulphide (c d s)and cuprous
sulfide(cu2s)this is known as hetero-junction. The general behaviour at the
junction , as outlined above ,is the same regardless of the type. The schottky
junction consisting of a semiconductor and metal .This junction is formed by
depositing a thin layer of a metallic conductor onto a p or n-type semiconductor.
Schottky junction photovoltaic cells made with the so-called amorphous silicon
are more efficient than homo junction p-n cells of the same material. Cost of it,
also less.
 The MIS (metal insulator-semiconductor )solar cell is similar the schottky type
except that a very thin layer (about 0.1 to 0.3um)of an insulator is deposited
between the semiconductors or and the metallic conductor .A conversion
efficiency of more than 17 percent has been reported for an MIS solar cell made
with single crystal silicon.
Conversion Efficiency and Power Output:
A solar cell usually uses a p-n junction its physical configuration is shown
schematically .Current and voltage relation ship is given by

Where
J is the current also called the dark current and is obtained when a large negative
voltage is applied across the diode.
V is the voltage across the junction
e is the electronic charge
k is Boltzmenn’s constant
T is the absolute temperature
When light impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a constant rate
providing an electrical current flow across the junction. The net current is thus the
difference between the normal diode current and light generated current. simplified
equivalent circuit for the cell. The internal series resistance R is mostly due to the high
sheet resistance the diffused layer which is in series with the junction

For both theoretical and practical reasons, not all of the solar radiation energy falling on a
solar cell can be converted into electrical energy. A specific amount of energy is required
to produce a free electron and a hole in the semi-conductor material. In the silicon for
example, the energy minimum is 1.1electron volts and this is available in radiation
having a wave length of 1.1um .(um or less).Consecuently infra radiation of longer wave
length has no photo voltaic effecting silicon but is largely absorbed as heat,. Further more
,even the energy of radiation with shorter wave lengths cannot be used completely energy
in excess of that needed to free a bound electron is simply converted into heat.
For the foregoing reasons, only about 45% of the energy in the solar radiation at c level is
capable of producing electrons and holes in silicon.However,because of the electrical
resistance of the semiconductor materials and other loss modes,the maximum practical
efficiecy for the conversion of solar energy into electrical energy
In a silicon solar cell is estimated to be about 21% .Photovoltaic semiconductor with
conversion efficiencies up to about 25% or more are know (gallium arsenide),but it is
uncertain if the extra conversion efficiency compensate for the additional cost,except in
special circumstances.
Because of the internal losses arises from minute amounts of impurities,from defects in
the silicon crystal,and from recombination of elements and holes before they can be
separated,external losses from reflection most commercial silicon solar cells have a
conversion efficiency of roughly 13 to 14 percent (average about 12%).However cells
have been made with efficiency of 18%,and these level will probably be attained in
commercial cells.
The power out put (in watts) of any generator of electricity ,including a photovoltaic
cell,is equal to the product of the voltage and current. Theoritically ,a silicon solar cell
should have the voltage of 1.1volts ,from 1.1 electron –volts energy of the free electron
produced. In practice, how -ever ,the maximum voltage is about 0.6 volts and this occurs
and open circuit,and no power is produced. The maximum power of a silicon occurs at an
output voltage of approximately0.45volts.In full sunlight,the current from a commercial
cell is then roughly 0.45X270=120vatts (or 0.12 kw)per sq.m
The rate at which solar energy reaches the top of the atmosphere (it is the solar
constant()is 1.353kilowatta persq/m(1.353kwper sq/m .Part of the energy is reflected
back to the space,and part is absorbed by the atmosphere. In the full sun light the solar
energy may be reach the ground at a rate of roughly 1Kw /sq.m
The electric power out put of a photovoltaic cell is roughly proportional to the rate at
which solar radiation falls on it surface.Hence the output of a cell of a given area can be
increased by combining it with a concentrating collector. Tracking collectors of the line-
focus type can provide a concentration of few hundred fold,with the compound parabolic
(non focusing) concentrator(cpc) a concentration factor of about ten is possible without
tracking.Since focusing collectors concentrate direct solar radiation only (but not diffuse
radiation),they would be most usefu7ll in the reasons of high insolation.However ,this
limitatioin might not be applicable to the cpc,since it can collect diffuse (scattered)
radiataion.
Most of the solar energy that is not converted into electricity in photovoltaic cell is
absorbed as heat.In a commercial single –crystal silicon cell ,for example,with a
conversion efficiency of about 12percent,more than 80percent of the incidence solar
energy appears as heat in the cell. As the temperature increase, the efficiency of an n-p
homo junction silicon cell will decreases ,for example, for a commercial cell it is about
8percent at 100C.Cell made of gallium arsenide are superior to silicon cells for operation
at elevated temperatures -
A Basic Photovoltaic System For Power Generation:
A basic photovoltaic system intergrated with the utility grid. It permits solarly generated
electrical power to be delivered to l0oc al load it consists of :
( I ) Solar array
( II) Blocking Diode
III. Battery storage ,
IV. Inverter /converter
V. Appropriate switches and circuit breakers
Solar Cell Modules ( solar photo voltaic arrays )
There may be tracking arrays or modules or fixed arrays. A Tracking array is defined as
one which is always kept mechanically perpendicular to sun array line so that all times it
intercepts the maximum insolation. Such arrays much be physically movable by suitable
prime mover and are generally considerable more complex than fixed arrays.
A fixed array is usually oriented east west tilted up at angle approximately equal to the
latitude of site. Fixed arrays are mechanically simpler than tracking arrays. Thus the array
designs fall in to two broad classes.
( I ) Flat-Plate arrays
( II) Concentrating arrays
Solar Cell Connecting Arrangement
Cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and then stacked in
series to achieve the desired voltage. The optimum operating voltage of voltaic cell is
generally about 0.45V at normal temperatures, and current in the full sun light may be
taken to be 270 A/Sq.m. If the exposed area of cell is 40Sqcm or 40*10^-40Sqmts. The
current would be 1.08A and electrical power output 0.45*1.08=0.49W in full sun light.
By combing a number of solar cells in series the voltage is increased but current is
unchanged. For ex 110V, for commercial tools, motors are domestic appliances, would
require 110/0.45 =244cells in series. To increase the current output at same time, several
strings of 244cells would be connected in parallel.
Battery Storage:
The means of storage on smaller moderate scale is in electric storage batteries, especially
as solar cells produce the direct electric current required for battery charging. The stored
energy can then be delivered as electricity upon discharge. Extensive research in progress
should lead to development of more suitable batteries
Inverters
These are the devices usually solid state, which change the array DC output to AC of
suitable voltage, frequency, and phase to feed photovoltaically generated power in to the
power grid or local load. These functional blocks are some times referred to as power
conditioning.

Applications Of Photovoltaic System:

Various solar photovoltaic systems have been developed and installed at different sites of
demonstration and field trail purposes. The terrestrial application of these include
provision of power supply to:
1. water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply,
2. radio beacons for ship navigation at ports,
3. community radio and television sets,
4. cathodic protection of oil pipe lines,
5. weathering monitoring,
6. railway signaling equipment,
7. battery charging,
8. street lighting.
The major application of photovoltaic system lies in water pumping for drinking water
supply and irrigation in rural areas. The photovoltaic water pumping system essentially
consists of
( A ) a photovoltaic array,
( B ) storage battery,
( C ) power control equipment,
( D ) motor pump sets and
( E ) water storage tank.
Photo Voltaic Solar Energy Conversion
Advantages:
1. absence of moving parts,
2. maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate,
3. they do not create pollution,
4. they are highly reliable.
Disadvantages:
Their principal disadvantages are their high cost, and the fact that, in many applications,
energy storage is required because of no isolation at night. Efforts are being made world
wide to reduce costs through various technological innovations.

Conclusion:
In order to replace the gas and oil, the ultimate coal is a different kind of fusion reactor –
the sun .By using suns rays we can generate electric power by means of solar
photovoltaic cell is discussed above

REFERENCES
NON – CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES BY G.D.RAI
GOOGLE SEARCH ON ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES
 NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
WASTE TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
(WTEE) TECHNOLOGY
GENERATING WEALTH FROM GARBAGE

Presented by:
D.BHASWANI
Mail i.d: bhaswani.206eee@gmail.com
II-EEE
JNTUCEA

JNTU College Of Engineering

ANANTAPUR

(Autonomous)
 CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT
2. RESOURCE RECOVERY
3. PROCESSED SOLID WASTE COMBUSTION
a. REFUSED DERIVED FUEL - PROCESSES
b. REFUSED DERIVED FUEL - PREPARATION
c. REFUSED DERIVED FUEL -
CLASSIFICATION
d. REFUSED DERIVED FUEL -
CHARACTERSTICS
e. REFUSED DERIVED FUEL - HIGHLIGHTS
4. WTEE – SOCIO ECONOMIC PROJECT
5. DEVELOPMENT & FUTURE OF WTEE
6. CONCLUSION
7.BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ABSTRACT

What happened on May, 2004 in Mumbai?

Due to failure of local grid. The business capital of India jammed for hours. Being largest
railway network city, even the locals also stick to tracks. This incident shows the human
connection with electricity. Electrical energy is an essential ingredient for all activities, as
well as the lifeblood of economies throughout the world. It plays a vital role for economic
growth and quality life improvements: with the increase in population of the world. The
demand for power has gradually increased. Hence the burden on the countries, especially
developing countries like India have increased to meet the demands in the present day. Most
of the demands are met by conventional sources such as fossil fuels, hydal, nuclear power etc.
The use of these sources have not only resulted in their depletion. But also increased the
population. Hence there is a great need for improving technology in the use of non-
conventional sources of energy which could greatly decrease the environmental needs and
which would assure the future needs particles to rural people at affordable rates.
This paper presents an overview of waste to electrical energy technology The basic concept
and different features of WTEE is described. It includes the various processes to produce
Refused Desire Fuel (RDF), its characteristics and classifications. This shows the solution to
disposal of municipal and agricultural solid waste which is an increasing problem today and
the developments and goals are described.
RESOURCE RECOVERY….
For the foreseeable future,
the disposal of municipal and agriculture
solid waste will continue to be an
increasing problem. This waste is either
composed, land filled, recycled or
converted to some form of energy but we
have another option called as Resource
Recovery. Recovering the energy from
municipal and agricultural solid waste.
And using this energy for power
production by Incineration and
Biomethanisation. Under this resource
recovery we have three options for power
production.
1. Unprocessed Solid Waste
Combustion.
2. Processed Solid Waste
Combustion.
3. Solid waste to liquid\gas convert
ion
1. UNPROCESSED SOLID
WASTE COMBUTION…………
The mass burn technologies
use municipal solid waste (MSW).
The MSW under goes only limited
processing to remove non combustible
and over sized items. Mass burn
technologies include water wall
furnace, rotary kiln furnace, refractory
furnace water cooled rotary
combustion furnace and controlled air
furnace.
2. PROCESSED SOLID WASTE
COMBUSTION
Under this process Refused
Derived Fuel (RDF) is used. The solid
waste are subjects to various process to
improve their physical & chemical
properties. These processes include
drying, comminution, densification,
physical separation and chemical
modification.
3. SOLID WASTE LIQUID /
GAS CONVERTION
TECHNOLOGY
These technologies convert
solid waste into either liquid or gas
fuels. This fuel can then be burned in a
conventional manner.
PROCESSED SOLID WASTE
COMBUSTION :
The WTEE technology
identified in this subsection are refused
derived fuel which has been processed
from MSW. Due to having improved
combustion characteristics and emition
characteristics and easy preparation. We
prefer this processed solid waste
combustion.
Refused Derived Fuel-Processes • Densification (with Binder and

Five major processes are available to Additives)

improve the physical and chemical

properties of agricultural and other LAY OUT
solid waste.
DRYING…..
Removal of physically based water either
thermally& mechanically in Centrifuges
and process.
COMMINUTION……….
Reducing of particle size by
shredding, cutting, grinding
&pulverization.
REFUSED DERIVED FUEL-
DENSIFICATION……..
Increasing of bulk density of waste PREPARATION
through palletizing, cutting Briquette, Following are the unit operations of the
extrusion ,as rolling compressing. process of refinement of MSW. These are
PHYSICAL SEPARATION Material handling, size reduction, Drying,
Removal of unwanted components Cyclone separation.
from solid waste. STEP I
CHEMICAL MODIFICATION The picked MSW is then allowed into the
Changing of waste’s chemical premises of the plant over a sorting
structure. conveyor to allow manual separation of
unwanted material like stones, rubber glass
RDF-PRODUCTION PROCESS etc and also a magnetic separator for
The Process : elimination of Iron objects.
The conversion process of garbage into STEP II
fuel fluff / pellets involves the following The manually sorted out MSW is then
processes: passed to a homonegeniser for segregating

• Pre-sizing the MSW over a screen, which will pass

• Drying material to the Primary crusher.

• Screening / Sieving STEP III

• Separation of Combustibles The screened MSW is fed to an impact or

for disintegration of the MSW in to small
• Size Reduction and production of Fuel
pieces .There is no limit on the input size.
Fluff
The moisture will be high. It may contain
some sand and silt, which may have some
abrasion affect and corrosion affect.
STEP IV
A conveyor to the rotary then transports
the discharge of Impact or to dryer for
moisture removal.
STEP V
The rotary dryer comprises of rotary dryer,
feeding, hot air circulation in co current
fashion with a cyclone separator and
blower and chimney for removal of fines.
STEP VI
The discharge of Rotary dryer will be
dried MSW. This is fed to a screen to
remove fines of less than 5-mm size,
which is primarily sand. This can be used
as manure. Over 5 mm will be fed to the
air classification system..
STEP VII
The discharge from the secondary screen
will be fed to AIR DENSITY
SEPERATOR (ADS) system in which the
material is fed through a rotary air lock.
The discharge from the rotary lock is
subjected to airflow in a zig -Zag
construction, which is controllable, by
dampeners. Hot air from Hot air generator
is also introduced here in addition to the
rotary drier for achieving higher dryness.
In this system the light combustible system
(organic and combustibles) is segregated
and the heavier material (inert) falls by
gravity.
The key factor for the separation is dryness
of the feed. Highly wet input material will
not separate and loss of combustible
fraction may occur. The rejects at the ADS
will be non-combustible fraction. This
fraction is conveyed and manual sorting is
resorted to pick up heavier fraction of
combustibles like woody biomass, coconut
shell, etc to return the same to feed.
STEP VIII
The discharge from ADS (Combustible
fraction) is further subjected to a
secondary shredding for finer
disintegration of the refined, combustible
fraction of the Processed MSW. The unit
also comprises a cyclone separator and a
bag filter unit and a suction blower in
closed circuit.
STEP IX
The discharge of the Secondary Crusher
cyclone is palletized through a pellet mill
POWER PRODUCTION :
The specific processed fuel (RDF) which
produced from above process is used to
fire in specially design furnaces like
Traveling grate furnace, Spreader stoker
fired boiler, and Suspension fired boiler
and Fluidized bed combustor for
production of steam. This steam can be
used to run Turbine which is mechanically
coupled with Generator which produces
Electrical power.
LAY OUT OF WATER PLANT

RDF - CHARACTERSTICS:
Refused derived fuel has better emission and burning characteristics and it is a low cost
substitute for other fossil fuels like coal, gas. High sulphur content of oil and coal when burnt
pollute the environment. There is no sulphur in RDF. RDF have a consistent quality have
high burning efficiency. Are ideally sized for complete combustion. Combustion is more
uniforms compared to coal and boiler response to changer in stream requirements is faster to
higher quality of volatile material.

RDF Characteristics
Ash Content - 2-10%
Moisture Content - 8%
Volatile Material - 75-80%
Sulphur Content - Nil
Calorific Value - 3,500 - 4,000 K.cal/Kg

Efficiency of Boiler :
Using Coal - 48%
Using RDF - 53%
 Fuel pellets from garbage: a better option

RDF - HIGHLIGHTS :
Comparing to coal and other fossil fuels. RDF has several activities and consistent
characteristics over other fuels.
RDF - CHEAP FUEL :
RDF is a low cost substitute for coal and other fossil fuels. It is cheaper than coal, lignite,
peat. It won’t cost that much as coal. It takes only transportation and processing cost, which
is, has less comparing to other fuels.

RDF ECOFRIENDLY FUEL :

RDF has better emission characteristics than coal. In the process due to reduction of sand
and reduced moisture content it has improved calorific value. It won’t emit any harmful
gases, which cure global warming like CO2, CO and methane (C2H4).
Due to less carbon content this avoids methane gas, which is produced due to decomposition
of waste.
RDF – ALLROUNDER :
RDF is not only used for power generators. It can be also used for burning in process plants
like Paper Mills, Alluminium Industries and other steam production purpose. This is most
economical to use instead of other furnace feedings.
WTEE –SOCIO ECONOMIC 700 tons of MSW of 2200 tons generated
PROJECT : every day in twin cities of Hyderabad.

Waste to electrical energy is the best Another plant named as Shriram Energy

alternative comparing to other Systems Ltd., also producing 6 MW of

conventional and non-conventional power at Vijayawada using RDF as fuel

sources. This is mass reliable and cheap processed from MSW generated in

source. WTEE won’t give any harmful Vijayawada & Guntur cities.

pollutents and it decreases the problem of The technology development board and

waste disposal and decomposition of technology information forecasting and

waste. This WTEE system can aid in assessment council (TIFAC) are trying to

saving a lot of urban land, which is assist industries on this technology. The

wasted. And this is the system among the above cited SELCO is going to establish

other non–conventional sources, which is another 20 MW power plant in Hyderabad

more reliable. city. And Shriram Energy got permission

This WTEE is the only solution to meet to install Another plant in vizag. This

our future needs. According to Central processed to our state that the WTEE

Pollutions Control Board (CPCB) the per plants are only in AP and our president

capita generation of MSW per head is 350 also appreciated.

gms. From this statistics being second

largest population country our India won’t
get any power scarcity if we use this
WTEE technology.

DEVELOPMENTS & FUTURE OF

WTEE :
This WTEE technology is in practice since
1942 in US and Germany. In India it
comes in to the picture in 2003. The first
power plant using waste to electrical
energy technology (WTEE) is
commissioned on Dec, 20th 2003 of
capacity 6MW named as SELCO at
Elicatta village in Shadnagar of
Mahaboobnagar District. This plant using
CONCLUSION :
With the above discussion we conclude that this WTEE technology is the better solution.
Being second largest population country the demand has drastically increased. And most of
our Indian villages still unelectrified. According to CPCB studies in India 70% of cities
won’t have sufficient facilities for transportation of MSW. By using this WTEE we can
avoid the MSW disposal problem and we can save a lot of money which is going to be
wasted for transporting to outer yards of cities and a lot of urban land which is wasted under
dump yards.
Not only in cities, this WTEE technology is also suitable for rural villages where Agricultural
and solid waste is abundant.
By preserving the Agricultural waste according to seasonal crops, we can light so many
villages which are not aware of electricity. If we implement this technology in rural areas we
wont need to wait upto 2012 for “MISSION-2012 POWER FOR ALL”.

COURTACY
Power Plant Engineering - BLACK & VEATCH
SRIRAM ENERGY SYSTEMS, VIJAYAWADA.

THANQ
TITLE:

WIND ENERGY AND SOLAR

ENERGY

CONSERVATION
AUTHORS:
1) Y.LOKESH KRISHNA

2) M.ANVESH

AUTHORS AFFILIATION’S

1) Y.LOKESH KRISHNA

Reg.no: 06741A0221

BRANCH: Electrical and electronics engineering

COLLEGE: Intell engineering college,

Anantapur.

Email: lokesh.krishna21@gmail.com

2) M.ANVESH

Reg.no : 06741A0203

BRANCH: Electrical and electronics engineering

COLLEGE: Intell engineering college,

Anantapur.

Email: anvi.tiger@gmail.com
Abstract:
Energy consumption of nation is usually taken be taken on utilizing these

considered as an index of its development. resources. Some of us will be thinking

This is because almost all developmental that renewable sources can exit for ever

activities are directly or indirectly and there by this world would be never

dependent upon energy. We find short of these renewable sources but, even

disparities in per capita energy use our renewable energy sources can become

between developed and the developing non-renewable if exploit them to such

nations. extent that their rate of consumption

exceeds their rate of generation.
Power is the basic need for economic
development of any country. Availability Latest trend must be used in utilizing

of electricity has been the most powerful these non-conventional sources. Also

vehicle of introducing economic there is a need for developing future

development & social change through out trends regarding these non-conventional

the world. sources. There by overcoming the present

demerits. Here energy management
Though there are many energy sources means not using these resources to meet
available in present trend such as our needs, but we should utilize them in
conventional energy sources and non- such a manner that they would save
conventional energy sources, but we enough of them for our future
should use them in such a manner such generations.
that they also help for our future
generation. So here energy management This paper describes some of the energy

is very much needed in making this world management steps to be taken regarding

more developed. So proper care should be non-conventional energy sources. Here we

also mentioned about the trends in non-
conventional energy sources.

Introduction:
The Industrial Revolution of the 19th
Century ushered in new technologies. The
spurt in inventions in that century was
unprecedented in many ways. Some of these
inventions involved use of natural resources
like coal and oil. The thought of exhaustible
nature of these resources and the
environmental damage from the use of these
resources never occurred either to the
inventors or the subsequent generations. In
the quest to sustain galloping economic
activity, the dependence on coal and oil has
soared at a phenomenal rate over the years.
The burnt fuels result in the release of
Carbondioxide and other gases into the
atmosphere causing environmental damage.
It has become imperative to look at energy
technology with a new perspective. There
are abundant renewable sources of energy
such as wind, sun, water, sea, biomass apart
from even daily wastes. These sources are
pollution free and hence clean energy apart
from being unlimited/
inexhaustible.
Renewable energy effectively uses natural
resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides
and geothermal heat, which are naturally
replenished. Renewable energy technologies
range from solar power, wind power,
hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and
biofuels for transportation.
Renewable energy flows involve natural
phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and
geothermal heat, as the International Energy
Agency explains:
"Renewable energy is derived from natural
processes that are replenished constantly. In
its various forms, it derives directly from the
sun, or from heat generated deep within the
earth. Included in the definition is electricity
and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean,
hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources,
and biofuels and hydrogen derived from
renewable resources."
Each of these sources has unique
characteristics which influence how and
where they are used.
Wind power
Offshore wind turbines near Copenhagen
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines.
Modern wind turbines range from around
600kW to up to 5 MW of rated power,
although turbines, with rated output of 1.5–3
MW, have become the most common for
commercial use; the power output of a
turbine is a function of the cube of the wind
speed, so as wind speed increases, power
output increases dramatically Areas where
winds are stronger and more constant, such
as offshore and high altitude sites, are
preferred locations for wind farms.
Wind power is the fastest growing of the
renewable energy technologies, though it
currently provides less than 0.5 percent of
global energy. Over the past decade, global
installed maximum capacity increased from
2,500 MW in 1992 to just over 40,000 MW
at the end of 2003, at an annual growth rate
of near 30 percent. As wind power has
become more prominent and viable, several
public schools are incorporating sustainable
wind power into the energy grid of their
school in order to cut power costs. Due to
the intermittency of wind resources, most
deployed turbines in the EU produce an
average quantity of electricity that would be
equivalent to 25 percent of the hours in a
year working at nominal capacity (a capacity
factor of 25 percent), but under favourable
wind regimes some reach 35 percent or
higher. Capacity factors are a function of
seasonal wind fluctuations and may be
higher in winter. It would mean that a
typical 5 MW turbine in the EU would have
an average output of 1.7 MW.
Wind power is renewable and produces no
greenhouse gases during operation, such as
carbon dioxide and methane.
Water power
Energy in water (in the form of motive
energy or temperature differences) can be
harnessed and used. Since water is about
800 times denser than air, even a slow
flowing stream of water, or moderate sea
swell, can yield considerable amounts of
energy.

Globally, the long-term technical potential

of wind energy is believed to be five times
total current global energy production, or 40
times current electricity demand. This could
require large amounts of land to be used for
wind turbines, particularly in areas of higher
wind resources. Offshore resources
experience mean wind speeds of ~90%
greater than that of land, so offshore
One of 3 PELAMIS P-750 Ocean Wave
resources could contribute substantially
Power engines in the harbour of Peniche/
more energy. This number could also
Portugal.
increase with higher altitude ground-based
or airborne wind turbines.
There are many forms of water energy:
Wind strengths near the Earth's surface vary
• Hydroelectric energy is a term
and thus cannot guarantee continuous power
usually reserved for large-scale
unless combined with other energy sources
hydroelectric dams. Examples are the Grand
or storage systems. Some estimates suggest
Coulee Dam in Washington State and the
that 1,000 MW of conventional wind
Akosombo Dam in Ghana.
generation capacity can be relied on for just
• Micro hydro systems are
333 MW of continuous power. While this
hydroelectric power installations that
might change as technology evolves,
typically produce up to 100 kW of power.
advocates have suggested incorporating
They are often used in water rich areas as a
wind power with other power sources, or the
Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS). There
use of energy storage techniques, with this
are many of these installations around the
in mind. It is best used in the context of a
world, including several delivering around
system that has significant reserve capacity
50 kW in the Solomon Islands.
such as hydro, or reserve load, such as a
• Dam less hydro systems derive
desalination plant, to mitigate the economic
kinetic energy from rivers and oceans
effects of resource variability.
without using a dam.
• Wave power uses the energy in
waves. The waves will usually make
 large pontoons go up and down in the
water, leaving an area with reduced
wave height in the "shadow". Wave
power has now reached
commercialization.
• Tidal power captures energy from
the tides in a vertical direction. Tides
come in, raise water levels in a basin,
and tides roll out. Around low tide, the
water in the basin is discharged through
a turbine.
• Tidal stream power captures energy
from the flow of tides, usually using
underwater plant resembling a small
wind turbine. Tidal stream power
demonstration projects exist, and the
first commercial prototype will be
installed in Strangford Lough in
September 2007.
• Ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) uses the temperature difference
between the warmer surface of the ocean
and the colder lower recesses. To this
end, it employs a cyclic heat engine.
OTEC has not been field-tested on a
large scale.
• Deep lake water cooling, although
not technically an energy generation
method, can save a lot of energy in
summer. It uses submerged pipes as a
heat sink for climate control systems.
Lake-bottom water is a year-round local
constant of about 4 °C.
• Blue energy is the reverse of
desalination. This form of energy is in
research.
Solar energy use
A photovoltaic (PV) module that is
composed of multiple PV cells. Two or
more interconnected PV modules create an
array.
In this context, "solar energy" refers to
energy that is collected from sunlight. Solar
energy can be applied in many ways,
including to:
• Generate electricity using
photovoltaic solar cells.
• Generate electricity using
concentrated solar power.
• Generate electricity by heating
trapped air which rotates turbines in a
Solar updraft tower.
• Heat buildings, directly, through
passive solar building design.
• Heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.
• Heat water or air for domestic hot
water and space heating needs using
solar-thermal panels.
• Heat and cool air through use of
solar chimneys.
• Generate electricity in
geosynchronous orbit using solar power
satellites.
• Solar air conditioning
Biofuel
Plants use photosynthesis to grow and
produce biomass. Also known as biomatter,
biomass can be used directly as fuel or to
produce liquid biofuel. Agriculturally
produced biomass fuels, such as biodiesel,
ethanol and bagasse (often a by-product of
sugar cane cultivation) can be burned in
internal combustion engines or boilers.
Typically biofuel is burned to release its
stored chemical energy. Research into more
efficient methods of converting biofuels and
other fuels into electricity utilizing fuel cells
is an area of very active work.
Liquid biofuel
Information on pump, California.
Liquid biofuel is usually either a bioalcohol
such as ethanol fuel or a bio-oil such as
biodiesel and straight vegetable oil.
Biodiesel can be used in modern diesel
vehicles with little or no modification to the
engine and can be made from waste and
virgin vegetable and animal oil and fats
(lipids). Virgin vegetable oils can be used in
modified diesel engines. In fact the Diesel
engine was originally designed to run on
vegetable oil rather than fossil fuel. A major
benefit of biodiesel is lower emissions. The
use of biodiesel reduces emission of carbon
monoxide and other hydrocarbons by 20 to
40%. In some areas corn, cornstalks,
sugarbeets, sugar cane, and switchgrasses
are grown specifically to produce ethanol
(also known as grain alcohol) a liquid which
can be used in internal combustion engines
and fuel cells. Ethanol is being phased into
the current energy infrastructure. E85 is a
fuel composed of 85% ethanol and 15%
gasoline that is sold to consumers.
Biobutanol is being developed as an
alternative to bioethanol. There is growing
international criticism about biofuels from
food crops with respect to issues such as
food security, environmental impacts
(deforestation) and energy balance.
Solid biomass
Main article: biomass
Sugar cane residue can be used as a biofuel
Solid biomass is mostly commonly usually
used directly as a combustible fuel,
producing 10-20 MJ/kg of heat.
Its forms and sources include wood fuel, the
biogenic portion of municipal solid waste, or
the unused portion of field crops. Field crops
may or may not be grown intentionally as an
energy crop, and the remaining plant
byproduct used as a fuel. Most types of
biomass contain energy. Even cow manure,
still contains two-thirds of the original
energy consumed by the cow. Energy
harvesting via a bioreactor is a cost-effective
solution to the waste disposal issues faced
by the dairy farmer, and can produce enough
biogas to run a farm.
With current technology, it is not ideally
suited for use as a transportation fuel. Most
transportation vehicles require power
sources with high power density, such as
that provided by internal combustion
engines. These engines generally require
clean burning fuels, which are generally in
liquid form, and to a lesser extent,
compressed gaseous phase. Liquids are more
portable because they have high energy
density, and they can be pumped, which
makes handling easier. This is why most
transportation fuels are liquids.
Non-transportation applications can usually
tolerate the low power-density of external
combustion engines, that can run directly on
less-expensive solid biomass fuel, for
combined heat and power. One type of
biomass is wood, which has been used for
millennia in varying quantities, and more
recently is finding increased use. Two
billion people currently cook every day, and
heat their homes in the winter by burning
biomass, which is a major contributor to
man-made climate change global warming.
The black soot that is being carried from
Asia to polar ice caps is causing them to
melt faster in the summer. In the 19th
century, wood-fired steam engines were
common, contributing significantly to
industrial revolution unhealthy air pollution.
Coal is a form of biomass that has been
compressed over millennia to produce a
non-renewable, highly-polluting fossil fuel.
Wood and its byproducts can now be
converted through process such as
gasification into biofuels such as woodgas,
biogas, methanol or ethanol fuel; although
further development may be required to
make these methods affordable and
practical. Sugar cane residue, wheat chaff,
corn cobs and other plant matter can be, and
are, burned quite successfully. The net
carbon dioxide emissions that are added to
the atmosphere by this process are only from
the fossil fuel that was consumed to plant,
fertilize, harvest and transport the biomass.
Processes to harvest biomass from short-
rotation poplars and willows, and perennial
grasses such as switchgrass, phalaris, and
miscanthus, require less frequent cultivation
and less nitrogen than from typical annual
crops. Pelletizing miscanthus and burning it
to generate electricity is being studied and
may be economically viable.
Though converting cellulosic biomass to
ethanol receives much attention, there may
be more environmentally beneficial uses of
biomass in energy production. The higher
heating value of cellulose is about 17.4
MJ/kg. The estimated yield of ethanol from
dry cellulose is about 0.2 kg of ethanol per
kg of cellulose (60 gal/ton). Since the higher
heating value of ethanol is 29.7 MJ/kg,[32]
the yield from cellulose is 5.94 MJ/kg.
Burning ethanol produced from this method
results in about 67% less energy than is
contained in the cellulose that it was made
from. One possible alternative use to ethanol
production is to co-fire cellulose with coal,
which government tests have shown would
produce "no deleterious capacity impacts
from cofiring, that efficiency losses could be
modest and manageable, and that emissions
impacts would be beneficial." Boiler
efficiency was shown to be reduced by 1%
or less (with a mixture of 16% sawdust or
less) and NOx emissions dropped 6-12% or
more (depending on the ratio of the
mixture).
Biogas
Biogas can easily be produced from current
waste streams, such as: paper production,
sugar production, sewage, animal waste and
so forth. These various waste streams have
to be slurried together and allowed to
naturally ferment, producing methane gas.
This can be done by converting current
sewage plants into biogas plants. When a
biogas plant has extracted all the methane it
can, the remains are sometimes better
suitable as fertilizer than the original
biomass.
Alternatively biogas can be produced via
advanced waste processing systems such as
mechanical biological treatment. These
systems recover the recyclable elements of
household waste and process the
biodegradable fraction in anaerobic
digesters.
Renewable natural gas is a biogas which has
been upgraded to a quality similar to natural
gas. By upgrading the quality to that of
natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute
the gas to the mass market via gas grid.
Geothermal energy
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast
Iceland
Geothermal energy is energy obtained by
tapping the heat of the earth itself, usually
from kilometers deep into the Earth's crust.
It is expensive to build a power station but
operating costs are low resulting in low
energy costs for suitable sites. Ultimately,
this energy derives from heat in the Earth's
core. The government of Iceland states: "It
should be stressed that the geothermal
resource is not strictly renewable in the
same sense as the hydro resource." It
estimates that Iceland's geothermal energy
could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years,
compared to the current production of 140
MW. The International Energy Agency
classifies geothermal power as renewable.[35]
Three types of power plants are used to
generate power from geothermal energy: dry
steam, flash, and binary. Dry steam plants
take steam out of fractures in the ground and
use it to directly drive a turbine that spins a
generator. Flash plants take hot water,
usually at temperatures over 200 °C, out of
the ground, and allows it to boil as it rises to
the surface then separates the steam phase in
steam/water separators and then runs the
steam through a turbine. In binary plants, the
hot water flows through heat exchangers,
boiling an organic fluid that spins the
turbine. The condensed steam and remaining
geothermal fluid from all three types of
plants are injected back into the hot rock to
pick up more heat.
The geothermal energy from the core of the
Earth is closer to the surface in some areas
than in others. Where hot underground
steam or water can be tapped and brought to
the surface it may be used to generate
electricity. Such geothermal power sources
exist in certain geologically unstable parts of
the world such as Iceland, New Zealand,
United States, the Philippines and Italy. The
two most prominent areas for this in the
United States are in the Yellowstone basin
and in northern California. Iceland produced
170 MW geothermal power and heated 86%
of all houses in the year 2000 through
geothermal energy. Some 8000 MW of
capacity is operational in total.
There is also the potential to generate
geothermal energy from hot dry rocks.
Holes at least 3 km deep are drilled into the
earth. Some of these holes pump water into Wind
the earth, while other holes pump hot water 0.12 640 6,000
energy
out. The heat resource consists of hot
underground radiogenic granite rocks, which
heat up when there is enough sediment Solar 3,900,000
between the rock and the earths surface. 0.1 >1,575
energy
Several companies in Australia are
exploring this technology.
Geotherm 140,000,00
Future potential 0.6 5,000
al energy 0

While at present renewable energy sources

only supply a fraction of current energy use not not
(ca. 14% of primary energy use, mostly Ocean
estimate estimate 7,400
from traditional biomass), there is much energy
d d
potential that could be exploited in the
future. As the table below illustrates, the
technical potential of renewable energy
>144,000,0
sources is more than 18 times current global Total 60 >7,600
00
primary energy use and furthermore several
times higher than projected energy use in
2100.
Current use is in primary energy equivalent.
For comparison, the global primary energy
use was 402 EJ per year in 2001.
Source: World Energy Assessment 2001
The Renewable Energy Resource Base
(Exajoules per year)
There are many different ways to assess
potentials. The theoretical potential indicates
the amount of energy theoretically available
Technic
Curren for energy purposes, such as, in the case of
al Theoretical
t use solar energy, the amount of incoming
potentia potential
(2001) radiation at the earth's surface. The technical
l
potential is a more practical estimate of how
much could be put to human use by
considering conversion efficiencies of the
Hydropow available technology and available land area.
er 9 50 147 To give an idea of the constraints, the
estimate for solar energy assumes that 1% of
the world's unused land surface is used for
Biomass solar power.
50 >276 2,900
energy
The technical potentials generally do not
include economic or other environmental
constraints, and the potentials that could be
realized at an economically competitive
level under current conditions and in a short
time-frame is lower still.
Trends favoring renewables
The renewable market will boom when cost
efficiency attains parity with other
competing energy sources. The following
trends are a few examples by which the
renewables market is being helped to attain
critical mass so that it becomes competitive
enough vs fossil fuels:
Other than market forces, renewable
industry often needs government
sponsorship to help generate enough
momentum in the market. Many countries
and states have implemented incentives —
like government tax subsidies, partial
copayment schemes and various rebates
over purchase of renewables — to
encourage consumers to shift to renewable
energy sources. Government grants fund for
research in renewable technology to make
the production cheaper and generation more
efficient.
Development of loan programs that
stimulate renewable favoring market forces
with attractive return rates, buffer intial
deployment costs and entice consumers to
consider and purchase renewable
technology. A famous example is the solar
loan program sponsored by UNEP helping
100,000 people finance solar power systems
in India. Success in India's solar program
has led to similar projects in other parts of
developing world like Tunisia, Morocco,
Indonesia and Mexico.
Imposition of high fossil fuel consumption /
carbon taxes, and channel the revenue
earned towards renewable energy
development.
Many think-tanks are warning that the world
needs an urgency driven concerted effort to
create a competitive renewable energy
infrastructure and market. The developed
world can make more research investments
to find better cost efficient technologies, and
manufacturing could be transferred to
developing countries in order to use low
labor costs. The renewable energy market
could increase fast enough to replace and
initiate the decline of fossil fuel dominance
and the world could then avert the looming
climate and peak oil crises.
Most importantly, renewables is gaining
credence among private investors as having
the potential to grow into the next big
industry. Many companies and venture
capitalists are investing in photovoltaic
development and manufacturing. This trend
is particularly visible in Silicon valley,
California, Europe, Japan.
Constraints and opportunities
Critics suggest that some renewable energy
applications may create pollution, be
dangerous, take up large amounts of land, or
be incapable of generating a large net
amount of energy. Proponents advocate the
use of "appropriate renewables", also known
as soft energy technologies, as these have
many advantages.
Availability
There is no shortage of solar-derived energy
on Earth. Indeed the storages and flows of
energy on the planet are very large relative
to human needs.
• The amount of solar energy
intercepted by the Earth every
minute is greater than the amount of
energy the world uses in fossil fuels
each year.
 • Tropical oceans absorb 560 trillion
gigajoules (GJ) of solar energy each
year, equivalent to 1,600 times the
world’s annual energy use.
• The energy in the winds that blow
across the United States each year
could produce more than 16 billion
GJ of electricity—more than one and
one-half times the electricity
consumed in the United States in
2000.
• Annual photosynthesis by the
vegetation in the United States is 50
billion GJ, equivalent to nearly 60%
of the nation’s annual fossil fuel use.
A criticism of some renewable sources is
their intermittent nature. But a variety of
renewable sources in combination can
overcome this problem. As Amory Lovins
explains:
"Stormy weather, bad for direct solar
collection, is generally good for
windmills and small hydropower
plants; dry, sunny weather, bad for
hydropower, is ideal for
photovoltaics."
The challenge of variable power supply may
be further alleviated by energy storage.
Available storage options include pumped-
storage hydro systems, batteries, hydrogen
fuel cells, and thermal mass. Initial
investments in such energy storage systems
can be high, although the costs can be
recovered over the life of the system.
Wave energy is continuously available,
although wave intensity varies by season. A
wave energy scheme installed in Australia
generates electricity with an 80%
availability factor.
Aesthetics
Both solar and wind generating stations have
been criticized from an aesthetic point of
view.However, methods and opportunities
exist to deploy these renewable technologies
efficiently and unobtrusively: fixed solar
collectors can double as noise barriers along
highways, and extensive roadway, parking
lot, and roof-top area is currently available;
amorphous photovoltaic cells can also be
used to tint windows and produce
energy.Advocates of renewable energy also
argue that current infrastructure is less
aethetically pleasing than alternatives, but
sited further from the view of most critics.
Environmental and social
considerations
While most renewable energy sources do not
produce pollution directly, the materials,
industrial processes, and construction
equipment used to create them may generate
waste and pollution. Some renewable energy
systems actually create environmental
problems. For instance, older wind turbines
can be hazardous to flying birds.
Land area required
Another environmental issue, particularly
with biomass and biofuels, is the large
amount of land required to harvest energy,
which otherwise could be used for other
purposes or left as undeveloped land.
However, it should be pointed out that these
fuels may reduce the need for harvesting
non-renewable energy sources, such as vast
strip-mined areas and slag mountains for
coal, safety zones around nuclear plants, and
hundreds of square miles being strip-mined
for oil sands. These responses, however, do
not account for the extremely high
biodiversity and endemism of land used for
ethanol crops, particularly sugar cane.
Hydroelectric dams
The major advantage of hydroelectric
systems is the elimination of the cost of fuel.
Other advantages include longer life than
fuel-fired generation, low operating costs,
and the provision of facilities for water
sports. Operation of pumped-storage plants
improves the daily load factor of the
generation system. Overall, hydroelectric
power can be far less expensive than
electricity generated from fossil fuels or
nuclear energy, and areas with abundant
hydroelectric power attract industry.
However, there are several major
disadvantages of hydroelectric systems.
These include: dislocation of people living
where the reservoirs are planned, release of
significant amounts of carbon dioxide at
construction and flooding of the reservoir,
disruption of aquatic ecosystems and
birdlife, adverse impacts on the river
environment, potential risks of sabotage and
terrorism, and in rare cases catastrophic
failure of the dam wall.
Hydroelectric power is now more difficult to
site in developed nations because most
major sites within these nations are either
already being exploited or may be
unavailable for other reasons such as
environmental considerations.
Wind farms
Wind power is one of the most
environmentally friendly sources of
renewable energy
A wind farm, when installed on agricultural
land, has one of the lowest environmental
impacts of all energy sources:
It occupies less land area per kilowatt-hour
(kWh) of electricity generated than any
other energy conversion system, apart from
rooftop solar energy, and is compatible with
grazing and crops.
• It generates the energy used in its
construction in just 3 months of
operation, yet its operational lifetime is
20–25 years.
• Greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution produced by its construction
are tiny and declining. There are no
emissions or pollution produced by its
operation.
• In substituting for base-load coal
power, wind power produces a net
decrease in greenhouse gas emissions
and air pollution, and a net increase in
biodiversity.
• Modern wind turbines are almost
silent and rotate so slowly (in terms of
revolutions per minute) that they are
rarely a hazard to birds.
Studies of birds and offshore wind farms in
Europe have found that there are very few
bird collisions. Several offshore wind sites
in Europe have been in areas heavily used
by seabirds. Improvements in wind turbine
design, including a much slower rate of
rotation of the blades and a smooth tower
base instead of perchable lattice towers,
have helped reduce bird mortality at wind
farms around the world. However older
smaller wind turbines may be hazardous to
flying birds. Birds are severely impacted by
fossil fuel energy; examples include birds
dying from exposure to oil spills, habitat
loss from acid rain and mountaintop removal
coal mining, and mercury poisoning.
Longevity issues
Though a source of renewable energy may
last for billions of years, renewable energy
infrastructure, like hydroelectric dams, will
not last forever, and must be removed and
replaced at some point. Events like the
shifting of riverbeds, or changing weather
patterns could potentially alter or even halt
the function of hydroelectric dams, lowering
the amount of time they are available to
generate electricity.
Although geothermal sites are capable of
providing heat for many decades, eventually
specific locations may cool down. It is likely
that in these locations, the system was
designed too large for the site, since there is
only so much energy that can be stored and
replenished in a given volume of earth.
Some interpret this as meaning a specific
geothermal location can undergo depletion.
Biofuels production
All biomass needs to go through some of
these steps: it needs to be grown, collected,
dried, fermented and burned. All of these
steps require resources and an infrastructure.
Some studies contend that ethanol is "energy
negative", meaning that it takes more energy
to produce than is contained in the final
product. Fuels like ethanol are energy
positive. Furthermore, fossil fuels also
require significant energy inputs which have
seldom been accounted for in the past.
Additionally, ethanol is not the only product
created during production, and the energy
content of the by-products must also be
considered. Corn is typically 66% starch and
the remaining 33% is not fermented. This
unfermented component is called distillers
grain, which is high in fats and proteins, and
makes good animal feed. In Brazil, where
sugar cane is used, the yield is higher, and
conversion to ethanol is somewhat more
energy efficient than corn. Recent
developments with cellulosic ethanol
production may improve yields even further.
According to the International Energy
Agency, new biofuels technologies being
developed today, notably cellulosic ethanol,
could allow biofuels to play a much bigger
role in the future than previously thought.
Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant
matter composed primarily of inedible
cellulose fibers that form the stems and
branches of most plants. Crop residues (such
as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw),
wood waste, and municipal solid waste are
potential sources of cellulosic biomass.
Dedicated energy crops, such as
switchgrass, are also promising cellulose
sources that can be sustainably produced in
many regions of the United States.
The ethanol and biodiesel production
industries also create jobs in plant
construction, operations, and maintenance,
mostly in rural communities.
Diversification
Although most of today’s electricity comes
from large, central-station power plants, new
technologies offer a range of options for
generating electricity nearer to where it is
needed, saving on the cost of transmitting
and distributing power and improving the
overall efficiency and reliability of the
system.
Improving energy efficiency represents the
most immediate and often the most cost-
effective way to reduce oil dependence,
improve energy security, and reduce the
health and environmental impact of the
energy system. By reducing the total energy
requirements of the economy, improved
energy efficiency could make increased
reliance on renewable energy sources more
practical and affordable.
Other issues
Nuclear Fission power
In 1983, physicist Bernard Cohen proposed
that uranium could provide effectively
inexhaustible energy.
We thus conclude that all the world’s energy
requirements for the remaining 5×109 yr of
existence of life on Earth could be provided
by breeder reactors without the cost of
electricity rising by as much as 1% due to
fuel costs. This is consistent with the
definition of a “renewable” energy source in
the sense in which that term is generally
used.
Sustainability
Renewable energy sources are generally
sustainable in the sense that they cannot "run
out" as well as in the sense that their
environmental and social impacts are
generally more benign than those of fossil.
However, both biomass and geothermal
energy require wise management if they are
to be used in a sustainable manner. For all of
the other renewables, almost any realistic
rate of use would be unlikely to approach
their rate of replenishment by nature.
Renewable electricity
Renewable electricity is a term used for
electricity primarily produced from the
renewable resources (solar, wind... energy).
It is generally labeled as green energy.
Goals and Objectives
1) Encourage and promote private
investments in renewable energy through
suitable policy initiativesat level .
2) Involve local bodies in developing
decentralized power and its use in
agriculture, household sectors etc.
3) Establish field units to promote renewable
energyat local levels byintegrating existing
programme staff.
4) Enable suitable revision of power
purchase rate for grid connected power to
make it attractive for the investors.
5) Encourage research and development to
improve efficiency of the devices and bring
down the cost.
Conclusion:
If we want the existence of our future
generation we should make of these non-
conventional energy sources very
effectively. Many of the latest technologies
should be invented. Some of the nations
kepping this in view are developing latest
trends .so there by every nation should
follow them and become more developed.
References:
1) World Energy Assessment
(2001).Renewable energy technologies, chapter
7.
2) World Energy Assessment (2001).Renewable
energy technologies , p. 221.
3) www.wikipedia.com
4) www.google.com
5) www.yahoosearch.com
6) www.awea.org/projects/
P.SIVARAM & K.MANOJ KRISHNA
(06761A0250) (06761A0234)
III-
III- B-
B-Tech, EEE III-
III- B-
B-Tech, EEE
pothuru_sivaram@yahoo.co.in manojkrishna001@gmail.com

1
ABSTRACT:
"The extraction, conversion, and
utilization of energy are the single
largest component of air and water
pollution, as well as emissions
causing the change of our global
climate."
The fossil fuels are being steadily
depleted, and they cannot be replaced on any
time scale of human civilizations. While the
lifetime of oil and gas may exist through the
first half of this century .So a quest for
sustainable alternative must happen well
before the physical or economic depletion.
This lead to the utilization of non-
conventional energy sources which are eco-
friendly.
This paper deals with photovoltaics,
which is the field of technology and research
related to the application of solar cells for
energy by converting sunlight directly into
electricity. Due to the growing demand for
clean sources of energy, the manufacture of
solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
expanded dramatically in recent years.
Just what does the word
"photovoltaic" mean, and how do
photovoltaic systems generate electricity
from sunlight? "Photo" means light, and
"voltaic" means electricity, so putting the
two together simply means electricity from
light.
. Photovoltaic energy is the conversion
of sunlight into electricity through a
photovoltaic (PVs) cell commonly called a
solar cell.
INTRODUCTION:
Non-conventional energy resources
are defined as those resources, which cannot
be depleted at any point of time and
henceforth are called the renewable.
Various forms of non –conventional
energy are

Geothermal energy

Ocean thermal energy

Solar energy

Wind energy
THE CONCEPT:
Energy generation, conservation and
management are some of critical issues
facing society today. The use of renewable
energy by the industries and the public will
considerably reduce the dependence on fast
depleting conventional energy sources such
as coal, oil etc and prevent the damage to
environment.
2
. Electric utilities are trying
photovoltaic, a process by which solar
energy is converted directly to electricity.
Electricity can be produced directly from
solar energy using photovoltaic devices or
indirectly from steam generators using
solar thermal collectors to heat a working
fluid. This electricity can either be used as
it is or can be stored in the battery.
Solar cells:
These individual solar cells are
arranged together in a PV module and the
modules are grouped together in an array.
Some of the arrays are set on special
tracking devices to follow sunlight all day
long. The solar energy can be broadly
classified in two categories on the basis of
its use – Solar Active (Direct Use) & Solar
Passive (Indirect Use). In Solar Active

We can change the sunlight

directly to electricity using solar cells
(Photo voltaic cells).

Solar cells are also called

photovoltaic cells (PV cells in short)
and can be found on many small
appliances like calculators and even on
spacecraft. They were first developed
in the 1950s for use on U.S. space
satellites. They are made of silicon, a
special type of melted sand. When
sunlight strikes the solar cell, electrons
are knocked. They move towards the
treated front surface (dark color). An
electron imbalance is created between the category, the solar energy is directly
front and back. When a connector, like a converted in the application form and can be
wire, joins the two surfaces a current of further divided into two forms – Solar
electricity occurs between the negative and Thermal (Heating Application) & Solar
positive sides. Photovoltaic (Electricity Generation).

3
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL: positive terminals of a battery. When the
two surfaces are connected through an
Photovoltaic energy is the external load, electricity flows.
conversion of sunlight into electricity
through a photovoltaic (PV’s) cell. A
photovoltaic cell is a non-mechanical device
usually made from silicon alloys.

Sunlight is composed of photons or

particles of solar energy. These photons
contain various amounts of energy
corresponding to the different wavelengths
of the solar spectrum. When photons strike
a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected,
pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the
absorbed photons provide energy to generate
electricity. When the material absorbs the
enough sunlight (energy) (a semiconductor),
electrons are dislodged from the material's
atoms. Special treatment of the material’s The performance of a photovoltaic

surface during manufacturing makes the array is dependent upon sunlight. Climatic

front surface of the cell more receptive to conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a

free electrons, so that electrons naturally significant affect on the amount of solar

migrate to the surface. energy received by a PV array and in turn its

When the electrons leave their
position, holes are formed. When many
electrons, each carrying a negative charge,
travel toward the front surface of the cell,
the resulting imbalance of charge between
the cell's front and back surfaces creates a
voltage potential like the negative and
performance. Photovoltaic conversion is
useful for several reasons. The modular
characteristic of photovoltaic energy allows
arrays to be installed quickly and in any size
required or allowed.

4
Photovoltaic Cells types: between a top layer of glass or clear plastic
and a lower level of plastic or plastic and
At the present time, most
metal. An outer frame is attached to increase
commercial photovoltaic cells are
mechanical strength, and to provide a way to
manufactured from silicon, the same
mount the unit. This package is called a
material from which sand is made. In this
"module" or "panel". Typically, a module is
case, however, the silicon is extremely pure.
the basic building block of photovoltaic
Other, more exotic materials such as gallium
systems.
arsenide are just beginning to make their
way into the field.
Groups of modules can be
interconnected in series and/or parallel to
The four general types of silicon
form an "array." By adding "balance of
photovoltaic cells are:
system" (BOS) components such as storage
• Single-crystal silicon. batteries, charge controllers, and power
• Polycrystal silicon (also known as conditioning devices, we have a complete
multicrystal silicon). photovoltaic system
• Ribbon silicon.
• Amorphous silicon (abbreviated as
"aSi," also known as thin film
silicon).

Photovoltaic Modules:
For almost all applications, the one-
half volt produced by a single cell is
inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected
together in series to increase the voltage.
Several of these series strings of cells may
be connected together in parallel to increase
the current as well.
Fig: arrays connected to a battery.
These interconnected cells and their
electrical connections are then sandwiched

5
EFFICIENCY: laboratory prototypes are reaching 30%
PV panels convert only 12 to 15% efficiency.
of the sun’s light into electricity, but

Overall process:

Solar
Solar energy  PV cell  charge

controller  Battery  Loads

6
How is the solar energy being tracked?
Solar panels, Point focus Fresnel lens, parabolic trough, solar dish & solar power tower.
Solar panels: the temperature, but to enable the use of

* Many of these solar cells are often smaller, higher efficiency photovoltaic cells.

combined in solar panels

* Numbers of solar panels can be combined
and interlinked for greater power
* Solar energy excites the electrons in the
solar cell and electricity is produced

PARABOLIC TROUGH:

A parabolic trough collector has a

linear parabolic shaped reflector that focuses
the sun's radiation on a linear receiver
located at the focus of the parabola. The
collector tracks the sun along one axis from
Fresnel lens:
east to west during the day to ensure that the
sun is continuously focused on the receiver.
A Fresnel lens concentrator, such as
Because of its parabolic shape a trough can
shown in Figure uses refraction rather than
focus the sun at 30 to 100 times its normal
reflection to concentrate the solar energy
intensity (concentration ratio) on a receiver
incident on the lens surface to a point.
Pipe located along the focal line of the
Usually molded out of inexpensive plastic,
trough achieving operating temperatures
these lenses are used in photovoltaic
over 400oC.
concentrators. Their use is not to increase

7
 number of installations and converted to
electricity at the central point.

SOLAR DISH:
SOLAR POWER TOWER:

A solar dish/engine system utilizes

Solar power tower or central receiver
concentrating solar collectors that track the
generates electricity from sunlight by
sun on two axes, concentrating the energy at
focusing concentrated solar energy on a
the focal point of the dish because it is
tower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver).
always pointed at the sun. The solar dish's
This system uses hundreds to thousands of
concentration ratio is much higher than that
flat sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats to
of the solar trough typically over 2,000 with
reflect and concentrate the sun's energy onto
a working fluid temperature over 750oC.
a central receiver tower. The energy can be
The power-generating equipment used with
concentrated to as much as 1,500 times that
a solar dish can be mounted at the focal
of the energy coming from the sun.
point of the dish, making it well suited for
remote operations or as with the solar
trough, the energy may be collected from a

8

Cryogenic liquid air or nitrogen

Compressed air in cylinders and in
caverns

Flywheel energy storage

Hydrogen produced by electrolysis

Hydraulic accumulator

Superconducting magnetic energy
storages

ENERGY STORAGE: Storage always has an extra stage of

energy conversion, with consequent energy
losses, greatly increasing capital costs. One
For a stand-alone system, some
of the ways to avoid this are by exporting
means must be employed to store the
excess power to the power grid, drawing it
collected energy for using during the hours
back when needed. This appears to use the
of darkness or cloud cover. The following
power grid as a battery but in fact is relying
list includes both mature and immature
on conventional energy production through
techniques:
the grid during the night. However, since the

Thermal mass grid always has a positive outflow, the result

Electrochemically in batteries is exactly the same.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity

Molten salt

9
Advantages and disadvantages of
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:

Pros:
Cons:
• Solar power is pollution free during
• The main drawback of photovoltaic
use.
cell is that the use of silicon crystals
• Facilities can operate with little
in the Photovoltaic cells makes it
maintenance or intervention after
expensive
initial setup.
• To get enough energy for larger
• Solar electric generation is
applications, a large number of
economically competitive where as
photovoltaic cells are needed. This
grid connection or fuel transport is
increases the cost of the technology
difficult, costly or impossible.
and requires a large plot of land.
• Grid connected solar electricity can
• Solar cells produce DC which must
be used locally thus minimizing
be converted to AC when used in
transmission/distribution losses
currently existing distribution grids.
(approximately 7.2%).
This incurs an energy loss of 4-12%.
• Once the initial capital cost of
building a solar power plant has been
spent, operating costs are low when
compared to existing power
technologies.
• It can be used for the transportation
of vehicles.

10
CONCLUSION: BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Solar energy is really a boon to

(1)”Renewable energy sources”- John
the growing world. Let us ‘invest’ on the
Twindell and Joney Weir.
photovoltaic cell and enjoy the everlasting
(2)” Non-conventional energy sources”-
‘interest’ with actually no ‘capital’.
G.D.Rai.
Hence we conclude that solar
energy is one of the eco-friendly energy
resources that cannot be depleted and is one
of the best substitutes for fuels from
hydrocarbons that were prevailing till recent
years. We hope that this paper will create
an awareness of the depleting energy
resources and bring out the necessity of
usage of solar energy through the
developing technologies like photovoltaic
cells
Solar energy however, is much more
democratic. Instead of having a centralized
power generation, the section on the use of
solar cells will show us that solar power is
decentralized by nature.

REFERENCES:
• www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_po
wer.com
• www.SolarEnergy.Info4Garden.com

11
 INTELL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
ANANTAPUR

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

FUEL CELLS

FUEL FOR THE FUTURE ENERGY

D.Myrunnisa K. Anusha
III/IV EEE III/IV EEE
Mythriece123@gmail.com
ABSTRACT All of us know that neither energy can be
created nor destroyed it can be just
Technology is like a double edged transformed from one form to another form.
weapon….. Now-a-days we are using mostly non-
Which can turn either to a boon or bane... conventional sources to generate electricity
Depends only how you pursue it like solar energy, wind energy, chemical
and how you use it….
energy, co-generation, geothermal, biomass
energy, Hydro energy, fuel cell energy. These
Energy is today’s basic necessity, we don’t energy converters developed mostly in 18th
produce energy but transfer it to different Century but the revolutionary change have
forms and use it. We have selected this occurred only in 20th and 21st centuries.
presentation “RENEWABLE ENERGY” HISTORY OF FUEL CELL:-
because it suggests logical solutions to, how The principles of the fuel cell was
we have produced energy and power for such discovered by German scientist Christian
a long time till humans exist on earth. In this Friedrich Schonbein in 1838 and published in
presentation we have described the general the January 1839 edition of the “Philosophical
idea of fuel cell energy and with chemical magazine”. Based on this work, the first fuel
reactions and processes involved in them. We cell was developed by Welsh scientist Sir
have covered history of fuel cell, principle and William Robert Grove in 1843. The fuel cell
its working, types of fuel cells, construction of he made used similar materials to today’s
low temperature PEM fuel cell and benefits of phosphoric-acid fuel cell. It wasn’t until 1959
fuel cells. that British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon
There after we concluded up with the successfully developed a 5 k W stationary fuel
application of these fuels cells. cell. In 1959 a team led by Harry Ihrig built a
NON-CONVENTIONAL 15 KW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers

ENERGYINTRODUCTION:- which was demonstrated across the US at state

fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide
Energy is the primary and most
as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen
universal measure of all kinds of work by
and oxygen as the reactants.
human beings and nature. Every thing what is
UTC’s Power subsidy was the first
happening in the world is the expression of
company to manufacture and commercialize a
flow of energy in one of its forms. Most
large, stationery fuel cell system for use as a
people use the word energy for input to their
co-generation power plant in hospitals,
body and thus think about crude fuels and
universities and large office buildings. UTC
electric power.
power continues to market this fuel cell as the
Pure Cell 200 KW system.

In 2006 Staxon introduced an

inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system
integration. In 2006 Angstrom power, a
British Columbia based company, began
commercial sales of portable devices using
proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology,
trademarked as “micro hydrogen”.
WHAT IS A FUEL CELL? Anode: 2H2 4H+ + 4e-
Fuel cell is a device that
Cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O
electrochemically converts the chemical
energy of a fuel and an oxidant to electrical Overall: 2H2 + O2 2H2O + energy
energy. The fuel and oxidant are typically
A fuel cell generates electrical
stored outside of the fuel cell and transferred
power by continuously converting the
into the fuel cell as the reactants are
chemical energy of a fuel into electrical
consumed.
energy by way of an electrochemical
In principle a fuel cell operates like a battery.
reaction. The fuel cell itself has no moving
Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down are
parts, making it a quiet and reliable source
require recharging. It will produce energy in the
of power. Fuel cells typically utilize
form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is
hydrogen as the fuel, and oxygen (usually
supplied.
from air) as the oxidant in the
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes
electrochemical reaction. The reaction
sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes
results in electricity, by-product water, and
over one electrode and hydrogen over the other,
by-product heat.
generating electricity, water and heat.
HOW DO FUEL CELLS WORK? When hydrogen gas is introduced
into the system, the catalyst surface of the
membrane splits hydrogen gas molecules
into protons and electrons. The protons pass
through the membrane to react with oxygen
in the air (forming water). The electrons,
which cannot pass through the membrane,
must travel around it, thus creating the
source of DC electricity. Individual fuel
cells can be then combined into a fuel cell
 "stack". The number of fuel cells in the
stack determines the total voltage, and the
surface area of each cell determines the total
current. Multiplying the voltage by the
current yields the total electrical power
generated.
Among all this fuel cells PEMFC
has proved more efficient than Phosphoric
acid. Even though its temperature withstand
is less than that of phosphoric acid, unlike
phosphoric acid PEMFCs don’t required
much temperature for start conducting.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS: CONSTRUCTION OF LOW

TEMPERATURE PEM FUEL CELL:
Fuel cells are generally categorized by
their electrolyte—the material sandwiched
between the two electrodes. This material's
characteristics determine the optimal
operating temperature and the fuel used to
generate electricity. Each comes with its
particular set of benefits and short comings. The construction of the Low temperature
fuel cell PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode
with in-milled gas channel structure,
fabricated from conductive plastics
Fuel Cell Cathode
Electrolyte Anode Gas Temperature (enhanced
Efficiency
with carbon nanotubes for more
Type Gas
conductivity); Porous carbon papers;
on Exchange solid pure or Reactive layer, usually on the polymer
75°C
Membrane polymer hydrogen atmospheric membrane applied; polymer membrane.
35–60%
(180°F)
(PEM) membrane oxygen
The materials used in fuel cells
Alkaline potassium pure below
hydrogen differ 50–70%
by type. The
(AFC) hydroxide oxygen 80°C
electrode/bipolar plates are usually
solid methanol
ct Methanol atmospheric 75°C made of metal, nickel or carbon
polymer solution in 35–40%
DMFC) oxygen (180°F) nanotubes, and are coated with a
membrane water
catalyst (like platinum, nano iron
sphoric Acid atmospheric 210°C
Phosphorous hydrogen powders or palladium) for higher
35–50%
(PAFC) oxygen (400°F)
efficiency. Carbon paper separates
en Carbonate Alkali- hydrogen, atmospheric 650°C them 40–55%
from the electrolyte. The
MCFC) Carbonates methane oxygen (1200°F)
electrolyte could be ceramic or a
800–1000°C membrane.
olid Oxide Ceramic hydrogen, atmospheric
(1500– 45–60%
(SOFC) Oxide methane oxygen
1800°F) A typical fuel cell produces about
0.86 volt. To create enough
voltage, the cells are layered and
 around the membrane through an external
circuit. This flow of electrons forms an
electrical current.

combined in series and parallel

circuits to form a fuel cell stack.
The number of cells used is usually
greater than 45 but varies with
design.
H2 AND ANODE:-
Hydrogen fuel (H2) is channeled to
the anode, where the catalyst separates the
Cathode:
At the cathode, the negatively
charged electrons and positively
charged hydrogen ions (protons)
combine with oxygen to form water
(H20) and heat.

hydrogen's negatively charged electrons

from the positively charged protons.

PEM:

The membrane allows the positively charged

protons to pass through to the cathode, but
not the negatively charged electrons. The
negatively charged electrons must flow
 PEMFC’s operate at fairly low most likely terrorist targets in
temperature, which means they warm any attempt to cripple our
up quickly and don’t require expensive energy infrastructure.
containment structures. Constant
High Reliability/High
improvements in the engineering and
Quality Power: The National
materials used in these cells have
increased the power density to a level Power Laboratory estimates

where a device about the size of a that the typical computer

small piece of luggage can power a location experiences 289 power

car. disturbances a year that are
outside the voltage limits of
BENEFITS OF FUEL CELL: the computer equipment. Fuel
cells offer clean, high quality
No other energy generating
power, crucial to an economy
technology holds the
that depends on increasingly
combination of benefits that
sensitive computers, medical
fuel cells offer.
equipment and machines.
Energy Security: U.S. energy
Modular installation
dependence is higher today
(the installation of several
than it was during the "oil
identical units to provide a
shock" of the 1970s, and oil
desired quantity of electricity)
imports are projected to
provides extremely high
increase. Passenger vehicles
reliability in specialized
alone consume 6 million
applications. Properly
barrels of oil every single day,
configured fuel cells can
equivalent to 85 percent of oil
achieve up to 99.9999%
imports. If just 20 percent of
reliability, less than one minute
cars used fuel cells, we could
of down time in a six year
cut oil imports by 1.5 million
period.
barrels every day.
Fuel flexibility: The Primary
Physical Security: Because of
fuel source for the fuel cell is
their distributed nature, fuel
hydrogen, which can be
cells allow the country to move
obtained from natural gas,
away from reliance on central
coal-gas, methanol, landfill
station power generation, and
gas, and other fuels containing
long-distance, high voltage
hydrocarbons. This fuel
power grids, which are the
flexibility means that power Environmental Benefits: -
generation can be assured Exposure to ozone, particulate,
even when a primary fuel or airborne toxic chemicals has
source is unavailable. substantial health
consequences. Scientists are
Cogeneration Capability: -
now directly linking air
High quality heat is available
pollution to heart disease,
for cogeneration, heating, and
asthma and cancer. Recent
cooling. Fuel cell exhaust heat
health studies suggest polluted
is suitable for use in
urban air is a comparable
residential, commercial and
health threat to passive
industrial cogeneration
smoking. Fuel cells can reduce
applications.
pollution today and offer the
Efficiency: - Fuel cell power promise of eliminating pollution
generation systems in tomorrow.
operation today achieve 40%
APPLICATIONS:
to 50% fuel-to-electricity
efficiency utilizing hydrocarbon FUEL CELL
fuels. Systems fueled by DRIVEN
hydrogen can consistently ELECTRIC
provide more than 50 percent CAR:-
efficiency. Even more efficient
If the fuel cell
systems are under
is provided with
development. In combination
pure hydrogen,
with a turbine, electrical
it has the potential to be up to
efficiencies can exceed 60
80% efficient. That is, convert
percent. When waste heat is
80% of the energy content of
put to use for heating and
the hydrogen into electrical
cooling, fuel utilization can
energy, but, as we learned that
exceed 85 percent. Fuel cell
hydrogen is difficult to store in
passenger vehicles are
a car. When we add a reformer
expected to be up to three
to convert methanol to
times more efficient than
hydrogen, overall efficiency
internal combustion engines,
drops to about 30-40%.
which now operate at 10 to 16
percent efficiency. We still need to convert
the electrical energy into
 mechanical work. This is radios, to large equipment such as
accomplished by the electric portable generators. They can be
motor and inverter. A used for almost any application
reasonable number of the typically powered by batteries but
efficiency of the motor/inverter can last up to three longer before
is about 80%. So we have 30- refueling.
40% efficiency at converting
Mobile charger:- The charger,
methanol to electricity, and
based on a polymer electrolyte fuel
80% efficiency converting
cell (PEFC), is the product of recent
electricity to mechanical
the collaboration between the
power. That gives an overall
mobile phone company and
efficiency of about 24-32%.
Japanese firm Aquafiry, in which
TRANSPORTATION:-Fuel cells NTT DoCoMo recently bought a
can be used to provide propulsion 36.5 per cent stake. Although
or auxiliary power for small, measuring only 24mm by
transportation applications 70mm, the companies claim that
including cars, trucks, buses, the device can recharge a typical
trains, ships and submarines. They mobile phone three times before
have been used to provide requiring a hydrogen fuel refill.
auxiliary power on spacecraft for
MILITARY APPLICATIONS:-
decades.
Miniature fuel cells for portable
Stationary Power: Stationary fuel applications since soldiers are
cell units can be used for backup stating to carry a range of enabling
power, power for remote locations, electronic technologies, computers,
stand-alone power plants for personal radios, displays and
towns’ cities, distributed thermal imaging, all intended to
generation for buildings, and co- increase his effectiveness, lethality
generation (in which excess and survivability, Right now, these
thermal energy from electricity devices are limited by their power
generation is used for heat). source. Miniature fuel cells can
operate 10 times longer than
Portable Power: - Fuel cells can
conventional batteries used to
be used to power a variety of
power hand-held battlefield
portable devices, from handheld
computers, and are much more
electronics like cell phones and
cost effective.
CONCLUSION

As the demand for energy

continues to expand, the
challenge to meet it grows…

As our demand for electrical power

grows, it becomes increasingly
urgent to find new ways of meeting
it both responsibility and safely.
Hydrogen age is definitely on the
fast track. Once fuel cells find well
– established applications other
than automobiles, their impact
could snow ball. In the past, the
limited factors of renewable energy
have been the storage and
transport of that energy. With the
use of fuel cells and hydrogen
technology, electrical power from
renewable energy sources can be
delivered where and when required
cleanly, efficiently and sustainable.

REFERENCES:

1. BERRY M. & MACDONALD A.,

Energy through Hydrogen,
Helicentries.
2. COLELL H., Solar Hydrogen
Technology, Heliocentric.
3. KOPPEL, T., (2001) Powering
the Future, John Wiley and
sons.
4. LQARMINE J. &DICKS A.,
(2000) Fuel cell systems
explained, PHI Publications.
 ““Plant Condition Monitoring
““
By Using
Infrared Thermography”
Thermography ”
Submitted by –
S.VIJAYA LAKSHMI
e-mail : lakshmi_4875@yahoo.co.in
&
B.SARADA DEVI
e-mail : sarada_201@yahoo.co.in

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, kADAPA
Abstract:
Infrared condition monitoring techniques offer an objective way of

assessing the condition of plant equipment. Infrared thermography is a condition

monitoring technique used to remotely gather thermal information from any object or

area, converting it to a visual image. The equipment is more compact, it is easier to

use, it provides better imagery, faster analysis and uses software that allows reports to

be written easily. Prices are also continually dropping in order to predict the need for

maintenance. Thermography also has the ability to generate information that can be

used to improve equipment and enhance operational and process modifications.

Temperature is a key variable in virtually any situation and for all

processes for example, if we have even the slightest deviation from normal body

temperature we feel sick. In industry, we have plenty of examples too. All this

radiation around us can be imaged, measured and stored by an infrared system for

analysis, Infrared thermography is the science of the acquisition and analysis of

thermal information from non-contact thermal imaging devices. Another area

where thermography can provide significant benefits is in the optimization of

preventive maintenance (PM). Preventive maintenance (PM) tasks are designed to

avoid unplanned failures by periodically inspecting, testing and replacing parts. In

many Cases, these time-based tasks result in unnecessary work and wasted parts or

materials, satisfactory preventive maintenance inspection can justify deferral or

elimination of some tasks, reducing plant manpower requirements and part

expenditure.
Introduction:
All electrical components have a tendency to heat up as their physical
condition worsens or their electrical properties deteriorate. In 1965 the Swedish Power
Board began inspecting approximately 1,50,000 components a year. In 1986 the UK
Electrical Generation Board began utilizing infrared thermography for predictive
maintenance on transmission lines. However, thermography was revolutionized with the
introduction of image type thermovision cameras in the Nineties.
As this is a non –contact technique, it is safe and shutdown is not
required. It helps to record and documents the thermal characteristics of almost any
object that emits infrared radiation. Thermal images can quickly and easily locate
abnormal sources of heat, which in electrical systems often indicate potential problems.
Portable infrared cameras are used to convert this infrared radiation energy into high
resolution thermal images that are displayed on conventional video screens for
quantitative and qualitative analysis. Temperature is the single most measured parameter
for a condition monitoring exercise. Temperature is simply crucial and having control
over it will mean higher quality, better safety and money saved. Thermography spans
many subject areas like electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution
systems. An Infrared Camera is designed to detect this overheating and interpret it as
early warning signs of imminent failure.

Infrared energy:
Our environment contains many different forms of energy that are
propagated through space at the speed of light. These forms of energy are differentiated
as a function of their wavelength. Infrared radiation begins just above the visible light
spectrum and continues up to wave lengths of one thousand of a meter. Above infrared
are radio waves. All objects above absolute zero in temperature emit infrared radiation
.This natural occurrence is caused by thermal agitation of the object’s molecules .Because
molecules are composed of electrical charges, the oscillations of the molecules created
radiation emitted by an object is directly related to its temperature.
 The Infrared spectrum is divided In to four common regions. These are
0.75 to 2 micron referred to as near infrared, 2 to 5 microns referred to as short wave
Infrared, 8 to 14 microns referred to as long wave Infrared. Radiation in the 5 to 8 micron
range is almost completely absorbed by the atmosphere. Infrared Thermography spans
many subject areas like electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution
systems and various fields like mechanical and medicine fields as follows:

Long wave systems are theoretically more sensitive to low temperature

emission, whereas short wave has in theory better capabilities to detect a broader band of
higher temperatures. However the short wave region has areas of signal attenuation
caused by the absorption of the signal by CO2 H20 and 03. The long wave system is not
sensitive to reflections, which are normally a problem for a short wave system. The
choice of using a short wave system over a long wave system, or a long wave system
over a short wave system, should not be based on theoretical detection but on actual
detectability of the particular system.

Basic Thermal Science:

One must know the basic concepts of temperature, heat, heat transfer and
direction of heat transfer, to understand infrared thermography. Thermal energy is
transferred from one body to another body by any or all of the following mechanisms:
1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation 4. Evaporation / Condensation
with infrared imaging, the sensor or the scanner is only detecting radiated energy. Heat
transfer by radiation is achieved by emission and absorption of thermal radiation. All
objects will emit and absorb thermal ration at the same time.
 The net heat transfer is the difference between what an object absorbs and emits Exitant
radiation is all the radiated energy that leaves the surface of an object regardless of its
original sources:

1. Emitted, from the object itself

2. Reflected from a source in front of the object
3. Transmitted, from a source behind the object

The target fig -2 has a temperature and an emissivity, which the power of the radiation
coming from the target depends upon the radiation power of the other two radiation
component does not depend on the target temperature, but on the temperature and
emissivity of the reflection and the transmission heat sources, respectively.
How is A Visual Light is Image Created From Infrared energy ?

An infrared imaging device contains one or more detectors that convert energy
in the infrared spectrum into an electrical signal. The more energy detected the greater
the electrical signal output. The electrical signals are typically formatted into a video
signal and displayed on a CRT/LCD. The amplitudes of the electrical signals are then
displayed as varying intensities on the CRT/LCD thus creating a contrast in the image in
different pallets such as Grey, Iron and Rainbow etc. depending upon the applications,
 In thermograph, there are many factors apart from the surface temperature of
the object s that affect and disturb the temperature measurements for accurate
temperature measurements it is crucial to know which those factors are, and how the
equipment compensates for them. Before the measured radiation can be transformed into
temperature all other radiation sources have to be compensated for by the equipment so
that the measured temperature is a function of the object temperature and not of the
distance, emissivity or the internal equipment temperature.
If any if the Electrical components deteriorate there is an increase in resistance
to the flow of electrical current. With increase in resistance comes the increase in radiant
energy output as the component gets heated a thermal imaging system detects this radiant
energy. In case of an overloading conductor or imbalance in a three phase system the
more current flowing through the line the greater the temperature of that line and the
brighter the thermal pattern appears.

Visual v/s Infrared Image:

There are to fundamental differences between looking in the infrared and in the visual.

Visual is mainly reflections, while infrared is mainly a combination of object
emission and reflection.

Visual is color and intensity, while infrared is only intensity.

If two objects are at same temperature, the object with higher emissivity radiates
more than the object with low emissivity. Hence the first object looks brighter
than the second.

Emissivity causes the contrast in both the thermal images

Though both receive radiation from the surroundings, which is also reflected, but
more by the second object with low emissivity and high reflectivity and less by
first object with high emissivity and low reflectivity.

Quantitative v/s Qualitative Analysis:

In planning for an infrared inspection is normally looking to obtain the best
service for the amount of money spend. Unfortunately, due to many mis-representations
by infrared service companies the customers are confused about the “facts of infrared
operations” and often pay for meaningless date. This problem is especially prevalent in
conducting infrared inspections for the electrical utility industries. Infrared as a
technology is not new! In fact, quality infrared systems have been in service for over 30
years and continue to evolve.

Thermal Image Analysis Techniques:

• Thermal Gradient - It is a gradual change in temperature over distance. It
Indicates presence of conductive heat transfer which is the only mode in opaque solids.
• Thermal Tuning: It means adjusting the scale of the image in order to optimize
contrast. For this level and span controls of the camera are used
• Isotherm: It replaces certain colors in the scale with a contrasting color. It marks an
interval of equal apparent temperature. The feature is used to find out if there is any heat
floe e.g. thermal gradient.
• Palettes: The color palettes of the image assigns different colors to mark specific
levels of apparent temperature they can give more or less contrast depending on the
colors used in them for electrical installation, generally an iron palette is used which is a
low contrast palette.

Factor Affecting the Measurement:

• Atmosphere:- Though it is a Tran missive object between camera and the
target the even some factors affect the measurement they are Distance, Ambient
temperature, and Relative humidity.
• Reflected radiation: - Reflection from nearby objects apparent temperature
of these objects that result in radiation that is reflected by the target into the camera is
known as reflected apparent temperature.
• Emissivity: - A low emissivity target will always try to look like the
surroundings if the target is hotter than the surroundings it will look colder than it is and
if it is colder than the surrounding it will look warmer than it is. It can be said that a low
emissivity target tries to camouflage its real temperature to the thermal imager for high
emissivity targets apparent t temperature is very close to real temperature.
 • Calibration: - The calibration of the camera is performed in a lab under
controlled environmental conditions with a large number of black body reference sources
within emissivity approaching 1.0.
• Spatial resolution and target size:- Ideal equipment would of course
measure the same object temperature even when looking at an object that is very small
compared to the whole field of view. Relation between Field Of View and Distance (240
Lens)

.
 Infrared Applications: Electrical Distribution Systems

What Can Be Detected:

• Loose/deteriorated connections
• Overloads
• Imbalanced Loads
• Open Circuits
Improperly Closed • Inductive Heating
Air Switch • Harmonics
• Defective Equipment

Benefits:

• locate problems quickly, without

interrupting service
• drastically reduce costly, unscheduled
Load Imbalance
power outages
on Bus Duct
• minimize preventive maintenance time and
maximize troubleshooting effectiveness
• prevent premature failure and extend
equipment life

Mechanical Systems

What Can Be Detected:

• Misalignment of coupled equipment

• Over/under lubrication of bearings
• Over/under tension of belted systems
• Excessive friction
Uneven Heating Caused • Defective Equipment
by Misalignment
 Benefits:

• quickly locate misaligned coupled

equipment
• increase equipment reliability and life
• increase production and efficiency while
Defective Pillow saving energy
Block Bearing • increase quality of product
• minimize downtime by planning the
required manpower and materials before
shutdown
• improve worker productivity and morale
by correcting potential problems
proactively

Overheated
Shaft Bearing

Structural Energy Loss

What Can Be Detected:

• Missing, damaged, or improperly installed

insulation
• Energy losses caused by air infiltration and
exfiltration
Q/A Inspection Detects • Water infiltration
Missing Insulation in • Damaged refractory
New Building
Benefits:

• help reduce heating and cooling energy

costs
• evaluate thermal performance of retrofits
• identify areas of latent moisture
• detect conditions conducive to mold or
insect problems
• provide hardcopy proof of problems
Compromised Refractory
in Steel Ladle
Conventional Maintenance Procedures:
Generally a fairly uniform set of maintenance procedures are adopted in many
organizations. These include:-
• Visual inspections
• Cleaning equipment
• Tightening connections
• Over current device testing
• Insulation quality testing

Advantages of Thermographic Approach:

• Infrared inspection is non-contact. It uses remote sensing. Firstly, it keeps the user
out of danger i.e. away from live electrical components. Secondly, it does not intrude
upon or affect the target as well
• Infrared thermography is two dimensional. We can measure temperature of many
points in the same image and compare them. Thus analysis of image is very effective and
simple.
• Infrared thermography is real time. It allows us to do over fast scanning
• Electrical equipment is inspected during operation, so the power doesn’t have to
be interrupted.
• Reduced inspection costs as large quantities of equipment can be scanned in a
short period of times finding the trouble spot quickly, saving labour time and money
over regular trouble shooting.
• Faults can be pinpointed before maintenance is carried out, so maintenance
resources are directed where they are most needed and prioritized, resulting in significant
labour and cost savings.

Infrared Program :

In order to profit from the benefits of infrared thermography, regardless of the

technology chosen, much consideration should be given to establishing an infrared
inspection program. One that is properly initiated is guaranteed to provide users with a
quick return on investment. Typically this will occur within 3 months of purchasing and
using the equipment, but many companies claim receiving a payback the very first day on
which they performed an infrared inspection.
The first of several steps in setting up a successful thermography program is:

The interest in this technology is that it promises major advances for infrared focal plane
arrays:

Excellent pixel uniformity, imaging and sensitivity performance.

Large pixel format capability, up to 640 x 480

QWIPs are tunable and can be made responsive from about 3 to 25 microns, can
be made for broad band and dual band applications.

Can be produced at relatively low cost and in large quantities.

Education: The very first step is to find out some more about the products and
technology that are available and how they can be used.

Go to introductory seminars and conferences.

Request product data sheets and application literature from equipment vendors

Browse the internet. This is a little time consuming, but there is a wealth of
information on the web.

Contract in an independent consultant to assist in the assessment and education
process.

Hire an experienced infrared service company and learn from their employees
while they are performing an inspection in the field.
Conclusion:
Conclusion:

Hence conventional cleaning and tightening procedures can overlook

many problems these overlooked problems as well as those that may have been remedied
by the preventive maintenance program will be identified by a competent infrared
survey. Infrared thermography is capable to instantly identify all resistive type problem,
that are the object of the conventional cleaning and tightening procedures in addition
poor connections that are not readily accessible during conventional maintenance can be
checked connection contact and calibration problems in thermal overload devices and
fuses can be instantly spotted. The most costly component of many preventive
maintenance program is equipment cleaning and connection tightening this is
appropriate since these procedure are directed towards correcting deficiencies in
terminations, joints and contact points the location of most electrical failures also these
procedures are highly labour intensive since substantial component disassembly and
reassembly is required to access all the major contact points and terminations.

Thermo-graphic imaging and infrared temperature measurements have

been used extensively by POWERGRID for maintenance related activities.
Improvements in the sensitivity and selectivity of infrared imaginary now allow more
meaningful observational comparisons of substation equipments the team of
thermographers with skills and capabilities have allowed to uncover a number of
impending problems that could have led to catastrophic failure and unscheduled outages.
The increased sensitivity of newer designs rejection of unwanted reflections
.improvements of specific point resolution and in depth training have contributed to
“Infrared Imaging as an Effective Condition Monitoring System ”.
 EYE-08
GREEN ENERGY SOURCES
(With Working Model)

BY

S.Karthik Raghavendra
K.Ezaz Ali Khan
EMAIL ID:- mailto:jehakhan@gmail.com

Address of communication: S.Karthik Raghavendra

K.Ezaz Ali Khan
II.B.Tech EEE
MADANAPALLI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES
Post box no:14, Angallu,
Madanapalli, Chittoor district

MADANAPALLI INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES

1
1. TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES highest investment to generate
Energy is the primary and most energy. Example insulation.
universal measure of all kinds of work 1.1 COMMERCIAL OR
by human beings and nature. Today CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
every country draws its energy needs SOURCES
from a variety of sources. The energy Commercial energy sources
sources available can be classified into supply is limited. The types of
three types: commercial energy sources are as
1. Primary energy sources: primary follows;
energy 1. Fossil fuels
S.NO Fuel name %
sources can i.e. coal,
1 Coal 32.5
be defined as petroleum,
2 Oil 38.3
sources and natural
3 Gas 19.0
which gas.
4 Uranium 0.13
provide net 2. Water power
5 Hydro 2.0
supply of 3. Energy from
6 Wood 6.6
energy. The nuclear
7 Dung 1.2
primary fuels fission.
8 Waste 0.3
can only Percentage of total
accelerate growth but their energy source consumption in the world
supply is limited. Examples for using commercial energy sources is as
this type are conventional energy follows
sources such as coal, oil, nuclear
energy.
2. Secondary fuels: they produce no Disadvantages of conventional energy
net energy. Examples for this sources:
type are non-conventional energy 1. The quantity of fossil fuels available
sources such as solar energy. is about to exhaust for 200 years. It may
3. Supplementary fuels: their net lead to energy crisis.
energy is zero and requires 2. Low calorific value of coal and
expensive in transportation.

2
3. Burning of fossil fuels will release attractive than the conventional energy
CO2, which will cause green house in the following ways
effect 1. Eco friendly nature: they do not
4. Due to limited supply, existing prices disturb atmosphere any way through
of oil will increase. It will increase pollution.
economical strain on the nation. 2. Everlasting sources of energy
5. Lack of effective, trained person to 3. They create rural employment
operate nuclear plants and limited 4. They can be implemented in the site
availability of raw material. where it is required which will reduce
1.2 NON-CONVENTIONAL the cost of transportation.
ENERGY OR GREEN ENERGY
SOURCES:
The energy sources that are
everlasting and can use for continuously. 2. SOLAR ENERGY
They can also be called as renewable or
natural sources. They are gaining the
importance due to nature and abundant
availability.
Their types are
1. Direct solar energy
SOLAR ENERGY HAS THE GREATEST
2. Indirect solar energy
POTENTIAL of the all the sources of
i) Wind energy
renewable energy and if only a small
ii) Tidal energy
amount of this form of energy could be
iii) Ocean thermal
used, it will be one of the most important
energy
supplies of energy specially when other
iv) Biomass and
bio gas energy sources in the country have depleted.
Energy comes to earth from the
Advantages of non-conventional energy
sun. This energy keeps the temperature
Non conventional energy supply the
of the earth above that in colder space,
abundant quantity of energy and more
causes current in the atmosphere and in

3
oceans, causes water cycle and generates
photosynthesis in the plants.
The solar power where sun hits
atmosphere is 178billion MW, which is
about 20000 times the world’s demand.
But so far it could not be developed on
large scale. Sun’s energy can be utilized
as thermal and photovoltaic cells. The
former is currently being used for steam
and hot water production.
The energy radiated by the sun
on a bright sunny day is approximately
(1kW/ m2), attempts have been made to
make use of this energy in raising steam,
which may be used in driving the prime
movers for the purpose of generation of
electricity. However on account of large
space required uncertainty of availability
of energy at constant rate, due electric
power. Now a days the drawbacks as
pointed out that energy cannot be stored
it producing is dilute form of energy or
out dated arguments since the energy can
be stored hydrogen or by storing in other
mechanical or electrical devices or it can
be stored in container of chemicals
called eutectric or phase changing salts.
This salts which store large quantities of
heat in a relatively small volume melt
when they are heated and release heat
later as they cool and crystallize. The
energy can be converted in solar
furnaces, for example, which can
achieve temperatures in the region of
50000c. The facts speak in favors of
solar energy, as we have seen in analysis
of commercial energy sources, that
world’s reserves of coal, oil and gases
will be exhausted within a few decades.
Nuclear energy involve considerable
hazards and nuclear fusion has not yet
overcome all the problems of even
fundamental research, compared with
these technologies, the feasibility of
which is still uncertain and contested,
the technical utilization of solar energy
can prove very useful. Utilization of
solar energy is of great importance to
INDIA since it lies in a temperature
climate of the region of the world where
sunlight is abundandant for a major part
of the year.
2.1 ELECTRICITY FROM
SOLAR ENERGY:
4
 Electricity can be produced from
solar energy by photovoltaic cells, which
convert the solar energy directly to
electrical energy. The most significant
applications of photovoltaic cell in India
are the energisation of pump sets for
irrigation, drinking water supply and
rural electrification covering street
lights, community TV sets, medical
refrigerators and other small power
loads.
Electricity is directly generated
by utilization of solar energy by
photovoltaic process. When photons
from the sun are absorbed in a
semiconductor, they create free electrons
with higher energies than the electrons,
which provide the bonding in the base
crystal. Once these free electrons are
created, there must be an electric field to
induce these higher energy electrons to
flow out of the semiconductor to do
useful work. A junction of materials,
which have different electrical
properties, provides the electric field in
the most solar cells. The photovoltaic
effect can be easily described for p-n
junction in the semi conductor
materials of solar cells, which
are silicon, cadmium, and
supplied/copper supplied,
Gallium Arsenate etc.
In a solar thermal
power using a solar pond, a
flat plate collector, focusing collector or
heliostats, first collects production
system the energy. This energy is used to
increase the internal energy or
temperature of a fluid. This fluid may be
directly used in any of the common or
known cycles such as Ranking, or
through a heat exchanger to heat a
secondary fluid, which is being used in
the cycle to produce mechanical power
from which electrical power can be
produced easily.
The applications of solar energy
5
1. Heating and cooling of residential 1. Heating and cooling of the
building atmosphere, which generates
2. Solar water heating. convention currents. Heating is
3. Solar drying of agricultural and caused by the absorption of solar
animal products. energy on earth’s surface and in
the atmosphere.
4. Solar distillation on small community 2. The rotation of earth with respect
scale.
5. Salt production by evaporation of sea
water or in land brines
6. Solar cookers
7. Solar engines for water pumping
8. Food refrigeration
9. Bio conversion and wind energy,
which are indirect source of solar
energy.
10. Solar furnaces to atmosphere, and its motion
11. Solar electric power generation by around the sun.
i) Solar ponds
ii) Steam generators heated by
rotating reflectors
iii) Reflectors with lenses and
pipes for fluid circulation
12. Solar photovoltaic cells, which can
be used for conversion of solar energy
directly into electricity for water
pumping in rural agricultural purposes.
3. WIND ENERGY
Energy from wind can be economically
used for the generation of the electricity.
Winds are caused from two main factors:

6
 The potential of wind energy as a
source of power is large. The energy
available in the winds over the earth’s
7
surface is estimated to be 1.6*10 MW,
which is of the same order of magnitude
as present energy consumption on the
earth.
Wind energy, which is an
indirect source of solar energy
conversion, can be utilized to run
windmill, which in turn drives a
generator to produce electricity. Wind
can also be used to provide mechanical
power, such as for water pumping. In
India generally wind speeds obtainable
are in the lower ranges. Attempts are,
there fore, on the development of low
cost, low speed mills for irrigation of
small and marginal forms for providing
drinking water in rural areas. The
developments are being mainly
concentrated on water pumping wind
mills suitable for operation in a wind
speed range of 8 to 36kmper hour.
3.1. Advantages of wind energy:
1. It is a renewable source of energy.
2. Like, all forms of solar energy, wind
power systems are non-polluting
3. Wind energy systems avoid fuel
provision and transport.
4. On small scale, up to a few kilowatt
systems, it is less costly.
4. BIOMASS AND BIO GAS
The potential for application of
biomass is an alternate source of energy
in India is very great. We have plenty of
agricultural and forest resources for
production of biomass. Bio mass is
produced in nature through
photosynthesis achieved by solar energy
conversion.
As the word clearly signifies,
Bio-mass means organic matter. In
simplest form reaction is the process of
photosynthesis in the presence of solar
radiation, can be represented as follows
H2O+CO2----------
>CH2O+O2
In the reaction, water and
carbon dioxide are converted in to
organic material i.e. CH2O, which is the
basic molecule of forming carbo hydrate
stable at low temperature, it breaks at
high temperature, releasing an amount of
heat equal to 112000cal/mole
(469kJ/mole).
CH2O+O2---------->
H2O+CO2+112kcal/mole
7
 The absorbed energy of photons
should be at least equal to this amount. It population in the country is about
is there fore, possible to produce large 250 million. Some of the other sources
amount of carbo hydrate by growing say of biogas are;
algae, under optimum conditions in 1. Sewage, 2.crop residue, 3.vegetable
plastic tubes or in ponds. The algae wastes, 4.water hyacinth, 5.poultry
could be harvested, dried and burned for droppings, 6.pig-manures, 7.algae,
production of heat that could be 8.ocean kelp
converted into electricity by In big cities, sewage sources are
conventional methods. The biomass is the main source for production of bio
used directly by burning or is further gas. Bio-gas thus obtained can be used to
processed to produce more convenient run pumps to pump out the sewage water
liquid and gaseous fuels. it self. Pilot plants for such purposes,
4.1. BIO-GAS: capable of handling sewage, have
The main source for production already been developed and installed in
of biogas is wet cow dung or wet live some areas. The sewage biogas is found
stock waste, to produce biogas. The to contain 84% of methane, which is
production of biogas is of particular already pointed out, is a high quality
sequence for Indian because of its large fuel. Methane could be economically
cattle population. The total cattle used to run engines to drive electric
generators.

8
 waters of the tropical oceans and the
colder waters in the depths is about 20-
250K. Utilization of this energy, with its
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
associated temperature difference and its

CHEMI-
conversion into work, forms the basis of
CAL ENERGY
BOND ocean thermal energy conversion
ENERGY CONVERTIBLE ENERGY
(OTEC) systems. The surface water,
which is at higher temperature, could be
In the rural sector, biogas finds used to heat some low boiling organic
greatest applications in cooking, fluid, the vapors of which would run a
lightning, mechanical power and heat engine. Pumping cold water from
generation of small electricity. The gas the deeper regions would condense the
can be used with advantage to improve exit vapor. The amount of energy
sanitary conditions and also to check to available for ocean thermal power
environmental pollution. generation is enormous, and is
5 .OCEAN ENERGY : replenished continuously. Several such
This is also an indirect method of plants are built in France after World
utilizing solar energy. A large amount of War II. A schematic diagram of OTEC
solar energy is collected and stored in plant is shown in the figure.
tropical oceans. The surface of the water
acts as the collector for, while the upper
layer of the sea constitutes infinite heat
storage reservoir. Thus the heat
contained in the oceans, could be
converted into electricity by utilizing the

fact that the temperature

difference between the warm surface 6. TIDAL ENERGY:

9
 The tides in the sea are the result passing through sluices turbine
of universal gravitation effect of respectively. This principle is explained
heavenly bodies like sun and moon on in figure. By using reversible water
the earth. Due to fluidity of water mass, turbines, turbine can be run
which shows a periodic rise and fall in continuously, both during high tide and
levels, which are in rhythms with the low tide. The turbine is coupled to
daily cycle of rising and setting of sun generator, potential energy water stored
and moon. This periodic rise and fall of in the basins as well as energy during
water level of sea is called tide. These high tides, is used to drive the turbine,
tides can be used to produce electrical which is coupled to generator,
power, which is known as tidal power. generating electricity.
When the water is above the sea level is
called flood tide and when the level is
below the mean sea level, it is called ebb
tide.
The use of tides for electrical
power generation is practical n few
favorably situated sites where the
geography of an inlet or bay favors the
construction of a large-scale
7.GEO-THERMAL ENERGY:
hydroelectric power plant. To harness
This is the energy, which lies
the tides, a dam would be built, across
embedded with in the earth. According
the mouth of the bay. It will have large
to various theories the earth has a molten
gates in it and also low head hydraulic
core. The fact that volcanic action takes
reversible turbines are installed it. A
place in many places on the surface of
tidal basin is formed, which gets
the earth supports these theories. The
separated from the sea, by dam. The
steam and hot water comes naturally to
difference in water level is obtained
the surface of the earth, in some
between the basin and sea. The
locations of the earth. For large-scale use
constructed basin is filled during high
bore holes are normally sunk with depth
during high tide emptied during low tide
up to 1000m, releasing steam and water

10
at temperatures up to 200 or3000C
pressures up to 30kgf/cm2. Two ways of
electric power production from geo
thermal energy has been suggested. In
one of these heats energy is transferred
to a working Fluid, which operates the
power cycle. This may be particularly
useful at places of fresh volcanic
activity. Where the molten interior mass
of earth vents to the surface through
fissures and substantially high
temperatures, such as between 450 to
5500C can be found.
GEYSERS IMPINGES THE
STEAM
LIVE MODEL: This solar clay
cooker is also known as poor men’s
cooker. this was widely used in rural
areas. This solar cooker can be made
completely by the rural potter, once
trained. a cement dice is prepared for
making the reflector out of baked
clay, then aluminized polyester film is
pasted on the concave surface of the
reflector, pasted by thick gum
prepared from the indigenous
material available in the village. the
reflector is placed on the ground over
a curved surface, the angle of reflector
towards the sun is to be adjusted by
curved ditch on the ground. the pot
which the cooking material is to be
put, is hung on a tripod stand in such
a manner the reflected rays connected
at the bottom of the pot.
At about 8.00
to 9.00 in the morning, the morning
meal can be cooked easily 4 persons in
the family (rice, dal, vegetables etc.,.).
It takes about 20 to 25 minutes, where
the temp reaches 140 to 160dg
centigrade, which is sufficient for
cooking. The evening cooking can be
11
done in the same manner with little
more time required, compared to that
in morning.

CONCLUSION
Thus, green energy is an ultimate
energy, which lasts long.
So, the effort should be made by
us to conserve it.

Bibliography:
1. Non-conventional energy sources
G.D.Rai.

2.Www.science.gc.ca/.../web_trans_wind_e
nergy.jpg

12
 “future trends in energy conversion by using nuclear
energy”
Submitted by –
Mr. Y.RADHA KRISHNA
(e-mail:radha_6647@yahoo.in)
&
Mr. G. VISHNU VARDHAN
(e-mail:Vishnu_bujji@yahoo.in)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, KADAPA
 ABSTRACT

Throughout the World, the demand of electrical power continues to race ahead
of the supply. Where as renewable energy may reach about 15% the rest has to come from
conventional thermal, hydel or nuclear energy. Thermal energy needs lower investment but
it is least eco-friendly. Hydel power is green & clean power but depends on the water
quantity available. Therefore nuclear energy is only option in abundance to meet the
increasing demand.
This paper deals with the latest improvements in Nuclear power plant design and
construction for improved efficiency, operating safety and safe waste storage f.1.cilities.
Today more than 30 countries operate a total of 441 nuclear power reactors. Another 38
plants are under construction. In both Britain and USA, about 20% of all electricity is
generated from nuclear energy. France uses nuclear energy to produce more than three-
quarters of its electricity.
Pressurized Water Reactor: Most of the World's nuclear power plants are
pressurized water reactors. In this, water placed under high pressure (155 atmospheres) to
suppress boiling, serves as both coolant and working fluid. Its reactor core is made up of
arrays of Zirconium alloy-clad fuel rods composed of small cylinders (pellets) of mildly
enriched uranium oxide.
Fast Spectrum Reactor: Design teams in India, France, Japan,& other countries are
continuing extensive research work and have developed fast spectrum reactors. Most nuclear
reactors employ a thermal or relatively low energy neutron emission spectrum, the fast
neutrons in the fission reaction are slowed down to thermal energy levels as they collide
with the hydrogen in water or other light nuclides.
Gas Cooled Reactor: It uses helium or carbon dioxide gas as a core coolant and
based on a fundamental fuel element called a pebble. Pebble is a billiard ball size graphite
sphere containing about 15,000 uranium oxide paliicles. Even if all active cooling systems
are unavailable, decay heat is dissipated by conduction and radiation to the reactor cavity
cooling system in the reactor enclosure.
INTRODUCTION

In India, as well as many developing countries, the demand of

electrical power continues to race ahead of the supply position. Whereas more friendly
renewable energy may reach about 10-12% the rest has to come from conventional
thermal, hydal or nuclear energy. Thermal energy actually needs lower investment per
MW but it is the least eco-friendly.Hydal power is green & clean power but the actual
energy generated depends on the water quantity available, hence not fully dependable.
Therefore in short, nuclear energy available in abundance has no option for meeting the
increasing base demand, as has been proved in Britain, USA, France, Japan &other
countries.

The latest improvements in nuclear power plant design &

construction for improved efficiency, operating safety &safe waste storage facilities
.Nuclear power is a relatively young industry, with the bulk of its history dating back
only 30-35 years Today more than 30 countries operate the total of 441 nuclear power
reactors .Another 38 ·plans are under construction. In both Britain and USA, about 20% of
all electricity is generated from nuclear energy .France for example, has its own reserved of
Uranium ore& uses nuclear energy to produce more than 3 quarters of its electricity.

Nuclear energy can avert many of environmental consequences arising

out of the use of fossil fuels coal. Recent progress in advanced nuclear power development
reveals a high potential for nuclear reactors systems that are smaller & easier to operate
than the present generation. The primary thrust in advanced nuclear power generation, in
corporate following design improvements assured, safety with futures to trlinimize
negative consequences of human error, especially reduction in the probability of severe
reactor core damage, even in the advent of a major breakdown of the normal cooling
/control functions.
A significantly simpler design, with increased safety and performance
margin in key operational parameters high reliability through out a life time of about 60
years, reduction in costs to meet the economic competition. Improved nuclear waste
disposal system.
 The present day nuclear fuel cycle uses freshly mined uranium, burns it a
single time in a reactor and then discharge it as a waste. This approach result in only about 1
% of the energy content of the uranium being converted to electricity. Further it produce
large volumes of spent nuclear fuel that must be handled and disposed of in a safe mode
.Both these problems can be reduced by recycling the spent fuel recovering the useful
materials & actinides from it.
In this process, known as closed nuclear fuel cycle, used fuel is recycled to
recover uranium & plutonium which is produced during irradiation in reactors. Recover
uranium is re processed in to new fuel .This effort double the amount of energy recover
from the fuel. Current reclying technology also leads to the separation of plutonium which
could potentially be diverted into weapons. Most of the world's nuclear power plants are
pressurized water reactors. In this system, water placed under high pressure (l55at) to
suppress boiling serves as both the coolant and working fluid. The reactor core of a
pressurized water reactor ,is made up of arrays of zirconium alloy clad fuel rods composed
of small cylinders of mildly enriched uranium oxide with a small diameter about 200 fuel
rods are arranged to form a reactor core.
~ NUCLEAR FISSION AND CHAINREACTION

The neutrons were absorbed by the nuclei of uranium atoms. Each excited
nucleus split into 2 nuclei of smaller mass and at the same time ejected neutrons.These
fragments formed by splitting or fissioning of a nucleus, are called fission products. The
combined mass of the fission products is slightly less than that of the original material, . and
the lost mass is converted into energy.In nuclear reactors,the energy released by nuclear
fission appears chiefly as the kinetic energy of the fission products. The kinetic energy
ofthe fission products is rapidly converted into heat when the fission products collide with
the surrounding uranium atoms .
 In the year 1939,in France Frederic loliot - Curie,Hallban & Kowarski
discovered that each fission on U-235 caused by a low energy neutron will release on an
average about 2.5 additional neutrons. Some of these neutrons can initiate more fissions,
and thus a self -perpetuating, rapidly increasing release of energy may take place as shown
in fig, known as nuclear chain reaction .By means of a controlled fission chain reaction, a
steady flow of energy is released which is utilized for generation of electric power in a
nuclear power plant.

.:. COOLANT: The large amount of thermal energy produced in the core of a nuclear
reactor must be removed by some type of coolant like liquid water, liquid metal or
gases like helium or carbondioxide, heavy water etc. Typically the coolant removes
the heat by forced convention, as it is pumped through the core region. After being
pumped through the core, the coolant usually passes through a heat exchanger /steam
generator where it releases to a cooler fluid. A coolant transfers heat produced inside
the reactor to a heat exchanger for further utilization in power generation. Sometimes
when water is used as a coolant it takes up heat and gets converted into steam in the
reactor which is directly used in the turbine .
• :. MODERATOR: The fission process yields fast neutrons with an average energy
of2 million electron -volt. To slow them down to thermal energy of 0.0253 electron
volt at room temperature. "A thermal reactor requires a material known as
MODERATOR". As neutrons pass through the moderator material, they lose energy
when they are scattered by collisions with moderator atoms.

The purpose of moderator in the reactor core is to moderate in the

reactor core is to moderate or reduce the neutron speed to a value that increases the
probability of fission occurring the moderator materials are used as aD20 (heavy water ),
graphite, beryllium ,natural uranium. Ordinary water is used as moderator only with
enriched uranium. Moderator is used to slow down the neutrons.
 CONTROL ROD: With only fuel and moderator present, the power level of a nuclear
reactor would continue to rise in an exponential manner. To counteract this effect
and to maintain control of Powellevel, the core region is provided with special
materials that are strong neutron absorbers. These materials known as "control rods"
usually cylindrical in shape, contain boron or a cad miumindium silver alloy as the
chief neutron - absorbing material.
When the control rods are in core region, they can absorb so many of
the neutrons generated by fission process that a chain reaction can not be sustained.
"When the control rods are taken out to a certain point, the reactor becomes critical
and maintains a constant power level". By manipulating the control road position, the power
level can be adjusted. They are raised out completely to shut down the reactor.
Most nuclear reactors have a core temp only a little above 300DC,
and they are cooled by water at 20Dc. This difference is small compared with that in a coal
fired station, where the heat source may be at 5500c. This is why nuclear power stations
have an operating efficiency of only 30%, A combined - cycle-gas-fired station has an
efficiency of more man 50%.

~ GAS COOLED REACTOR

In Gas cooled Nuclear Reactors using helium or carbon dioxide gas

as a core coolant and based on a fundamental fuel element called a pebble, has been built
and operated successfully as a pilot plant by USA, South Africa and China. A 296 MWe
pebble bed reactor is in operation in west Germany schematic arrangement of a gas -cooled
reactor is shown in fig.
 The pebble - bed reactor design in based on a fundamental fuel
element, called a pebble, that is a billiard ball size graphite sphere containing about 15,000
Uranium oxide particles with a diameter of poppy seeds and evenly dispersed in the
graphite matrix as shown in fig. Even if all active cooling systems are un available decay
heat is dissipated by conduction and radiation to the reactor cavity cooling system in the
reactor enclosure The pebble - bed reactor design in based on a fundamental fuel element,
called a pebble, that is a billiard ball size graphite sphere containing about 15,000 Uranium
oxide particles with a diameter of poppy seeds and evenly dispersed in the graphite matrix
as shown in fig. Even if all active cooling systems are un available decay heat is dissipated
by conduction and radiation to the reactor cavity cooling system in the reactor enclosure.

(h:t".'" P'y'f¥.>I}'th;;'
.• C',;,:,t'b<;>n i . .:.JIl)/"'V·

.<ztH'~~h C-
.;:;lrt)i(1Ol; t.~.,.rl')4:l"
C>;);aUtl!,;l
hn~,..'f:·}.~i",.f
•...•
(.';)rt}'Or'<·l..a'y~

Further, the reactor also is provided with conventional control rods and fuel rods. Control
rods are made of materials that moderate the fission reaction by absorbing me slow out of or
lowered into the care to shut down me reaction.
The comparatively small size and the general simplicity of pebble
bed reactor designs add to their economic feasibility. This will lead to enormous economic
advantage and construction simplicity .
• :. Fast Spectrum Reactors:
In fast spectrum reactors design reams in France, Japan, Russia &
South Korea are continuing extensive research work and have developed fast Spectrum
reactors. About a dozen of this type of reactors using sodium as coolant is operating around
the world. The arrangement is shown in fig.
Most nuclear reactors employ a thermal or relatively low energy neutron emission spectrum.
In a thermal - reactor the fast neutrons in the fission reaction are slowed down to thermal
energy levels as they collide with the hydrogen in water or other light nuclides. Although
these reactors are economical for generating electricity, they are not very effective in
producing nuclear fuel or recycling it, cores of fast spectrum nuclear reactors, are often
cooled with liquid sodium, future versions of this reactor class, are likely to utilize load, a
load - bismuth. alloy or inert gases as coolant such as helium or carbon dioxide. New
fissionable material is thus 'bred' for the reactor.

The higher energy neutrons in a fast reactor can be used to make new fuel or to
destroy long lived wastes from dismantled weapons. By recycling the fuel from fast reactors,
they can deliver much more energy from uranium while reducing the amount of waste that
must be disposed of for the long term these breeder reactor are one of the keys to increasing
the sustainability of future nuclear energy systems, especially if they use of nuclear energy is
to grow significantly .
• :. Water Cooled Reactor:'
Westinghouse electric has developed based on international reactor
innovative and secure concept, an American design which gives a new look
to the standard watercooled nuclear technology. This design concept aims to
overcome the possibility of accidents resulting from loss of coolant and also
to simplicity the overall plant design. The arrangement is shown In fig
 In this design all the primary components are contained in a single vessel.
Reactor design is novel, as both the steam generator and the control rod actuator drives, are
enclosed within the thick steel pressure vessel, housing the entire coolant system inside a
damage resistant pressure vessel. The pressure vessel will not allow fluids to escape, any
resulting accident is limited to a much more moderate drop in pressure than could occur in
conventional previous design. During accident, passive heat transfer will take place by
natural circulation. As the control rod drives are located inside the vessel, there is no chance
that the same could be ejected from the core

Water has a critical point at 347° C and 221 atmospheres. Beyond its critical point,
the distinction between liquid phase and vapor phase disappears. Beyond this point, water
behaves as a continuous fluid with exceptional specific heat meaning higher capacity and
superior heat transfer properties. The primary advantage to operating above the critical point,
is that the systems thermal efficiency can reach as high as 45% and approach the elevated
temperature regime at which hydrogen fuel can be produced from super critical water very
economically besides power generation.

The hydrogen fuel can them be used in fuel cell for generation of electricity at a very
low cost. The present installed capacity of the country's nuclear power plant is a mere 2720
MW, than 3% of the total electricity generation.
CONCLUSION:

The latest improvements in Nuclear power plant design and

construction for improved efficiency, operating safety and safe waste storage. The present
day nuclear fuel cycle uses freshly mined uranium, burns it a single time in a reactor and then
discharge it used for recycling processes by using modem nuclear reactors. Initial
construction costs for nuclear power plants are high because nuclear reactor construction and
safe waste disposals power must be constructed at the same time. But the cost of producing
electricity over time is lower because the price and availability of the fuel is stable and
predictable. The fuel does not have to be imported or transported to the power plant. With
escalating environmental problems with coal based projects, logistic and technical problems
that are clouding with conventional energy projects, in future , India has to depend upon
clean, rural based, cheap energy sources and cannot ignore 1 0,600MW-of nuclear energy.
Recent progress in advanced nuclear power development reveals a
high potential for nuclear reactors systems that are smaller and easier to operate than the
present generation. The primary thrust in advanced nuclear power generation, incorporates
the following design improvements. Assured safety with features to minimize negative
consequences of human error, espesscially reduction in the probability of severe reactor core
damage. High reliability through out a life time of about 60 years. Reduction in cost to meet
the economic ccmpetition. Improve nuclear waste disposal system
REFERANCES:
.:. ELECTRICAL INDIA May2005
.:. ISTiE MAGZINES
.:. IEEE PAPERS
.:. ELECTRICAL POWER By UPPAL
.:. ELECTRICAL POWER By J.B.GUPTA
.:. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM By C.L.WADHW A

.:. CURRENT RESEARCHES IN NUCLEAR ENERGY IN 6TH

NATIONALISTE
.

.
 A Hybrid Solar-Wind Power
Generation system

Presented by

ABHILASH.T G.NAVEEN KUMAR

3rd EEE, 06691A0201 3rd EEE, 06691A0257
MITS, MADANAPALLE MITS, MADANAPALLE
EMAIL:abhilash_abhi@rediff.com
EMAIL:naveenkumar.257@gmail.com

Abstract:

Due to intermittent natural energy resources and energy resources seasonal un-balance, a PV-
wind hybrid electrical power supply system was developed for many remote locations where a
conventional grid connection is inconvenient or expensive. While the hybrid system is also applicable
with grid connection, owners are allowed to sell excess electricity back to the electric utility by using net
meter.

The set-up consists of a photo-voltaic solar-cell array, a mast mounted wind generator, lead-acid
storage batteries, an inverter unit to convert DC power to AC power, electrical lighting loads and
electrical heating loads, several fuse and junction boxes and associated wiring, and test instruments for
measuring voltages, currents, power factors, and harmonic contamination data throughout the system.
This hybrid solar-wind power generating system is extensively used to illustrate electrical concepts in
hands-on laboratories and demonstrations in the Industrial Technology curriculum.

This paper describes an analysis of local PV-wind hybrid systems for supplying electricity to a
private house, farmhouse or a small company with electrical power depending on the need at the site.
The major system components, work principle and specific working condition are presented in this
paper.
Introduction
Energy has always played an important role in human and economic development and world
peace. Since the world economic resuscitation and boom, world total energy annual consumption in 2002
has increased, while fossil fuel (i.e. coal, oil, natural gas) provided three quarters of the total. At current
energy consumption rate, proven coal reserves should last for about 200 years, oil for approximately 40
years and natural gas for around 60 years. With the contradiction between rapid development and
diminishing fossil fuel resource, as well as to avoid pollutant emissions or other environmental problems,
and not to involve the resulting healthy hazard, we should consider the manner in which we produce and
consume energy for sustainable development.
Renewable energy, i.e., energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, geo-thermal, hydropower
and ocean resources, could increases diversity of energy supplies and offer us clean energy beyond all
doubt. The energy generated from wind and solar is much less than the production by fossil fuels,
however, electricity generation by utilizing PV cells and wind turbine increases rapidly recent years,
particularly in Germany, Japan, the U.S., and Denmark.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are electronic devices that are based on semiconductor technology and
can produce an electric current directly from sunlight. The best silicon PV modules now available
commercially have an efficiency of over 17%, and it is expected that in about 10 years’ time module
efficiencies will have raised to over 20%.

Wind power is electricity produced by a generator, which is drove by a turbine according to

aerodynamics in flowing air. Wind power already becomes one of the fastest growing renewable energy
technologies around the world, a total of 31000MW of wind generating capacity had been installed by
the end of 2002 that is almost four times the capacity at the end of 1997.

PV modules and wind turbines are now widely used in developed countries to produce electrical
power in locations where it might be inconvenient or expensive to use conventional grid supplies, while
other homeowners who choose the renewable energy sources prefer to connect their energy system to the
grid as a huge ‘battery’ for some convenient grid-tied situation. In contrast, in many developing
countries, especially in rural areas electricity grids are often non- existent or rudimentary, and all forms
of energy are usually very expensive. Here the PV modules and wind turbine can be highly competitive
with other forms of energy supply. However, the fact that natural energy resources are intermittent and
storage batteries are expensive, has led to the utilization of so-called hybrid renewable energy systems.
Any power system that incorporates two or more of the following is referred to as a hybrid power
system: PV panels, wind turbines, or diesel, propane, gasoline generators. For small loads, the most
common combinations are PV-wind hybrid system. PV and wind is good match, because inland wind
speeds tend to be lower in summer, when solar energy can compensate, and higher in winter, when
sunshine falls to very low levels.

In this paper, a PV-wind hybrid system will be presented that can supply electricity to a private
house, farm house or a small company or a apartment house with electrical power depending on the need
at the site where used. The goal of this study is to introduce the local PV-wind hybrid system’s working
principle by reviewing one case where the system is connected to the grid.

Special Issues of Wind turbines and Photo-Voltaic Cells

As the wind does not blow all the time nor does the sun shine all the time, solar and wind power
alone are poor power sources. Hybridizing solar and wind power sources together with storage batteries
to cover the periods of time without sun or wind provides a realistic form of power generation. This
variable feature of wind turbine power generation is different from conventional fossil fuel, nuclear, or
hydro-based power generation. Wind energy has become the least expensive renewable energy
technology in existence and has peaked the interest of scientists and educators the world over.

Photovoltaic or PV cells, known commonly as solar cells, convert the energy from sunlight into DC
electricity. PVs offer added advantages over other renewable energy sources in that they give off no
noise and require practically no maintenance. PV cells are a familiar element of the scientific calculators
owned by many students. Their operating principles and governing relationships are unfortunately not as
pedagogically simple as that of wind-turbines. However, they operate using the same semiconductor
principles that govern diodes and transistors and the explanation of their functioning is straightforward
and helps to make more intuitive many of the principles covered in semiconductor electronic classes.

Most industrial uses of electricity require AC power. Wind-turbines and PV cells provide DC power. A
semiconductor-based device known as a power inverter is used to convert the DC power to AC power.
This device has a relatively simple operation that is a vivid illustration of many topics traditionally
covered in power electronics classes.
System Analysis
1. Specific site conditions for PV-wind hybrid system

Intermittent natural energy resources and energy resources seasonal unbalance are the most
important reason to install a hybrid energy supply system. The PV-wind hybrid system suits to
conditions where sun light and wind has seasonal shifts i.e., in summer the daytime is long and sun light
is strong enough, while in winter the days are shorter and there are more clouds, but there is usually an
increased wind resource that can complement the solar resource.

The PV-wind hybrid systems especially suit the remote location, which is inconvenient or
expensive to use conventional grid supplies. The common type is connecting with battery storage. For
PV array, a true south direction without any obstacles facing the sun is needed. For the wind turbine,
appropriate wind speed and wind direction are key element to whole system. The turbine should be
mounded into non-turbulent wind higher than trees and without other obstacles. Enough space is needed
to site the PV modules, wind turbine tower, and also to properly anchor the guy wires.

2. System Components

In general, a local cost-efficient, safe, and durable PV-wind hybrid system is composed of the
core part (PV modules and wind turbine); PV modules mounting and wind turbine tower; DC-AC
inverter; safe equipment such as fuses, disconnects, and lighting arrestor; meters and instrumentation;
batteries, charge controller regulator and backup power resource for battery storage systems; and also
connection wires, switching, and wall socket.

Photovoltaic (PV) modules convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. Modules can be wired
together to form a PV array that is wiring modules in series the available voltage is increased and by
wiring in parallel, the available current is increased. However either way, the power produced is the same
since watts (power) equals voltage time amperes. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 square meters
(about 1.5 by 3.5 feet) and produces about 75 watts of DC electricity in full sun.

Wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind
turbines use wind to make electricity. Most turbines have either two or three blades. These three-bladed
wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the wind. The other common wind
turbine type is the two-bladed, downwind turbine. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which
connects to a generator and makes electricity. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750
kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or
water pumping.

DC-AC inverter changes low voltage direct current (DC) power, which is produced by the PV or wind
turbine or stored in the battery into standard alternating current (AC) house power that is 120 or 240
VAC, 50 or 60 hertz. The “modern sine wave” Inverters supply uninterruptible power, i.e. there are no
blackouts or brownouts. The inverters come in sizes from 250 watts to over 8,000 watts. While there are
also "modified sine wave" inverters that are cheaper but can still handle most household tasks.
However, this type of inverter may create a buzz in some electronic equipment and telephones, which
can be an annoyance. The better sine wave inverters have made great strides in performance and price in
recent years. Inverters can also provide a utility inter-tie between your system and the utility grid,
allowing you to sell your excess energy to the utility for distribution by their grid. Many inverters also
have built-in battery chargers to keep your batteries topped off from either the grid or your generator.

PV modules mounting and wind turbine tower are engineered to withstand the PV modules and wind
turbine. The PV modules mounting can be a ground mount that works either on rooftops or the ground,
or pole mount for getting them up in the air. Both are angle-adjustable so that PV array will face the sun
as near to perpendicular as possible. Many owners will adjust their mounting racks two to four times a
year to get maximum exposure as the sun changes its angle during seasons. Or if the rooftop has a good
angle to the sun, the modules could be mounted solidly to the roof without an adjustable rack. Trackers
are another PV mounting option, which are pole mounts that automatically adjust themselves so that the
PV could face the sun throughout the day. Because the wind turbine should be mounded into non-
turbulent wind, a tall enough wind turbine tower is needed (9 m above anything within 120 m). And
there should also be enough space to properly anchor the guy wires.

Safe equipment includes over-current and lightning protection components. Over-current protection
components such as fuses and fused disconnects protect the system's wiring and components in the event
of short circuits. Fusing protects from over-current situations, and disconnects allow safe shutdown of
system components for maintenance and repair. Fuses and fused disconnects are rated by the amount of
current they can handle. They may be as small as a few amperes for supplying metering to as large as
400 amperes for supplying the inverter. Many renewable energy systems are in areas where
thunderstorms and lightning are common, especially; the wind turbine is always the highest building in
the remote area. Commercial lightning arrestors are available to help protect RE system electronics
against the lightning.

Meters and instrumentation can help owners keep track of important things like the battery voltage, the
amount of power they are currently consuming, the state of charge in their batteries and also how much
electricity traffics between their own supply systems to the utility grid for grid connection situations.
Some meters have more than one channel to monitor two battery banks or a battery bank and a
generating source for the hybrid systems.

Batteries store electrical energy produced by RE resource in a reversible chemical reaction. Most
batteries employed in RE systems use the lead-acid batteries typically encased in plastic and wired
together in series and parallel strings by the installer. However, batteries do not belong inside the living
space due to the dangerous chemicals in them and hydrogen and oxygen gas put out while being charged.
Battery capacity is rated in amp-hours, which 1 amp-hour is the equivalent of drawing 1 amp steadily for
one hour. A typical 12-volt system may have 800 amp-hours of battery capacity. This is the equivalent of
1,200 watts for eight hours if fully discharged and starting from a fully charged state. There are many
brands and types of batteries available for RE systems and the two most common batteries are the L-16
and golf cart sizes

Charge controller regulator prevents the PV array and wind turbine from over- charging the battery.
Most modern controllers maintain system voltage regulation electronically by varying the width of DC
pulses they send to the batteries (this is called pulse width modulation or PWM). This means the wider
the pulse; the more power goes to the batteries. Another category called "shunt type" controllers divert
excess energy into a "shunt load." This type of controller is more commonly used in wind or hydro
systems, since these systems generally should not be run open circuit. Unlike a PV module, most wind
and hydro turbines cannot be switched on and off by the controller. A new generation of PV controllers
has "maximum power point tracking." They take advantage of the maximum power available in the
module by adjusting current and voltage.

Backup power resource can come either from a generator or from the utility grid when too much energy
is consumed or when there has not been enough renewable energy coming into the system. However, for
the hybrid system, the latter situation seems could be avoid, and a considerable energy consuming style
might assist to solve the former problem
 Fig.1. Steps for establishing a Hybrid Solar & Wind Plant.

3. System Establish Process

The process of establishing the energy supply system (See Figure 1) is extremely
important step. Whichever system will be installed, analyzing owner’s load and renewable
energy resource of the site ought to the first step. Load analysis lists and adds up all energy
consumed by the owner’s appliances. RE resource measurement affects the system structure,
efficiency, and cost. If the owner’s site matches the specific site conditions for PV-wind hybrid
system, then the design and installation of the system requires know-how and experience. You
can often benefit by having a good installing team of RE systems assisting you to site, design,
and install your renewable energy system

Fig. 2. A simple Hybrid Solar & Wind System

Methodology
 In order to address the shortcomings of existing instructional techniques for electrical power
systems, the system is designed and implemented with the following goals:

• To be completely different from traditional electricity labs and to be fresh and interesting.
• To be intimately related to real world industrial power issues such as power quality.
• To show a complex, interrelated system that is closer to the “real world” than the usual simple
systems covered in educational labs.
• To motivate learning by introducing such elements as environmental and economic concerns of
practical interest to the students.

Establishment of a Wind/PV Hybrid Unit

The hybrid unit contains two complete generating plants, a PV solar cell plant and a wind-turbine
system. These sources are connected in parallel to a 120V AC line.

The PV panel output is connected to a DC to AC inverter and is then supplied from the inverter’s
output to a single-phase, 120 VAC load. The overall project structure is presented in Figure 2.

The wind turbine is installed at the top of a steel tower that has a height of 18.3 meters and a
diameter of 8.9 cm.

The instrumentation panel depicted monitors the outputs of the generator using digital panel
meters. One of the low maintenance features is the turbine’s brush-less alternator and an internal
governor. The actual system’s pictures are shown in Figure 2.

The turbine’s blades are made of a carbon fiber reinforced composite that will intentionally
deform as the turbine reaches its rated output. This deformation effect changes the shape of the
blade, causing it to go into a stall mode, thus limiting the rotation speed of the alternator and
preventing damage in high kinds.

Another feature of the wind turbine is a sophisticated internal regulator that periodically checks
the line voltage and corrects for low voltage conditions.

The solar panels are 12 VDC/unit were chosen for their ultra clear tempered glass that is
manufactured for long-term durability. Figure 3 shows the DC voltage measured across the 12
volt DC bus where the wind turbine and PV arrays outputs are connected. A slight ripple in
power regulation can clearly be seen. This ripple is a function of the unpredictable nature of
sunshine along with the dynamic effects of the electrical load.
 Fig. 3. The DC voltage measured across each PV unit (12 V DC)

One of the largest problems in systems containing power inverters is power quality. This problem
becomes serious if the inverter used in the system does not have a good sinusoidal waveform
output and causes problems such as harmonic contamination and poor voltage regulation.
According to the IEEE (a professional society which codifies such issues) standards, a maximum
of 3 to 4% total harmonic distortion may be allowed from inverter outputs. However, many
inverter outputs have much more harmonic distortion than is allowed.

To monitor and store the voltage, current, power, and harmonic contamination data, two power
quality analyzers (types 39 and 41) are used in the system. In addition, permanently mounted
AC/DC digital panel meters form part of the system’s instrumentation. A laptop computer is
interfaced to the system via the power quality analyzers to store data in real-time.

Voltage sags may cause a crucial damage to high precision measurement and protection devices,
especially computer equipment present in many highly automated industrial plants.

The AC filter is a circuit made up of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and a capacitor (C). Such filters
are commonly installed in industrial situations to remedy power quality problems.

The inverter is of a six-pulse type and the inverter and the control circuit models are both
standard models in the PSCAD/EMTDC software package.

Future Study

Figure. 4. show the future direction of this project. A computer measurement and control bus will be
added to the system. Computer controlled relays will be added to allow all the major elements of the
system to be switched in and out of the system through computer programs. The measurement bus will
be connected to all the major signals in the system and will allow for computerizes data acquisition
simultaneously of all the major signals in the system. These improvements will allow for the study
of more complex issues like power faults caused by sudden over voltages like lightning. These
improvements will also allow the same benefits to instruction realized in electricity and electronics
classes to be extended to control and instrumentation classes.

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of Future Research

Conclusions and Recommendations

Obviously, a complete hybrid power system of this nature may be too expensive and too labor
intensive for many Industrial Technology Departments. However, many of the same benefits could be
gleaned from having some subset of the system, for example a PV panel, batteries, and an inverter, or
even just a PV panel and a DC motor. The enhancements to instruction, especially in making electrical
power measurements more physical, intuitive, and real world are substantial and the costs and labor
involved in some adaptation of the ideas in this paper to a smaller scale setup are reasonable.

The use of solar and wind hybrid power generation is an especially vivid and relevant choice for students
of electrical Technology as these are power sources of technological, political, and economic importance
in a state. In other places, other power sources could be used. For example hybrid combinations of wind
power, solar power, geothermal power, hydroelectric power, tidal power, biomass generated power,
power from incineration of solid wastes, and many other technologies could be considered depending on
local interests and resources. The key elements of this test bed concept presented in this paper are two or
more renewable power sources connected to a power grid with complex electrical interactions.

Reference:
1. LOCAL PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)-WIND HYBRID SYSTEMS WITH BATTERY
STORAGE OR GRID CONNECTION, Yang, Dayu Master’s Programme in Renewable
Energy Energy Technology (Physics).
2. Godfrey Boyle, Renewable energy: Power for a sustainable future, Oxford University Press,
2004
3. Non Conventional Energy Sources, C L Wadhwa
MEMS AND NANO TECHNOLOGY

Paper
Presented by

A.HASSAIN ANSARY G.LAKSHMI PATI

II/IV B.TECH II/IV B.TECH
Email:hassain1990@gmail Email:tareq97@gmail

Sri vidhya nikethan

College of
Engineering

MEMS devices now are making the

ABSTRACT world of the future a reality.
Scientists have created “smart dust”
where millions of miniscule MEMS
sensors are spread over a military
site and communicate information to
humans or computers ready to
interpret possible troop movements.
“Smart roads” would have MEMS
devices embedded in them,
conveying information about the
roadway, traffic and accidents to
automobile-mounted global
positioning systems, allowing
drivers to avoid problems and
alerting highway workers to areas
that are potential troublespots.
Nanotechnology derives its name
from the nanometer, (10 -9 Meter or a
billionth of a meter) & refers to the
manipulation of matter at the atomic
& molecular level. The ideas behind
it are simple ones: Every substance
on earth is made up of molecules
composed of one or more atoms (the
smallest particle of element); to
describe the molecule that constitute
a physical object & how they inter-
relate is to say nearly everything
important about the object. It
follows, then, that if we can
manipulate individual atoms and
molecules, and put them together in
certain configuration, we will be
able to create just about anything
we desire.
DEFINITI ON
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) is the integration of
mechanical elements, sensors,
actuators, and electronics on a
common silicon substrate through
microfabrication technology. While
the electronics are fabricated using
integrated circuit (IC) process
sequencesthe micromechanical
components are fabricated using
compatible "micromachining"
processes that selectively etch away
parts of the silicon wafer or add
new structural layers to form the
mechanical and electromechanical
devices.
Nanotechnology can best be considered as
a 'catch-all' description of activities at the
level of atoms and molecules that have
applications in the real world.
Nanotechnology involves the use of man-
made materials so small; they are
measured on the scale of a nanometer.
The word "Nano" is derived from the
Greek word for Dwarf. It means "a
billionth." A nanometer is a billionth of a
meter, that is, about 1/80,000 of the
diameter of a human hair, or 10 times the
diameter of a hydrogen atom.
HISTORY
First developed in the 1970s and FABRICATING MEMS AND
then commercialized in the 1990s, NANOTECHNOLOGY
MEMS make it possible for systems
of all kinds to be smaller, faster, M
more energy-efficient and less E
expensive. In a typical MEMS M
configuration, integrated circuits S
(ICs) provide the “thinking” part of an
the system, while MEMS d
complement this intelligence with Na
active perception and control no
functions. de
vic
SENSING AND ACTING es
are
extremely small -- for example,
MEMS and Nanotechnology has
made possible electrically-driven
motors smaller than the diameter of
a human hair (right) -- but MEMS
and Nanotechnology is not primarily
about size.

MEMS and Nanotechnology is also

not about making things out of
silicon, even though silicon
The larger rectangle on top is the possesses excellent materials
microelectronics and the rectangle on the bottom properties, which make it an
is the microsensor.
attractive choice for many high-
performance mechanical
MEMS are usually divided into two applications; for example, the
categories -- those devices that strength-to-weight ratio for silicon
detect information, called is higher than many other
microsensors, and those devices that engineering materials which allows
can respond to information, or act, very high-bandwidth mechanical
called actuators. Microsensors devices to be realized.
gather local information including, Instead, the deep insight of MEMS
for example, thermal, biological, and Nano is as a new manufacturing
chemical, and optical input. The technology, a way of making
electronics of the devices can then complex electromechanical systems
process the information and may using batch fabrication techniques
direct actuators to respond and similar to those used for integrated
control the environment (e.g. by circuits, and uniting these
moving, pumping, filtering) based electromechanical elements together
on an intended, designed with electronics.
instruction.
The fabrication process is usually a
structured sequence of THREE
BASIC PROCESSES:
1. Deposition
Typical setup fo electrodeposition
Electrodeposition
This process is also known as
"electroplating" and is typically restricted
to electrically conductive materials. There
are basically two technologies for plating:
Electroplating and Electroless plating. In
the electroplating process the substrate is
placed in a liquid solution (electrolyte).
When an electrical potential is applied
between a conducting area on the
substrate and a counter electrode (usually
platinum) in the liquid, a chemical redox
process takes place resulting in the
formation of a layer of material on the
substrate and usually some gas generation
at the counter electrode.
In the electroless plating process a more
complex chemical solution is used, in
which deposition happens spontaneously
on any surface which forms a sufficiently
high electrochemical potential with the
solution. This process is desirable since it
does not require any external electrical
potential and contact to the substrate
during processing. Unfortunately, it is also
more difficult to control with regards to
film thickness and uniformity
Depositions resulting from chemical
reactions: chemical vapor deposition,
electrodeposition, epitax y, and them al
oxidation. T hese processes exploit the
creation of solid materials directly from
chem ical reactions in gas and/or liquid
compositions or with the substrate
material. T he solid material is usually
not the only product formed by the
reaction. Byproducts can include
gases, liquids and even other solids.
Depositions resulting from physical
reaction: physical vapor deposition,
casting. The m aterial deposited is
physically m oved on to the substrate (a
chem ical byproduct is not created).
2.Etching
In order to form a functional MEMS
structure on a substrate it is necessary
to etch the thin film s previously
deposited and/or the substrate itself. In
general, there are two classes of
etching processes:W et etchng: the
material is dissolved when immersed in
achem icalsolution.Dry etching: the
material is sputtered or dissolved using
reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant.
3.Lithography
Lithography in the MEMS context is
typically the transfer of a pattern to a
photosensitive material by selective
exposure to a radiation source such as
light. W hen a photosensitive m aterial
is selectively exposed to radiation (e.g.
by m asking some of the radiation), the
radiation pattern on the m aterial is
transferred to the material exposed
(the properties of the exposed and
unexposed regions differ).
ADVANTAGES OF MEMS AND
NANO MANUFACTURING
First, MEMS and Nanotechnology
are extremely diverse technologies
that could significantly affect every
category of commercial and military
product. MEMS and and Nanotechnology applications
Nanotechnology are already used will emerge, expanding beyond that
for tasks ranging from in-dwelling which is currently identified or
blood pressure monitoring to active known. Here are a few applications
suspension systems for automobiles. of current interest:
The nature of MEMS and Biotechnology
Nanotechnology and its diversity of MEMS and Nanotechnology is
useful applications make it enabling new discoveries in science
potentially a far more pervasive and engineering such as the
technology than even integrated Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
circuit microchips. microsystems for DNA
amplification and identification,
Second, MEMS and Nanotechnology micromachined Scanning Tunneling
blurs the distinction between Microscopes (STMs), biochips for
complex mechanical systems and detection of hazardous chemical and
integrated circuit electronics. biological agents, and microsystems
Historically, sensors and actuators for high-throughput drug screening
are the most costly and unreliable and selection.
part of a macroscale sensor- Communications
actuator-electronics system. MEMS High frequency circuits will benefit
and Nanotechnology allows these considerably from the advent of the
complex electromechanical systems RF-MEMS technology. Electrical
to be manufactured using batch components such as inductors and
fabrication techniques, decreasing tunable capacitors can be improved
the cost and increasing the significantly compared to their
reliability of the sensors and integrated counterparts if they are
actuators to equal those of made using MEMS and
integrated circuits. Yet, even though Nanotechnology. With the
the performance of MEMS and Nano integration of such components, the
devices is expected to be superior to performance of communication
macroscale components and circuits will improve, while the total
systems, the price is predicted to be circuit area, power consumption and
much lower. cost will be reduced. In addition,
the mechanical switch, as developed
by several research groups, is a key
MEMS AND component with huge potential in
NANOTECHNOLOGY various microwave circuits. The
demonstrated samples of mechanical
APPLICATIONS switches have quality factors much
higher than anything previously
There are numerous possible
available.
applications for MEMS and
Reliability and packaging of RF-
Nanotechnology. As a breakthrough
MEMS components seem to be the
technology, allowing unparalleled
two critical issues that need to be
synergy between previously
solved before they receive wider
unrelated fields such as biology and
acceptance by the market.
microelectronics, many new MEMS
Accelerometers comparison to a dime. Because an
entire system can be made this
MEMS accelerometers are quickly small and in such quantities, prices
replacing conventional are reduced for products which
accelerometers for crash air-bag incorporate this technology. MEMS
deployment systems in automobiles. also have no moving parts, so they
The conventional approach uses are much more reliable than a
several bulky accelerometers made macro system. Because of the
of discrete components mounted in reduced cost and increased
the front of the car with separate reliability, there is almost no limit
electronics near the air-bag; this to what MEMS can be used for .
approach costs over $50 per
automobile. MEMS and
Nanotechnology has made it
possible to integrate the
accelerometer and electronics onto a
single silicon chip at a cost between CONCLUSION
$5 to $10. These MEMS
accelerometers are much smaller, MEMS technology is based on a
more functional, lighter, more number of tools and methodologies,
reliable, and are produced for a which are used to form small
fraction of the cost of the structures with dimensions in the
conventional macroscale micrometer scale (one millionth of a
accelerometer elements. meter).
A well-controlled MEMS can be
Benefits of MEMS widely deployed, allowing
distributed, cheap, high-volume
manufacturing of useful products
and even a degree of distributed
innovation. Even if allowable
products were restricted to a small
subset of possible designs, it would
still allow an explosion of creativity
and functionality.
So this paper outlines a precise
definition of MEMS and mainly
stresses on
microelectronics,mircosensors,
microactuators,microstructures.

Because of the increase in Nanotechnology arrival is

micromachining technology, enormously significant because it
hundreds of MEMS can be made gives us unprecendented potential to
from a single 8-inch wafer of control and manipulate all matter—
silicon. Below is an image which living and non-living.
shows how small MEMS are in Nanotechnology is the great
enabler—it offers access to a new
realm, a molecular playing field
where the building blocks for
powerful technologies converge.
Once we have the tools to precisely
control and manipulate matter, we
are positioned to exploit and
integrate the technology.

REFERENCES

P.Rai-choudhury,ed.,Handbook of
Microlithography, Micromachining, and
Microfabrication

W.Gardner,and Vijay K.Varadan,and

Osama and, O.Awadelkarim,
Microsensers,MEMS and Smartdevices

Marc Madou, Fundamentals of

Microfabrication, CRC Press 1997,
ISBN 0-8493-9451-1

Gregory Kovacs, Micromachined

Transducers Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill
1998, ISBN 0-0729-0722-3

Héctor J. De Los Santos, Introduction to

Microelectromechanical (MEM)
Microwave Systems, Artech House 1999,
ISBN 0-8900-6282-x

Tai-Ran Hsu, MEMS and Microsystems:

Design and Manufacture, McGraw-Hill
2001, ISBN 0-0723-9391-2

International strategy and foresight

report on nanoscience and
nanotechnology, March 2004, VDI

Statement on nanotechnology, June

2004, ICSTI

www.memsnet.org
AUTHORS:

G.RAGHU VIVEK, K.GOUTHAM,

B.TECH II, EEE, B.TECH II, EEE,

S.K.D ENGG.COLLEGE S.K.D ENGG.COLLEGE,

GOOTY. GOOTY.

CONTACT:

+91-9966528889 +91-9959846566

EMAIL ID:

Raghu.vivek2003@gmail.com

Goutham_2305@yahoo.co.in
 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION
ABSTRACT
OTEC, or Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion, is an energy
technology that converts solar radiation
to electric power. OTEC systems use
the ocean's natural thermal gradient—
the fact that the ocean's layers of water
have different temperatures to drive a
power-producing cycle. As long as the
temperature between the warm surface
water and the cold deep water differs
by about 20°C (36°F), an OTEC
system can produce a significant
amount of power, with little impact on
the surrounding environment.
The distinctive feature of
OTEC energy systems is that the end
products include not only energy in the
form of electricity, but several other
synergistic products. The principle
design objective was to minimize plan
cost by minimizing plant mass, and
taking maximum advantage of minimal
warm and cold water flows. Power is
converted to high voltage DC, and is
cabled to shore for conversion to AC
and integration into the local power
distribution network.
The oceans are thus a vast
renewable resource, with the potential
to help us produce billions of watts of
electric power.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
CONVERSION
Oceans cover more than 70% of
Earth's surface, making them the world's
largest solar collectors. The sun's heat
warms the surface water a lot more than
the deep ocean water, and this
temperature difference creates thermal
energy. Just a small portion of the heat
trapped in the ocean could power the
world.
I. INTRODUCTION TO OCEAN
ENERGY:
 Most people have been witness
to the awesome power of the world's
oceans. For least a thousand years,
scientists and inventors have watched
ocean waves explode against coastal
shores, felt the pull of ocean tides, and
dreamed of harnessing these forces. But
it's only been in the last century that
scientists and engineers have begun to
look at capturing ocean energy to make
electricity.
The ocean can produce two types
of energy: thermal energy from the sun's
heat, and mechanical energy from the
tides and waves. Ocean thermal energy
is used for many applications, including
electricity generation. Ocean mechanical
energy is quite different from ocean
thermal energy. Even though the sun
affects all ocean activity, tides are driven
primarily by the gravitational pull of the
moon, and waves are driven primarily by
the winds. As a result, tides and waves
are sporadic sources of energy, while
ocean thermal energy is fairly constant.
Also, unlike thermal energy, the
electricity conversion of both tidal and
wave energy usually involves
mechanical devices.
II. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
CONVERSION:
OTEC or Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC) is a process which
utilizes the heat energy stored in the
tropical ocean. The world's oceans serve
as a huge collector of heat energy.
OTEC plants utilize the difference in
temperature between warm surface sea
water and cold deep sea water to
produce electricity.
Thermal energy conversion is an
energy technology that converts solar
radiation to electric power. OTEC
systems use the ocean's natural thermal
gradient—the fact that the ocean's layers
of water have different temperatures—to
drive a power-producing cycle. As long
as the temperature between the warm
surface water and the cold deep water
differs by about 20°C, an OTEC system
can produce a significant amount of
power. The oceans are thus a vast
renewable resource, with the potential to
help us produce billions of watts of
electric power. This potential is
estimated to be about 1013 watts of base
load power generation, according to
some experts. The cold, deep seawater
used in the OTEC process is also rich in
nutrients, and it can be used to culture
both marine organisms and plant life
near the shore or on land. OTEC produce
steady, base-load electricity, fresh water,
and air-conditioning options.
OTEC requires a temperature
difference of about 36 deg F (20 deg C).
This temperature difference exists
between the surface and deep seawater
year round throughout the tropical
regions of the world. To produce
electricity, we either use a working fluid
with a low boiling point (e.g. ammonia)
or warm surface sea water, or turn it to
vapor by heating it up with warm sea
water (ammonia) or de-pressurizing
warm seawater. The pressure of the
expanding vapor turns a turbine and
produces electricity.
Plant Design and Location
Commercial OTEC facilities can be built
on

Land or near the shore

Platforms attached to the shelf

Moorings or free-floating facilities in
deep ocean water
Land-based and near-shore are more
advantageous than the other two. OTEC
plants can be mounted to the continental
shelf at depths up to 100 meters,
however may make shelf-mounted
facilities less desirable and more
expensive than their land-based
counterparts. Floating OTEC facilities
with a large power capacity, but has the
difficulty of stabilizing and of mooring it
in very deep water may create problems
with power delivery.
Commercial ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) plants must be
located in an environment that is stable
enough for efficient system operation.
The temperature of the warm surface
seawater must differ about 20°C (36°F)
from that of the cold deep water that is
no more than about 1000 meters (3280
feet) below the surface. The natural
ocean thermal gradient necessary for
OTEC operation is generally found
between latitudes 20 deg N and 20 deg
S.
III. TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
CONVERSION SYSTEMS
There are three types of
electricity conversion systems: closed-
cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid. Closed-
cycle systems use the ocean's warm
surface water to vaporize a working
fluid, which has a low-boiling point,
such as ammonia. The vapor expands
and turns a turbine. The turbine then
activates a generator to produce
electricity. Open-cycle systems actually
boil the seawater by operating at low
pressures. This produces steam that
passes through a turbine/generator. And
hybrid systems combine both closed-
cycle and open-cycle systems.
Closed-Cycle OTEC
In the closed-cycle OTEC
system, warm sea water vaporizes a
working fluid, such as ammonia, flowing
through a heat exchanger (evaporator).
The vapor expands at moderate
pressures and turns a turbine coupled to
a generator that produces electricity. The
vapor is then condensed in heat
exchanger (condenser) using cold
seawater pumped from the ocean's
depths through a cold-water pipe. The
condensed working fluid is pumped back
to the evaporator to repeat the cycle. The
working fluid remains in a closed system
and circulates continuously.
 The heat exchangers (evaporator
and condenser) are a large and crucial
component of the closed-cycle power
plant, both in terms of actual size and
capital cost. Much of the work has been
performed on alternative materials for
OTEC heat exchangers, leading to the
recent conclusion that inexpensive
aluminum alloys may work as well as
much more expensive titanium for this
purpose.
Hybrid OTEC System
Another option is to combine the
two processes together into an open-
cycle/closed-cycle hybrid, which might
produce both electricity and desalinated
water more efficiently. In a hybrid
OTEC system, warm seawater might
enter a vacuum where it would be flash-
evaporated into steam, in a similar
fashion to the open-cycle evaporation
process.

The steam or the warm water might then

Open-Cycle OTEC pass through an evaporator to vaporize
the working fluid of a closed-cycle loop.
The vaporized fluid would then drive a
The open cycle consists of the turbine to produce electricity, while the
following steps: (i) flash evaporation of steam would be condensed within the
a fraction of the warm seawater by condenser to produced desalinated water
reduction of pressure below the
saturation value corresponding to its
temperature (ii) expansion of the vapor
through a turbine to generate power; (iii)
heat transfer to the cold seawater thermal
sink resulting in condensation of the
working fluid; and (iv) compression of
the non-condensable gases (air released
from the seawater streams at the low
operating pressure) to pressures required
to discharge them from the system.
 Another factor hindering the
commercialization of OTEC is that there
are only a few hundred land-based sites
in the tropics where deep-ocean water is
close enough to shore to make OTEC
plants feasible.

V. BENEFITS OF OTEC

We can measure the value of an

ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) plant and continued OTEC
development by both its economic and
no economic benefits. OTEC’s
IV. OTHER TECHNOLOGIES economic benefits include the:

OTEC offers one of the most
Helps produce fuels such as

benign power production technologies, hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol
since the handling of hazardous
Produces base load electrical energy
substances is limited to the working fluid
Produces desalinated water for
(e.g., ammonia), and no noxious by- industrial, agricultural, and
products are generated. OTEC requires residential uses
drawing sea water from the mixed layer
Is a resource for on-shore and near-
and the deep ocean and returning it to shore Mari culture operations
the mixed layer, close to the thermo
Provides air-conditioning for
cline, which could be accomplished with buildings
minimal environmental impact.
Provides moderate-temperature
Aquaculture is perhaps the most well- refrigeration
known byproduct of OTEC. Cold-water
Has significant potential to provide
delicacies, such as salmon and lobster, clean, cost-effective electricity for
thrive in the nutrient-rich, deep, seawater the future.
from the OTEC process. Micro algae
Fresh Water-- up to 5 liters for every
such as Spirulina, a health food 1000 liters of cold seawater.
supplement, also can be cultivated in the
Food--Aquaculture products can be
deep-ocean water. cultivated in discharge water.

Wave energy systems also cannot

compete economically with traditional
power sources. However, the costs to
produce wave energy are coming down,
Once built, however, wave energy OTEC’s no economic benefits, which
systems (and other ocean energy plants) help us achieve global environmental
should have low operation and goals, include these:
maintenance costs because the fuel they
use sea water is free. Like tidal power ♦ Promotes competitiveness and
plants, OTEC power plants require international trade
substantial capital investment upfront.
♦ Enhances energy independence and
energy security
♦ Promotes international sociopolitical
stability
♦ Has potential to mitigate greenhouse
gas emissions resulting from burning
fossil fuels.
In small island nations, the benefits
of OTEC include self-sufficiency,
minimal environmental impacts, and
improved sanitation and nutrition, which
result from the greater availability of
desalinated water and Mari culture
products.
VI. DISADVANTAGES
OTEC plant construction and
operation may affect commercial and
recreational fishing. Fish will be
attracted to the plant, potentially
increasing fishing in the area. Enhanced
productivity due to redistribution of
nutrients may improve fishing.
However, the losses of inshore fish eggs
and larvae, as well as juvenile fish, due
to impingement and entrainment and to
the discharge of biocides may reduce
fish populations. The net effect of
OTEC operation on aquatic life will
depend on the balance achieved between
these two effects. Other risks associated
with the OTEC power system are the
safety issues associated with steam
electric power generation plants:
electrical hazards, rotating machinery,
use of compressed gases, heavy
material-handling equipment, and shop
and maintenance hazards.
VII. APPLICATIONS
Ocean thermal energy conversion
(OTEC) systems have many applications
or uses. OTEC can be used to generate
electricity, desalinate water, support
deep-water Mari culture, and provide
refrigeration and air-conditioning as well
as aid in crop growth and mineral
extraction. These complementary
products make OTEC systems attractive
to industry and island communities even
if the price of oil remains low.
The electricity produced by the
system can be delivered to a utility grid
or used to manufacture methanol,
hydrogen, refined metals, ammonia, and
similar products. The cold [5°C (41ºF)]
seawater made available by an OTEC
system creates an opportunity to provide
large amounts of cooling to operations
that are related to or close to the plant.
Likewise, the low-cost refrigeration
provided by the cold seawater can be
used to upgrade or maintain the quality
of indigenous fish, which tend to
deteriorate quickly in warm tropical
regions. The developments in other
technologies (especially materials
sciences) were improving the viability of
mineral extraction processes that employ
ocean energy.
ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS:
The economics of energy
production today have delayed the
financing of a permanent, continuously
operating OTEC plant. However, OTEC
is very promising as an alternative
energy resource for tropical island
communities that rely heavily on
imported fuel. OTEC plants in these
markets could provide islanders with
much-needed power, as well as
desalinated water and a variety of Mari
culture products.
 In considering the economics of
OTEC, it is appropriate to determine if
multiple-product systems, e.g.,
electricity, desalinated water, Mari
culture, and air conditioning (AC)
systems yield higher value by, for
example, decreasing the equivalent cost
of electricity. Because Mari culture
operations, as in the case of AC systems,
can only use a relatively minute amount
of the seawater required for the thermal
plants they should be evaluated
independent of OTEC. It is
recommended that OTEC be considered
for its potential impact in the production
of electricity and desalinated water and
that Mari culture and AC systems, based
in the use of deep ocean water, be
considered decoupled from OTEC.
Comparing production costs of
electricity and desalinated water can
identify scenarios under which OTEC
should be economical, relative to
conventional technologies.
World’s only Open cycle
OTEC System:
Pacific International Center for
High Technology Research (PICHTR)
has been a leader in the continuing effort
to extract energy from the ocean and
other renewable systems. PICHTR has
developed sustainable systems through
its Engineering Systems group including
the design, construction, and operation
of the world's only Open Cycle Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion (OC-
OTEC) system located at the Natural
Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority
(NELHA) at Keahole Point on the
Big Island of Hawaii.
IX. CONCLUSION
OTEC has tremendous potential
to supply the world’s energy. It is
estimated that, in an annual basis, the
amount solar energy absorbed by the
oceans is equivalent to atleast 4000
times the amount presently consumed by
humans. For an OTEC efficiency of 3
percent, in converting ocean thermal
energy to electricity, we would need less
than 1 percent of this renewable energy
to satisfy all of our desires for energy.
OTEC offers one of the most
compassionate power production
technologies, since the handling of
hazardous substances is limited to the
working fluid (e.g., ammonia), and no
noxious by-products are generated.
Through adequate planning and
coordination with the local community,
recreational assets near an OTEC site
may be enhanced. OTEC is capital-
intensive, and the very first plants will
most probably be small requiring a
substantial capital investment. Given the
relatively low cost of crude oil, and of
fossil fuels in general, the development
of OTEC technologies is likely to be
promoted by government
agencies. Conventional power plants
pollute the environment more than an
OTEC plant would and, as long as the
sun heats the oceans, the fuel for OTEC
is unlimited and free.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:-
Non-Conventional Energy Sources

– G.D.Rai

Avery,WilliamH. and Chih Wu.-

Renewable Energy from the

Ocean.

C.L. Wadhwa – Power Systems

References:

www.altavista.com

www.techsupport.com

www.wikipedia.org

www.efytimes.com
 Jntu college of
engineering
Pulivendula

Paper presentation on

Facts based reactive power compensation

Of wind energy conversion system

Presented By:

Mohammed Areef Shaik

06191A0252,EEE 3/4,

JNTU pulivendla

e-mail:rinku.jntu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Voltage control and reactive power compensation in a distribution network with
embedded wind energy conversion system (WECS) represent main concern of this paper. The
WECS is of a fixed speed/constant frequency type that is equipped with an induction generator
driven by an unregulated wind turbine. The problem is viewed from short term (10 seconds) and
mid-term (10 minutes) time domain responses of the system to different wind speed changes.
Being disturbed by a variable wind speed, the WECS injects variable active and reactive power
into the distribution network exposing nearby consumers to excessive voltage changes. In the
FACTS-based solution approach, the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is used at the point
of the WECS network connection to help solve technical issues related to voltage support and
series reactive power flow control.

INTRODUCTION
Recently, alternative solutions treating distributed generation of electrical energy have
appeared as a consequence of strong ecological concerns with regard to almost all major
industrial branches. Moreover, initiatives of potential investors come along with liberalization of
electrical energy market. It results with an --additional impact to a need for conducting a new
kind of technical analysis. Grid integration aspects of renewable sources have become
increasingly important as incentives come in large numbers. From distribution network
viewpoint, connection of small power plants with dispersed generation of electricity calls for
urgent attention. In case of increased power ratings, dispersed power plants could be integrated
in a transmission network. Dispersed generation of electricity is often a subject of polarized
discussions. At one side, experienced engineers motivated by wide knowledge of complex power
system operation are concerned regarding fundamental realization of massive introduction of
unregulated and uncontrollable Generators into a distribution network. At the other side,
enthusiastic proponents of renewable sources believe that such generating units are a necessity in
operation should domestic and international requirements for reduction of CO2 emission be
fulfilled. Moreover, they are convinced that renewable decrease dependence on dominant energy
fuels (gas, oil, coal…) in times of large international crisis. Increased penetration of renewable
such as wind energy creates an uncontrollable component in electric power system. Based on
weather forecasts it is possible to predict a mean wind speed in short-term time period, but not
dynamic changes as well, smaller or larger, which take place around a base speed. Dynamic
changes of wind speed make amount of power injected to a network highly variable. Depending
on intensity and rate of changes, difficulties with frequency and voltage regulation could appear
making a direct impact to quality level of delivered electrical energy. Conditions of economic
justification set project requirements for wind power plant installations in areas with high wind
utilization. Such areas are often located in rural zones with relatively Weak electrical networks.
In order to establish a balance between polarized attitudes, it is necessary to provide answers
concerning technical, economic, and security aspects related to grid integration of wind power
plants.
From that viewpoint, the objective of this paper is set as to create a countermeasure
Without a countermeasure, it is possible that at some locations only a small number of wind
turbines could be connected due to weak voltage conditions and increased losses in the nearby
network. That would not only leave assessed wind potential unused, but also it could also
prohibit installation of larger number of wind turbines jeopardizing the economics of the whole
project. In an attempt to overcome negative dynamic impacts caused by wind speed changes, the
voltage regulation and reactive power compensation problem is approached here not only from a
conventional aspect, but from a FACTS based one as well. Wind power plant induction generator
is viewed as a consumer of reactive power. Its reactive power consumption depends on active
power production. Conventionally, shunt capacitor banks are connected at the generator
terminals to compensate its reactive power consumption. In some schemes, shunt capacitor banks
could be automatically switched on/off by using feedback signal from generator reactive power.
The capacitor switching is triggered through an algorithm if a generator reactive power is outside
an allowed dead-band for a specified time period. Further on, continuous voltage control and
reactive power compensation at the point of the WECS network connection is provided by using
FACTS-based device. Among FACTS devices, the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is
chosen due to its versatile regulating capabilities. The UPFC consists of shunt and series
branches, which could be interchangeably used. Being located at the point of the WECS
connection to the distribution network, it is made possible to simultaneously control the WECS
bus voltage magnitude and/or series reactive power flow that WECS exchanges with the
network. This countermeasure is expected to contribute in making assessed wind site viable for
connecting larger number of wind turbines.
ABOUT FACTS
With the rapid development of power electronics, Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) devices have been proposed and implemented in power systems.
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) is a system comprised of static
equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability of the network. It is generally a
power electronics-based device. FACTS devices can be utilized to control power flow
and enhance system stability. Particularly with the deregulation of the electricity
market, there is an increasing interest in using FACTS devices in the operation and
control of power systems with new loading and power flow conditions. A better
utilization of the existing power systems to increase their capacities and controllability
by installing FACTS devices becomes imperative. Due to the present situation, there are
two main aspects that should be considered in using FACTS devices: The first aspect is
the flexible power system operation according to the power flow control capability of
FACTS devices. The other aspect is the improvement of transient and steady-state
stability of power systems. FACTS devices are the right equipment to meet these
challenges.

Definition of FACTS:According to IEEE, FACTS, which is the abbreviation of Flexible AC

Transmission Systems, is defined as follows: Alternating current transmission systems
incorporating power electronics based and other static controllers to enhance
controllability and power transfer capability

FACTS could be connected:

• in series with the power system (series compensation)

• in shunt with the power system (shunt compensation)
• both in series and in shunt with the power system

Series compensation
In series compensation, the FACTS is connected in series with the power system. It works
as a controllable voltage source.Series inductance occurs in long transmission lines, and
when a large current flow it causes a large voltage drop. To compensate, series
capacitors are connected.

Ex: SSSC,TCSR,TSSC,TSSR

Shunt compensation:Power system is connected in shunt with FACTS, and it works as

controllable current source.Shunt compensation is of 2 types.

Shunt capacitive compensation:This method is used improve the power factor. Whenever an
inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags because of lagging load
current. To compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current leading the source
voltage. The net result is improvement in power factor

Shunt inductive compensation:This method is used either when charging the transmission
line, or, when there is very low load at the receiving end. Due to very low, or no load -- very low
current flows through the transmission line. Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes
voltage amplification (Ferranti Effect). The receiving end voltage may become double the
sending end voltage (generally in case of very long transmission lines). To compensate, shunt
inductors are connected across the transmission line Ex:STATCOM,SVC

SYSTEM MODELLING: Improvement of voltage control and reactive power by using UPSC at
the point of connection of the small sized WECS is set here as the main objective. The WECS is
connected to 10 kV distribution network (78 buses,77 branches)with no other generating units
except the one at the main in-feed point representing a slack bus of 110kV.It is supposed that the
WECS is of a fixed speed/constant frequency type that is equipped with an induction generator
driven by an unregulated wind turbine. If such a system is connected to a weak network,Some
fast and large changes around a mean speed may cause excessive voltage changes nearby
consumers due to fluctuations in injected power by the WECS. The UPFC is located at the
WECS connection point to the distribution network. The distribution network is connected
through an LTC transformer to a 110kV transmission network.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING: The impact of the UPSC to voltage control and reactive
power compensation of the WECS is investigated by using in-housed developed and
programmed combained dynamic and static model. Differntial equations are used to simulate
transient behaviour of wind turbine induction generator and an infinite bus synchronous
generator and infinite bus synchronous generator.Solution of differential equations by using
Runge-Kutta 4th order method is sequentially followed by solving algebraic equations using
Newton and gauss methods. No of differential equations which depends on the no of wind
turbines, is being defined by 5 equations per each induction generator.No of algebraic equations
depends on the of network buses, which for the network with approximately 80 buses makes 160
equations(80 for voltage magnitudes and 80 for voltage angles).Besides to load flow algebraic
equations there is a large no of other algebraic variabled and equations related for example to
wind speed(noise,noise,gust) and wind turbines(power/wind charecterstics).Basic differntial
equation describing dynamics of induction generator transient model is given by:
 Also the other set of differential
equations is defined for control system of the UPSC injection model being described by
proportional integration charecterstics.The injection model is included in the overall system
model control system of injection model is proposed and the benefits within the WECS
voltage/reactive power problem are explored.The UPSC can provide simultaneous control of all
the basic power system parameters(voltage,impedence and phase angle) and dynamic system
behaviour.The controller can fulfill functions of reactive power shunt compensation ,series
compensation and phase shifting meeting multiple control objectives.From the functional
perspective,the objectives are met by applying boosting transformer reactive injected voltage and
exciting transformer reactive current.The injected voltage is inserted by using series
transformer.Its output value is added to the network bus voltage from the shunt side and is
contollable both in magnitude and angle.The reactive current is drawn or supplied by using
shunt transformer.

AEP’s Inez UPFC This first UPFC in the world was commissioned in mid-1998 at the Inez station
of the American Electric Power (AEP) in Kentucky for voltage support and power flow control. This
UPFC was designed to provide fast reactive shunt compensation with a total control range 320 MVar, and
control power flow in the 138 kV high-capacity transmission line. Furthermore, it can be applied to force
the transmitted power, under contingency conditions, up to 950 MVA. The application proved that the
UPFC has the unique capability to provide independent and concurrent control for the real and reactive
line power flow, as well as the regulation of the bus voltage. Moreover, it has a flexible circuit structure to
be reconfigured for independent shunt and series compensation, as well as for only shunt or only series
compensation at double rating. There are also many other successful applications of FACTS devices.
Particularly, in recent years, with the improvements in power electronics, the costs of FACTS device
reduced considerably and thus the practical application of FACTS devices becomes more favorable.
 VECTOR DIAGRAM

UPFC is a generalized synchronous voltage source (SVS), represented at the fundamental

(power system) frequency by voltage phasor Vpq with controllable magnitude Vpq (0<Vpq<Vpqmax)
and angle p ,in series with the transmission line, as illustrated for the usual elementary two machine
system. In this functionally unrestricted operation, which clearly includes voltage and angle regulation,
the SVS generally exchanges both reactive and real power must be applied to it, or absorbed from it, by a
suitable power supply or sink. In the UPFC arrangement the real power exchanged by one of the end
buses.

In the presently used practical

implementation, the UPFC consists of two voltage
sourced converters. These back-to-back converters,
labeled “converter 1” and ”converter 2”, are
operated from a common dc link provided by a dc
storage capacitor. As indicated before, this
arrangement functions as an ideal ac-to-ac power
converter in which the real power can freely flow
in either direction between the ac terminals of the
two converters, and each converters can independently generate (or absorb) reactive power at it’s own ac
output terminal.

Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage Vpq with controllable
magnitude Vpq and phase angle p in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This injected
voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source. The transmission line current flows through
this voltage source resulting in reactive and real power exchange between it and the ac system. The
reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal is generated internally by the converter. The real power
exchanged at the ac terminal is converted in to dc power which appears at the dc link as a positive or
negative real power demand.

The basic function of converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by converter 2 at the
common dc link to support the real power exchange resulting from the series voltage injection. This dc
link power demand of converter 2 is converted back to ac by converter 1 and coupled to the transmission
line bus via a shunt connected transformer. In addition to the real power need of converter 2, converter 1
can also generate or absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and there by provide independent
shunt reactive compensation for the line. It is important to note that whereas there is a closed direct path
for the real power negotiated by the action of series voltage injection through converter 1and 2 back to the
line, the corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by converter 2 and
therefore does not have to be transmitted by the line. Thus, converter 1 can be operated at a unity power
factor or be controlled to have a reactive power exchange with the line independent of the
reactive power exchanged by converter 2.Obviously there can be no reactive power flow through
the UPFC dc link.

The UPSC capabilties are:1) Reactive power is generated or absorbed by the series inverter to
control the real and/or reactive power flow on the transmission line 2) Reactive power is
generated or absorbed by the shunt inverter to control bus voltage

Functional stucture of the UPSC results with appropriate electric circuit arrangement.The series
converter AC output voltage is injected in series with the line.It exchanges only active power
with shunt converter. Reactance Xs is the one seen from terminals of the series transformer.

UPSC injection model is derived enabling three parameters to be simultaneously controlled.

They are the shunt reactive power Qconvl,and the magnitude ‘r’and angle ’.Besides constant
series branch susceptance Bs included in the system bus admittance matrix,the bus power
injections of the UPSC Psi,Qsi are embedded in the model.

If there is a control objective to achieved,the bus power injections are modified through changes
of parameters r,Qconv, .Control system of the injection model is proposed in de-coupled single
input single output proportional integral form. It governs the system to a pre-defined operating
point by set-point changes.Selection of input/output signals depends on the pre determined
mode.The shunt side could be controlled only in the voltage mode,Vi-Qconv,emphasisng that
Qconv represents reactive power loading of the shunt convertor.The series side could be
controlled through the r-gamma pair in different models.

Numerical results:FACTS based devices are applied in order to flatten voltage profile,preserve
stability,correct power factor and decrease power and energy losses by minimizing reactive
power flow in the network.Within a cope of voltage control and reactive power compensation
problem,power conditions are analysed as apart of the whole problem related to technical aspects
of grid integration of the WECS.Power conditions at the network buses are dynamically analysed
as functions of wind speed changes

1.Linear change of wind speed: Linear change of wind is applied in order to pass through the
wind turbine Pw(Vm curve) in afull scale range of its operating values.This type of wind change
enables this wind turbine to inject active power into a network from a minimum to max value in
a manner slow enough not to induce unwanted oscillations.By choosing linear change,an
interference with transient that are caused by capacitor switching or generator stator winding
switching is avoided .the injected active power Pegen becomes variable according to Pw curve
while causing change in reactive power that induction generator simultaneously draws from the
network.Capacitve nature of induction generator operation needs a counter measure by a local
compensation device.FACTS-based counter measure is capable to neutralize discrete behavior f
conventional one by enforcing continuous response of the WECS voltage and reactive power to
the wind changes at n/w connection point.If the UPCS serve as a coupler b/w the WECS and the
network,it is made possible to simultaneously control bus voltage which indirectly decreases
generator voltage changes and to annual series reactive power flow which is indirectly keeps
power factor precisely at unity.

2.Noise change of wind Speed:Noise change of wind speed Vw is applied here to illustrate
capacity of the FACTS-based countermeasure to simultaneously flatten voltage profile and
minimize reactive power exchange between WECS and network.With UPSC,the bus voltage
magnitude at the point of CS connection to the network is kept at a constant value not allowing
transients from the capacitor switching to pass on deeper to the network.Also,the UPFC voltage
support decreases voltage changes of induction motor.UPSC series reactive power flow control
enforces min reactive power exchange with the network.It makes an advantage of not only
keeping p.f at unity but in decreased power loss on the WECS radial distribution feeder as well

3.Gust change of speed: Gust change of wind speed Vw,also emphasizes unique

capability of the FACTS-based counter measure to prevent the WECS voltage and reactive
power from the fluctuations induced by fast wind speed changes. With the UPSC,the bus voltage
magnitude at the point of the WECS connection to the network exhibits much smaller changes
than in the case without the UPSC.The PSC voltage support decreases voltage changes of the
induction generator as well.Due to delay of 15 s in capacitor switching criterion, this gust change
does not initiate any of it.Control of the UPSC series reactive power flow significantly decreases
reactive power exchange with the network.

4.Interaction between WECS and the LTC transformer:The WECS is through radial feeder
connected to the low-voltage side of the LTC main in-feed transformer.Interaction between the
WECS and the LTC transformer could appear in case of large and repeating gust changes of the
wind speed Vw.Gust changes represent an extremely large input disturbance at the mechanical
side of the wind turbine. Large deviations of the WECs injected active and reactive power are
followed further on by making network voltages significantly disturbed.The total time delay of
the LTC transformer before activation is related to period of gust change,the bus voltage
fluctuations could initialize operation of LTC regulation scheme.Mechanical parts of the tap-
changer could experience increased ‘wear-and-tear’ stress making maintainance costs increased
due to large number of activations.The FACTS counter measure acts to avoid voltage
fluctuations in the network that are induced by large and repeating wind speed changes. With
UPSC operated the LTC scheme is prevented from being activated by controlling the bus voltage
magnitude at the point of the WECS connection to the network.Its blocs large deviations of
voltage magnitude to penetrate through the radial feeder from the WECS upto the in feed point
of the distribution network where the LTC transformer is located.The UPSC voltage support
decreases changes of the induction generator and control of the UPSC series reactive power flow
decreases reactive power exchange with the network.

CONCLUSION:
Within this paper, conventional and FACTS-based aspects of voltage control and reactive
power compensation are compared. Benefits of applying power electronics-based devices are
clearly depicted within grid integration aspects of the wind energy conversion system. The
FACTS-based solution prevents large deviations of bus voltage magnitude induced by variable
WECS injected power to penetrate through the distribution network. With the UPFC operated,
the WECS voltage control and reactive power compensation problems are alleviated by
simultaneous regulation of the bus voltage magnitude and series reactive power flow at the point
of the WECS connection to the network. It is expected that presented results would help find
another increasingly interesting possibility of FACTS implementation within grid integration
aspects of wind energy conversion systems.

.
A TECHNICAL PAPER PRESENTATION ON

PRESENTED BY:
A.HARSHA RAGINI G.SOWMYA
EEE III YEAR EEE IIIYEAR

harsha_221@yahoo.com
sowmya_290@yahoo.com

Department Of EEE
RAJEEV GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
NANDYAL,

Kurnool [Dist].,
ABSTRACT
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is an energy technology that
Converts solar radiation to electric power. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural
Thermal gradient—the fact that the ocean's layers of water have different temperatures to
Drive a power-producing cycle. As long as the temperature between the warm surface
Water and the cold deep water differs by about 20°C (36°F), an OTEC system can
Produce a significant amount of power, with little impact on the surrounding
Environment.
The distinctive feature of OTEC energy systems is that the end products include
Not only energy in the form of electricity, but several other synergistic products. The
Principle design objective was to minimize plan cost by minimizing plant mass, and
Taking maximum advantage of minimal warm and cold water flows. Power is converted
To high voltage DC, and is cabled to shore for conversion to AC and integration into the
Local power distribution network.
The oceans are thus a vast renewable energy resource, with the potential to help
We produce billions of watts of electric power.

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the worlds largest
Solar collectors. The sun's heat warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean
Water, and this temperature difference create thermal energy. Just a small portion of the
Heat trapped in the ocean could power the world.

I. INTRODUCTION TO OCEAN ENERGY:

Most people have been witness to the awesome power of the world's oceans. For
Least a thousand years, scientists and inventors have watched ocean waves explode
Against coastal shores, felt the pull of ocean tides, and dreamed of harnessing these
Forces. But it's only been in the last century that scientists and engineers have begun to
Look at capturing ocean energy to make electricity.

The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's heat,
And mechanical energy from the tides and waves. Ocean thermal energy is used for many
Applications, including electricity generation. Ocean mechanical energy is quite different
From ocean thermal energy. Even though the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are
Driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon, and waves are driven primarily by
The winds. As a result, tides and waves are sporadic sources of energy, while ocean
Thermal energy is fairly constant. Also, unlike thermal energy, the electricity conversion
Of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical devices.

II. OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION:

OTEC is a process which utilizes the heat energy stored in the tropical ocean. The
World’s oceans serve as a huge collector of heat energy. OTEC plants utilize the
Difference in temperature between warm surface sea water and cold deep sea water to
Produce electricity.

Intensive Energy
The energy associated with OTEC derives from the difference in temperature between
Two thermal reservoirs. The top layer of the ocean is warmed by the sun to temperatures
Up to 20 K greater than the seawater near the bottom of the ocean. OTEC energy is
Different from geothermal energy in that one cannot assume the cold reservoir is infinite.
The physical energy of two large reservoirs of fluid at different temperatures is

In J/kg where r is the mass of warm water divided by the mass of cold water entering the
Plant(1). For optimal performance, r is approximately 0.5. It is assumed in this analysis
That the specific heat of the two fluid reservoirs is an average value over the often small
Temperature difference, but varying with salinity in the case of seawater.
Thermal energy conversion is an energy technology that converts solar radiation
To electric power. OTEC systems use the ocean's natural thermal gradient—the fact that
The ocean's layers of water have different temperatures—to drive a power-producing
Cycle. As long as the temperature between the warm surface water and the cold deep
Water differs by about 20°C, an OTEC system can produce a significant amount of
Power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable resource, with the potential to help us
Produce billions of watts of electric power. This potential is estimated to be about 1013
Watts of base load power generation, according to some experts. The cold, deep seawater
Used in the OTEC process is also rich in nutrients, and it can be used to culture both
Marine organisms and plant life near the shore or on land. OTEC produce steady, base load
Electricity, fresh water, and air-conditioning options.
OTEC requires a temperature difference of about 36 deg F (20 deg C). This
Temperature difference exists between the surface and deep seawater year round
Throughout the tropical regions of the world. To produce electricity, we either use a
Working fluid with a low boiling point (e.g. ammonia) or warm surface sea water, or turn
It to vapor by heating it up with warm sea water (ammonia) or de-pressurizing warm
Seawater. The pressure of the expanding vapor turns a turbine and produces electricity.

Plant Design and Location

Commercial OTEC facilities can be built on
Land or near the shore
Platforms attached to the shelf
Moorings or free-floating facilities in deep ocean water
Land-based and near-shore are more advantageous than the other two. OTEC plants
Can be mounted to the continental shelf at depths up to 100 meters, however may make
Shelf-mounted facilities less desirable and more expensive than their land-based
Counterparts. Floating OTEC facilities with a large power capacity, but has the difficulty
Of stabilizing and of mooring it in very deep water may create problems with power
Delivery.
Commercial ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plants must be located in an
Environment that is stable enough for efficient system operation. The temperature of the
Warm surface seawater must differ about 20°C (36°F) from that of the cold deep water
That is no more than about 1000 meters (3280 feet) below the surface. The natural ocean
Thermal gradient necessary for OTEC operation is generally found between latitudes 20
Deg N and 20 deg S.

III. TYPES OF ELECTRICITY CONVERSION SYSTEMS

There are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open-cycle,
And hybrid. Closed-cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize a
Working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapor expands and
Turns a turbine. The turbine then activates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle
Systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces steam
That passes through a turbine/generator. And hybrid systems combine both closed-cycles
And open-cycle systems.

Closed-Cycle OTEC

In the closed-cycle OTEC system, warm sea water vaporizes a working fluid,
Such as ammonia, flowing through a heat exchanger (evaporator). The vapor expands at
Moderate pressures and turns a turbine coupled to a generator that produces electricity.
The vapor is then condensed in heat exchanger (condenser) using cold seawater pumped
From the ocean's depths through a cold-water pipe. The condensed working fluid is
Pumped back to the evaporator to repeat the cycle. The working fluid remains in a closed
System and circulates continuously.
The heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser) are a large and crucial
Component of the closed-cycle power plant, both in terms of actual size and capital cost.
Much of the work has been performed on alternative materials for OTEC heat
Exchangers, leading to the recent conclusion that inexpensive aluminum alloys may work
As well as much more expensive titanium for this purpose.
Required condensate pump work, wC. The major additional parasitic energy requirements
in the OTEC plant are the cold water pump work, wCT, and the warm water pump work,
wHT. Denoting all other parasitic energy requirements by wA, the net work from the OTEC
plant, wNP is

wNP = wT + wC + wCT + wHT + Wa

The thermodynamic cycle undergone by the working fluid can be analyzed without
detailed consideration of the parasitic energy requirements. From the first law of
thermodynamics, the energy balance for the working fluid as the system is

wN = QH + QC
Where wN = wT + wC is the net work for the thermodynamic cycle. For the special
idealized case in which there is no working fluid pressure drop in the heat exchangers,

QH = ∫THds
H
and
QC = ∫ TCds
C

so that the net thermodynamic cycle work becomes

wN = ∫THds + ∫TCds
HC
Subcooled liquid enters the evaporator. Due to the heat exchange with warm sea water,
evaporation takes place and usually superheated vapor leaves the evaporator. This vapor
drives the turbine and 2-phase mixture enters the condenser. Usually, the sub cooled
liquid leaves the condenser and finally, this liquid is pumped to the evaporator
completing a cycle.

Open-Cycle OTEC
The open cycle consists of the following steps: (i) flash evaporation of a fraction
of the warm seawater by reduction of pressure below the saturation value corresponding
to its temperature (ii) expansion of the vapor through a turbine to generate power; (iii)
heat transfer to the cold seawater thermal sink resulting in condensation of the working
fluid; and (iv) compression of the non-condensable gases (air released from the seawater
streams at the low operating pressure) to pressures required to discharge them from the
system.

This process being iso-enthalpic,

h2 = h1 = hf + x2hfg
Here, x2 is the fraction of water by mass that has vaporized. The warm water mass flow
rate per unit turbine mass flow rate is 1/x2.
The low pressure in the evaporator is maintained by a vacuum pump that also removes
the dissolved non condensable gases from the evaporator. The evaporator now contains a
mixture of water and steam of very low quality. The steam is separated from the water as
saturated vapour. The remaining water is saturated and is discharged back to the ocean in
the open cycle. The steam we have extracted in the process is a very low pressure, very
high specific volume working fluid. It expands in a special low pressure turbine.

h3 = hg
Here, hg corresponds to T2. For an ideal adiabatic reversible turbine,

s5,s = s3 = sf + x5,ssfg
The above equation corresponds to the temperature at the exhaust of the turbine, T5. x5,s is
the mass fraction of vapour at point 5.
The enthalpy at T5 is,

h5,s = hf + x5,shfg
This enthalpy is lower. The adiabatic reversible turbine work = h3-h5,s.
Actual turbine work wT = (h3-h5,s) × polytrophic efficiency
The condenser temperature and pressure are lower. Since the turbine exhaust will be
discharged back into the ocean anyway, a direct contact condenser is used. Thus the
exhaust is mixed with cold water from the deep cold water pipe which results in a near
saturated water. That water is now discharged back to the ocean.
h6=hf, at T5. T7 is the temperature of the exhaust mixed with cold sea water, as the vapour
content now is negligible,
There are the temperature differences between stages. One between warm surface water
and working steam, one between exhaust steam and cooling water and one between
cooling water reaching the condenser and deep water. These represent external
irreversibility’s that reduce the overall temperature difference.
The cold water flow rate per unit turbine mass flow rate,
Turbine mass flow rate,
Warm water mass flow rate,
Cold water mass flow rate

Hybrid OTEC System

Another option is to combine the two processes together into an open cycle/
closed-cycle hybrid, which might produce both electricity and desalinated water
more efficiently. In a hybrid OTEC system, warm seawater might enter a vacuum where
it would be flash-evaporated into steam, in a similar fashion to the open-cycle
evaporation process.
The steam or the warm water might then pass through an evaporator to vaporize the
working fluid of a closed-cycle loop. The vaporized fluid would then drive a turbine to
produce electricity, while the steam would be condensed within the condenser to
produced desalinated water

IV. OTHER TECHNOLOGIES

OTEC offers one of the most benign power production technologies, since the
handling of hazardous substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g., ammonia), and no
noxious by-products are generated. OTEC requires drawing sea water from the mixed
layer and the deep ocean and returning it to the mixed layer, close to the thermo cline,
which could be accomplished with minimal environmental impact? Aquaculture is
perhaps the most well-known byproduct of OTEC. Cold-water delicacies, such as salmon
and lobster, thrive in the nutrient-rich, deep, seawater from the OTEC process. Micro
algae such as Spirulina, a health food supplement, also can be cultivated in the deep ocean
water.
Wave energy systems also cannot compete economically with traditional power
sources. However, the costs to produce wave energy are coming down, Once built,
however, wave energy systems (and other ocean energy plants) should have low
operation and maintenance costs because the fuel they use sea water is free. Like tidal
power plants, OTEC power plants require substantial capital investment upfront. Another
factor hindering the commercialization of OTEC is that there are only a few hundred
land-based sites in the tropics where deep-ocean water is close enough to shore to make
OTEC plants feasible.

V. BENEFITS OF OTEC
We can measure the value of an ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant and
continued OTEC development by both its economic and no economic benefits. OTEC’s
economic benefits include the:
Helps produce fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol
Produces base load electrical energy
Produces desalinated water for industrial, agricultural, and residential uses
Is a resource for on-shore and near-shore Mari culture operations
Provides air-conditioning for buildings
Provides moderate-temperature refrigeration
Has significant potential to provide clean, cost-effective electricity for the future.
Fresh Water-- up to 5 liters for every 1000 liters of cold seawater.
Food--Aquaculture products can be cultivated in discharge water.
OTEC’s no economic benefits, which help us achieve global environmental goals,
include these:
Promotes competitiveness and international trade
Enhances energy independence and energy security
Promotes international sociopolitical stability
Has potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions resulting from burning fossil
fuels.
In small island nations, the benefits of OTEC include self-sufficiency, minimal
environmental impacts, and improved sanitation and nutrition, which result from the
greater availability of desalinated water and Mari culture products
VI. DISADVANTAGES
OTEC-produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated
from fossil fuels at their current costs. The electricity cost could be reduced
significantly if the plant operated without major overhaul for 30 years or more,
but there are no data on possible plant life cycles.
OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 40° Fahrenheit (F)
occurs year round. Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based
facilities for economic operation. Floating plant ships could provide more
flexibility.

VII. APPLICATIONS
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems have many applications or
uses. OTEC can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water, support deep-water
Mari culture, and provide refrigeration and air-conditioning as well as aid in crop growth
and mineral extraction. These complementary products make OTEC systems attractive to
industry and island communities even if the price of oil remains low.

The electricity produced by the system can be delivered to a utility grid or used to
manufacture methanol, hydrogen, refined metals, ammonia, and similar products. The
cold [5°C (41ºF)] seawater made available by an OTEC system creates an opportunity to
provide large amounts of cooling to operations that are related to or close to the plant.
Likewise, the low-cost refrigeration provided by the cold seawater can be used to upgrade
or maintain the quality of indigenous fish, which tend to deteriorate quickly in warm
tropical regions. The developments in other technologies (especially materials sciences)
were improving the viability of mineral extraction processes that employ ocean energy.
VIII. CASE STUDY: (INDIA)
Conceptual studies on OTEC plants for Kavaratti (Lakshadweep islands), in the
Andaman-Nicobar Islands and off the Tamil Nadu coast at Kulasekharapatnam were
initiated in 1980. In 1984 a preliminary design for a 1 MW (gross) closed Rankine Cycle
floating plant was prepared by the Indian Institute of Technology in Madras at the request
of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Resources. The National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT) was formed by the governmental Department of Ocean Development
in 1993 and in 1997 the Government proposed the establishment of the 1 MW plant of
earlier studies. NIOT signed a memorandum of understanding with Saga University in
Japan for the joint development of the plant near the port of Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu).
It has been reported that following detailed specifications, global tenders were
placed at end-1998 for the design, manufacture, supply and commissioning of various
sub-systems. The objective is to demonstrate the OTEC plant for one year, after which it
could be moved to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands for power generation. NIOT’s plan is
to build 10-25 MW shore-mounted power plants in due course by scaling-up the 1 MW
test plant, and possibly a 100 MW range of commercial plants thereafter.

IX. CONCLUSION
OTEC has tremendous potential to supply the world’s energy. It is estimated that,
in an annual basis, the amount solar energy absorbed by the oceans is equivalent to at least
4000 times the amount presently consumed by humans. For an OTEC efficiency of 3
percent, in converting ocean thermal energy to electricity, we would need less than 1
percent of this renewable energy to satisfy all of our desires for energy.
OTEC offers one of the most compassionate power production technologies, since
the handling of hazardous substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g., ammonia), and
no noxious by-products are generated. Through adequate planning and coordination with
the local community, recreational assets near an OTEC site may be enhanced. OTEC is
capital-intensive, and the very first plants will most probably be small requiring a
substantial capital investment. Given the relatively low cost of crude oil and of fossil
fuels in general, the development of OTEC technologies is likely to be promoted by
government agencies. Conventional power plants pollute the environment more than an
OTEC plant would and, as long as the sun heats the oceans, the fuel for OTEC is
unlimited and free.

X. REFERENCE
1. D. H. Johnson, Energy, Vol. 8, No. 20, pp. 927-946 (1983).
2. Claude G. (1930), "Power from the Tropical Seas" in Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 52,
No.12, 19, pp. 1039-1044.
3. Nihous G.C. and. Vega L.A (1991), "A Review of Some Semi-empirical OTEC Effluent
Discharge Models", in Oceans ‘91, Honolulu, Hawaii. [The OTEC effluent models are
summarized]
4. Ocean Thermal Corporation. (1984a). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Preliminary Design Engineering Report. Prepared for U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C.
5. Ocean Data Systems Inc. (1977). OTEC Thermal Resource Report for Hawaii Monterey,
CA: Ocean Data Systems, Inc.
 A Hybrid Solar-Wind Power
Generation system

Presented by

ABHILASH.T G.NAVEEN KUMAR

3rd EEE, 06691A0201 3rd EEE, 06691A0257
MITS, MADANAPALLE MITS, MADANAPALLE
EMAIL:abhilash_abhi@rediff.com
EMAIL:naveenkumar.257@gmail.com

Abstract:
 Due to intermittent natural energy resources and energy resources seasonal un-balance, a PV-
wind hybrid electrical power supply system was developed for many remote locations where a
conventional grid connection is inconvenient or expensive. While the hybrid system is also applicable
with grid connection, owners are allowed to sell excess electricity back to the electric utility by using net
meter.

The set-up consists of a photo-voltaic solar-cell array, a mast mounted wind generator, lead-acid
storage batteries, an inverter unit to convert DC power to AC power, electrical lighting loads and
electrical heating loads, several fuse and junction boxes and associated wiring, and test instruments for
measuring voltages, currents, power factors, and harmonic contamination data throughout the system.
This hybrid solar-wind power generating system is extensively used to illustrate electrical concepts in
hands-on laboratories and demonstrations in the Industrial Technology curriculum.

This paper describes an analysis of local PV-wind hybrid systems for supplying electricity to a
private house, farmhouse or a small company with electrical power depending on the need at the site.
The major system components, work principle and specific working condition are presented in this
paper.
Introduction
Energy has always played an important role in human and economic development and world
peace. Since the world economic resuscitation and boom, world total energy annual consumption in 2002
has increased, while fossil fuel (i.e. coal, oil, natural gas) provided three quarters of the total. At current
energy consumption rate, proven coal reserves should last for about 200 years, oil for approximately 40
years and natural gas for around 60 years. With the contradiction between rapid development and
diminishing fossil fuel resource, as well as to avoid pollutant emissions or other environmental problems,
and not to involve the resulting healthy hazard, we should consider the manner in which we produce and
consume energy for sustainable development.
Renewable energy, i.e., energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, geo-thermal, hydropower
and ocean resources, could increases diversity of energy supplies and offer us clean energy beyond all
doubt. The energy generated from wind and solar is much less than the production by fossil fuels,
however, electricity generation by utilizing PV cells and wind turbine increases rapidly recent years,
particularly in Germany, Japan, the U.S., and Denmark.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are electronic devices that are based on semiconductor technology and
can produce an electric current directly from sunlight. The best silicon PV modules now available
commercially have an efficiency of over 17%, and it is expected that in about 10 years’ time module
efficiencies will have raised to over 20%.

Wind power is electricity produced by a generator, which is drove by a turbine according to

aerodynamics in flowing air. Wind power already becomes one of the fastest growing renewable energy
technologies around the world, a total of 31000MW of wind generating capacity had been installed by
the end of 2002 that is almost four times the capacity at the end of 1997.

PV modules and wind turbines are now widely used in developed countries to produce electrical
power in locations where it might be inconvenient or expensive to use conventional grid supplies, while
other homeowners who choose the renewable energy sources prefer to connect their energy system to the
grid as a huge ‘battery’ for some convenient grid-tied situation. In contrast, in many developing
countries, especially in rural areas electricity grids are often non- existent or rudimentary, and all forms
of energy are usually very expensive. Here the PV modules and wind turbine can be highly competitive
with other forms of energy supply. However, the fact that natural energy resources are intermittent and
storage batteries are expensive, has led to the utilization of so-called hybrid renewable energy systems.
Any power system that incorporates two or more of the following is referred to as a hybrid power
system: PV panels, wind turbines, or diesel, propane, gasoline generators. For small loads, the most
common combinations are PV-wind hybrid system. PV and wind is good match, because inland wind
speeds tend to be lower in summer, when solar energy can compensate, and higher in winter, when
sunshine falls to very low levels.

In this paper, a PV-wind hybrid system will be presented that can supply electricity to a private
house, farm house or a small company or a apartment house with electrical power depending on the need
at the site where used. The goal of this study is to introduce the local PV-wind hybrid system’s working
principle by reviewing one case where the system is connected to the grid.

Special Issues of Wind turbines and Photo-Voltaic Cells

As the wind does not blow all the time nor does the sun shine all the time, solar and wind power
alone are poor power sources. Hybridizing solar and wind power sources together with storage batteries
to cover the periods of time without sun or wind provides a realistic form of power generation. This
variable feature of wind turbine power generation is different from conventional fossil fuel, nuclear, or
hydro-based power generation. Wind energy has become the least expensive renewable energy
technology in existence and has peaked the interest of scientists and educators the world over.

Photovoltaic or PV cells, known commonly as solar cells, convert the energy from sunlight into DC
electricity. PVs offer added advantages over other renewable energy sources in that they give off no
noise and require practically no maintenance. PV cells are a familiar element of the scientific calculators
owned by many students. Their operating principles and governing relationships are unfortunately not as
pedagogically simple as that of wind-turbines. However, they operate using the same semiconductor
principles that govern diodes and transistors and the explanation of their functioning is straightforward
and helps to make more intuitive many of the principles covered in semiconductor electronic classes.

Most industrial uses of electricity require AC power. Wind-turbines and PV cells provide DC power. A
semiconductor-based device known as a power inverter is used to convert the DC power to AC power.
This device has a relatively simple operation that is a vivid illustration of many topics traditionally
covered in power electronics classes.
System Analysis
1. Specific site conditions for PV-wind hybrid system

Intermittent natural energy resources and energy resources seasonal unbalance are the most
important reason to install a hybrid energy supply system. The PV-wind hybrid system suits to
conditions where sun light and wind has seasonal shifts i.e., in summer the daytime is long and sun light
is strong enough, while in winter the days are shorter and there are more clouds, but there is usually an
increased wind resource that can complement the solar resource.

The PV-wind hybrid systems especially suit the remote location, which is inconvenient or
expensive to use conventional grid supplies. The common type is connecting with battery storage. For
PV array, a true south direction without any obstacles facing the sun is needed. For the wind turbine,
appropriate wind speed and wind direction are key element to whole system. The turbine should be
mounded into non-turbulent wind higher than trees and without other obstacles. Enough space is needed
to site the PV modules, wind turbine tower, and also to properly anchor the guy wires.

2. System Components

In general, a local cost-efficient, safe, and durable PV-wind hybrid system is composed of the
core part (PV modules and wind turbine); PV modules mounting and wind turbine tower; DC-AC
inverter; safe equipment such as fuses, disconnects, and lighting arrestor; meters and instrumentation;
batteries, charge controller regulator and backup power resource for battery storage systems; and also
connection wires, switching, and wall socket.

Photovoltaic (PV) modules convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. Modules can be wired
together to form a PV array that is wiring modules in series the available voltage is increased and by
wiring in parallel, the available current is increased. However either way, the power produced is the same
since watts (power) equals voltage time amperes. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 square meters
(about 1.5 by 3.5 feet) and produces about 75 watts of DC electricity in full sun.

Wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind
turbines use wind to make electricity. Most turbines have either two or three blades. These three-bladed
wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the wind. The other common wind
turbine type is the two-bladed, downwind turbine. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which
connects to a generator and makes electricity. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750
kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or
water pumping.

DC-AC inverter changes low voltage direct current (DC) power, which is produced by the PV or wind
turbine or stored in the battery into standard alternating current (AC) house power that is 120 or 240
VAC, 50 or 60 hertz. The “modern sine wave” Inverters supply uninterruptible power, i.e. there are no
blackouts or brownouts. The inverters come in sizes from 250 watts to over 8,000 watts. While there are
also "modified sine wave" inverters that are cheaper but can still handle most household tasks.
However, this type of inverter may create a buzz in some electronic equipment and telephones, which
can be an annoyance. The better sine wave inverters have made great strides in performance and price in
recent years. Inverters can also provide a utility inter-tie between your system and the utility grid,
allowing you to sell your excess energy to the utility for distribution by their grid. Many inverters also
have built-in battery chargers to keep your batteries topped off from either the grid or your generator.

PV modules mounting and wind turbine tower are engineered to withstand the PV modules and wind
turbine. The PV modules mounting can be a ground mount that works either on rooftops or the ground,
or pole mount for getting them up in the air. Both are angle-adjustable so that PV array will face the sun
as near to perpendicular as possible. Many owners will adjust their mounting racks two to four times a
year to get maximum exposure as the sun changes its angle during seasons. Or if the rooftop has a good
angle to the sun, the modules could be mounted solidly to the roof without an adjustable rack. Trackers
are another PV mounting option, which are pole mounts that automatically adjust themselves so that the
PV could face the sun throughout the day. Because the wind turbine should be mounded into non-
turbulent wind, a tall enough wind turbine tower is needed (9 m above anything within 120 m). And
there should also be enough space to properly anchor the guy wires.

Safe equipment includes over-current and lightning protection components. Over-current protection
components such as fuses and fused disconnects protect the system's wiring and components in the event
of short circuits. Fusing protects from over-current situations, and disconnects allow safe shutdown of
system components for maintenance and repair. Fuses and fused disconnects are rated by the amount of
current they can handle. They may be as small as a few amperes for supplying metering to as large as
400 amperes for supplying the inverter. Many renewable energy systems are in areas where
thunderstorms and lightning are common, especially; the wind turbine is always the highest building in
the remote area. Commercial lightning arrestors are available to help protect RE system electronics
against the lightning.

Meters and instrumentation can help owners keep track of important things like the battery voltage, the
amount of power they are currently consuming, the state of charge in their batteries and also how much
electricity traffics between their own supply systems to the utility grid for grid connection situations.
Some meters have more than one channel to monitor two battery banks or a battery bank and a
generating source for the hybrid systems.

Batteries store electrical energy produced by RE resource in a reversible chemical reaction. Most
batteries employed in RE systems use the lead-acid batteries typically encased in plastic and wired
together in series and parallel strings by the installer. However, batteries do not belong inside the living
space due to the dangerous chemicals in them and hydrogen and oxygen gas put out while being charged.
Battery capacity is rated in amp-hours, which 1 amp-hour is the equivalent of drawing 1 amp steadily for
one hour. A typical 12-volt system may have 800 amp-hours of battery capacity. This is the equivalent of
1,200 watts for eight hours if fully discharged and starting from a fully charged state. There are many
brands and types of batteries available for RE systems and the two most common batteries are the L-16
and golf cart sizes

Charge controller regulator prevents the PV array and wind turbine from over- charging the battery.
Most modern controllers maintain system voltage regulation electronically by varying the width of DC
pulses they send to the batteries (this is called pulse width modulation or PWM). This means the wider
the pulse; the more power goes to the batteries. Another category called "shunt type" controllers divert
excess energy into a "shunt load." This type of controller is more commonly used in wind or hydro
systems, since these systems generally should not be run open circuit. Unlike a PV module, most wind
and hydro turbines cannot be switched on and off by the controller. A new generation of PV controllers
has "maximum power point tracking." They take advantage of the maximum power available in the
module by adjusting current and voltage.

Backup power resource can come either from a generator or from the utility grid when too much energy
is consumed or when there has not been enough renewable energy coming into the system. However, for
the hybrid system, the latter situation seems could be avoid, and a considerable energy consuming style
might assist to solve the former problem
 Fig.1. Steps for establishing a Hybrid Solar & Wind Plant.

3. System Establish Process

The process of establishing the energy supply system (See Figure 1) is extremely
important step. Whichever system will be installed, analyzing owner’s load and renewable
energy resource of the site ought to the first step. Load analysis lists and adds up all energy
consumed by the owner’s appliances. RE resource measurement affects the system structure,
efficiency, and cost. If the owner’s site matches the specific site conditions for PV-wind hybrid
system, then the design and installation of the system requires know-how and experience. You
can often benefit by having a good installing team of RE systems assisting you to site, design,
and install your renewable energy system

Fig. 2. A simple Hybrid Solar & Wind System

Methodology
 In order to address the shortcomings of existing instructional techniques for electrical power
systems, the system is designed and implemented with the following goals:

• To be completely different from traditional electricity labs and to be fresh and interesting.
• To be intimately related to real world industrial power issues such as power quality.
• To show a complex, interrelated system that is closer to the “real world” than the usual simple
systems covered in educational labs.
• To motivate learning by introducing such elements as environmental and economic concerns of
practical interest to the students.

Establishment of a Wind/PV Hybrid Unit

The hybrid unit contains two complete generating plants, a PV solar cell plant and a wind-turbine
system. These sources are connected in parallel to a 120V AC line.

The PV panel output is connected to a DC to AC inverter and is then supplied from the inverter’s
output to a single-phase, 120 VAC load. The overall project structure is presented in Figure 2.

The wind turbine is installed at the top of a steel tower that has a height of 18.3 meters and a
diameter of 8.9 cm.

The instrumentation panel depicted monitors the outputs of the generator using digital panel
meters. One of the low maintenance features is the turbine’s brush-less alternator and an internal
governor. The actual system’s pictures are shown in Figure 2.

The turbine’s blades are made of a carbon fiber reinforced composite that will intentionally
deform as the turbine reaches its rated output. This deformation effect changes the shape of the
blade, causing it to go into a stall mode, thus limiting the rotation speed of the alternator and
preventing damage in high kinds.

Another feature of the wind turbine is a sophisticated internal regulator that periodically checks
the line voltage and corrects for low voltage conditions.

The solar panels are 12 VDC/unit were chosen for their ultra clear tempered glass that is
manufactured for long-term durability. Figure 3 shows the DC voltage measured across the 12
volt DC bus where the wind turbine and PV arrays outputs are connected. A slight ripple in
power regulation can clearly be seen. This ripple is a function of the unpredictable nature of
sunshine along with the dynamic effects of the electrical load.
 Fig. 3. The DC voltage measured across each PV unit (12 V DC)

One of the largest problems in systems containing power inverters is power quality. This problem
becomes serious if the inverter used in the system does not have a good sinusoidal waveform
output and causes problems such as harmonic contamination and poor voltage regulation.
According to the IEEE (a professional society which codifies such issues) standards, a maximum
of 3 to 4% total harmonic distortion may be allowed from inverter outputs. However, many
inverter outputs have much more harmonic distortion than is allowed.

To monitor and store the voltage, current, power, and harmonic contamination data, two power
quality analyzers (types 39 and 41) are used in the system. In addition, permanently mounted
AC/DC digital panel meters form part of the system’s instrumentation. A laptop computer is
interfaced to the system via the power quality analyzers to store data in real-time.

Voltage sags may cause a crucial damage to high precision measurement and protection devices,
especially computer equipment present in many highly automated industrial plants.

The AC filter is a circuit made up of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and a capacitor (C). Such filters
are commonly installed in industrial situations to remedy power quality problems.

The inverter is of a six-pulse type and the inverter and the control circuit models are both
standard models in the PSCAD/EMTDC software package.

Future Study

Figure. 4. show the future direction of this project. A computer measurement and control bus will be
added to the system. Computer controlled relays will be added to allow all the major elements of the
system to be switched in and out of the system through computer programs. The measurement bus will
be connected to all the major signals in the system and will allow for computerizes data acquisition
simultaneously of all the major signals in the system. These improvements will allow for the study
of more complex issues like power faults caused by sudden over voltages like lightning. These
improvements will also allow the same benefits to instruction realized in electricity and electronics
classes to be extended to control and instrumentation classes.

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of Future Research

Conclusions and Recommendations

Obviously, a complete hybrid power system of this nature may be too expensive and too labor
intensive for many Industrial Technology Departments. However, many of the same benefits could be
gleaned from having some subset of the system, for example a PV panel, batteries, and an inverter, or
even just a PV panel and a DC motor. The enhancements to instruction, especially in making electrical
power measurements more physical, intuitive, and real world are substantial and the costs and labor
involved in some adaptation of the ideas in this paper to a smaller scale setup are reasonable.

The use of solar and wind hybrid power generation is an especially vivid and relevant choice for students
of electrical Technology as these are power sources of technological, political, and economic importance
in a state. In other places, other power sources could be used. For example hybrid combinations of wind
power, solar power, geothermal power, hydroelectric power, tidal power, biomass generated power,
power from incineration of solid wastes, and many other technologies could be considered depending on
local interests and resources. The key elements of this test bed concept presented in this paper are two or
more renewable power sources connected to a power grid with complex electrical interactions.

Reference:
1. LOCAL PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)-WIND HYBRID SYSTEMS WITH BATTERY
STORAGE OR GRID CONNECTION, Yang, Dayu Master’s Programme in Renewable
Energy Energy Technology (Physics).
2. Godfrey Boyle, Renewable energy: Power for a sustainable future, Oxford University Press,
2004
3. Non Conventional Energy Sources, C L Wadhwa
POWER ELECTRONICS
AND
CONTROL SYSTEMS
 ACTIVE POWER FILTERS
Power Quality enhancement

N.LAVANYA M.LAVANYA
III B.Tech. Roll No. 06691A0237 III B.Tech. Roll. No. 06691A0236
Electical & Electronics Engineering Electical & Electronics Engineering
E-mail : n_lav_mits@yahoo.co.in E-mail : m_lavanya_236@yahoo.co.in

E-mail : harsha.mech360@gmail.com

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MADANAPALLI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
(AFFILIATED TO JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY)
P.B.No 14, Angallu, Madanapalle-517325
 ABSTRACT

This paper describes different power quality problems in distribution systems and their
solutions with power electronics based equipment. Shunt and series active power filters
are described showing their compensation characteristics and principles of operation.
Different power circuits topologies and control scheme for each type of active power
filter are analyzed. The compensation characteristics of each topology with the respective
control scheme are proved by simulation and experimentally. The simulated results are in
close agreement with the experimental results. Hence is the present work.

INTRODUCTION

The proliferation of microelectronics processors in a wide range of equipments, from

home VCRs and digital clocks to automated industrial assembly lines and hospital
diagnostics systems, has increased the vulnerability of such equipment to power quality
problems [1]. These problems include a variety of electrical disturbances, which may
originate in several ways and have different effects on various kinds of sensitive loads.
What were once considered minor variations in power, usually unnoticed in the operation
of conventional equipment, may now bring whole factories to standstill. As a result of
this vulnerability, increasing numbers of industrial and commercial facilities are trying to
protect themselves by investing in more sophisticate equipment to improve power quality
[2]. Moreover, the proliferation of nonlinear loads with large rated power has increased
the contamination level in voltages and currents waveforms, forcing to improve the
compensation characteristics required to satisfy more stringent harmonics standard [3],
[4]. Between the different technical options available to improve power quality, active
power filters have proved to be an important alternative to compensate for current and
voltage disturbances in power distribution systems [5], [6], [7]. Different active power
filters topologies have been presented in the technical literature, [8] [9] and many of them
are already available in the market [1], [2]. This paper will focus in the analysis of which
to use with their compensation characteristics. Shunt active power filters, series active
topologies, and hybrid schemes will be presented and analyzed. Finally, steady state and

2
transient results for dynamic compensation, obtained from simulated and experimental
setup will be presented.
POWER QUALITY IN POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Most of the more important international standards define power quality as the physical
characteristics of the electrical supply provided under normal operating conditions that do
not disrupt or disturb the customer’s processes. Therefore, a power quality problem exists
if any voltage, current or frequency deviation results in a failure or in a bad operation of
customer’s equipment. However, it is important to notice that the quality of power supply
implies basically voltage quality and supply reliability. Voltage quality problems relates
to any failure of equipment due to deviations of the line voltage from its nominal
characteristics, and the supply reliability is characterized by its adequacy (ability to
supply the load), security (ability to withstand sudden disturbances such as system faults)
and availability (focusing especially on long interruptions). Power quality problems are
common in most of commercial, industrial and utility networks. Natural phenomena, such
as lightning are the most frequent cause of power quality problems. Switching
phenomena resulting in oscillatory transients in the electrical supply, for example when
capacitors are switched, also contribute substantially to power quality disturbances. Also,
the connection of high power non-linear loads contributes to the generation of current and
voltage harmonic components. Between the different voltage disturbances that can be
produced, the most significant and critical power quality problems are voltage sags due to
the high economical losses that can be generated. Short-term voltage drops (sags) can trip
electrical drives or more sensitive equipment, leading to costly interruptions of
production. For all these reasons, from the consumer point of view, power quality issues
will become an increasingly important factor to consider in order to satisfy good
productivity. On the other hand, for the electrical supply industry, the quality of power
delivered will be one of the distinguishing factors for ensuring customer loyalty in this
very competitive and deregulated market. To address the needs of energy consumers
trying to improve productivity through the reduction of power quality related process
stoppages and energy suppliers trying to maximize operating profits while keeping
customers satisfied with supply quality, innovative technology provides the key to cost-

3
effective power quality enhancements solutions. However, with the various power quality
solutions available, the obvious question for a consumer or utility facing a particular
power quality problem is which equipment provides the better solution.

SOLUTIONS TO POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The first approach
is called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to power
disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other
solution is to install line-conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts the power
system disturbances. Active power filters offer a flexible and versatile solution to voltage
quality problems. Currently they are based on PWM converters and connect to low and
medium voltage distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active power filters must
operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load current
harmonics. Shunt active power filters operate as a controllable current source and series
active power filters operates as a controllable voltage source. Both schemes are
implemented preferable with voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a
reactive element such as a capacitor. Active power filters can perform one or more of the
functions required to compensate power systems and improving power quality.

Fig. 1.- Compensation characteristics

of a shunt active power filter

SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

Shunt active power filter compensate current harmonics by injecting equal-but-opposite

harmonic compensating current. In this case the shunt active power filter operates as a

4
current source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase shifted
by 180o. This principle is applicable to any type of load considered a harmonic source.
Moreover, with an appropriate control scheme, the active power filter can also
compensate the load power factor. In this way, the power distribution system sees the non
linear load and the active power filter as an ideal resistor. The current compensation
characteristic of the shunt active power filter is shown in Fig.1.

The use of VSI connected in cascade is an interesting alternative to compensate high

power non-linear load. The use of two PWMVSI of different rated power allows the use
of different switching frequencies, reducing switching stresses and commutation losses in
the overall compensation system. interest in using multilevel inverters for high power
energy conversion, especially for drives and reactive power compensation. Multilevel
PWM inverters can be connected to high voltage source without a coupling transformer.
The use of neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverters allows equal voltage shearing of the
series connected devices in each phase. However, the neutral point potential deviates,
resulting in an excess voltage stress to either the upper or lower set of devices. Basically,
multilevel inverters have been developed for applications in high voltage ac motor drives
and static VAR compensation. For these types of applications, the output voltage of the
multilevel inverter must be able to generate an almost sinusoidal output current. In order
to generate a near sinusoidal output current, the output voltage should not contain low
frequency harmonic components. For active power filter applications the three levels
NPC inverter output voltage must be able to generate an output current that follows the
respective reference current which contain the harmonic and reactive component required
by the load. The power circuit topology of an active power filter implemented with a
Neutral- Point- Clamped voltage-source inverter is shown in Fig. 3. The three levels NPC

5
voltage-source inverter is connected in parallel through a link reactor to the power
distribution system.

POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY\

Shunt active power filters are normally implemented with pulse-width modulated voltage
source inverters. In this type of applications, the PWM-VSI operates as a current
controlled voltage source. Traditionally, 2 level PWM-VSI have been used to implement
such system. However, in the past years multilevel PWM voltage source inverters have
been proposed to develop active power filters for medium voltage applications. Also,
active power filters implemented with multiple VSI connected in parallel to a dc bus but
in series through a transformer or in cascade has been proposed in the technical literature.

CONTROL SCHEME

The block diagram of a shunt active power filter control scheme is shown in Fig. 4 and
consists of a current reference generator, a dc voltage control and the inverter gating
signals generator. Fig.3. an active power filter implemented with a three level NPC
voltage-source inverter. Fig. 4. The block diagram of a shunt active power filter control
scheme.

6
The current reference circuit generates the reference currents required to compensate the
load current harmonics and reactive power, and also try to maintain constant the dc
voltage across the two electrolytic capacitors. There are many possibilities to develop this
type of control [5], [6]. Also, the compensation effectiveness of an active power filter
depends on its ability to
SERIES ACTIVE POWER FILTERS

It is well known that series active power filters compensate current system distortion
caused by non-linear loads by imposing a high impedance path to the current harmonics
which forces the high frequency currents to flow through the LC passive filter connected
in parallel to the load [5]. Generating a voltage of the same frequency that the current
harmonic component that needs to be eliminated creates the high impedance imposed by
the series active power filter. Compensating the fundamental frequency negative and zero
sequence voltage components of the system correct voltage unbalance. Fig. 6. The block
diagram

of the proposed series active power filter control scheme. where pref and qref are the
instantaneous active and reactive power associated with harmonics current components.

Control Scheme follow with a minimum error and time delay the reference signal
calculated to compensated the distorted load current. Finally, the dcvoltage control unit
must keep the total dc bus voltage constant and equals to a given reference value. The dc
voltage control is achieved by adjusting the small amount of real power absorbed by the
inverter. This small amount of real power is adjusted by changing the amplitude of the
fundamental component of the reference current (Fig. 4).

7
The block diagram of the proposed control scheme is shown in Fig. 6. Current and
voltage reference waveforms are obtained by using the Instantaneous Reactive Power
Theory. Calculating the negative and zero sequence fundamental components of the
system voltages compensates voltage unbalance. These voltage components are added to
the source voltages through the series transformers compensating the voltage unbalance
at the load terminals. In order to reduce the amplitude of the current flowing through the
neutral conductor, the zero sequence components of the line currents are calculated. In
this way, it is not necessary to sense the current flowing through the neutral conductor.

REFERENCE SIGNALS GENERATOR

The compensation characteristics of the series active power filter are defined mainly by
the algorithm used to generate the reference signals required by the control system. These
reference signals must allow current and voltage compensation with minimum time
delay. Also it is important that the accuracy of the information contained in the reference
Fig. 5. The proposed series active power filter topology. signals allows the elimination of
the current harmonics and voltage unbalance presents in the power system. Since the
voltage and current control scheme are independent, the equations used to calculate the
voltage reference signals are the following:

8
The voltages va, vb, and vc correspond to the phase to neutral voltages before the series
transformer (Fig. 5). The reference voltage signals are obtained by making the positive
sequence component, va1, zero and then applying the inverse of the Fortescue
transformation. In this way the series active power filter compensates only voltage
unbalance and not voltage regulation. The reference signals for the voltage unbalance
control scheme are obtained by applying the following equations:

In order to compensate current harmonics generated by the non linear loads, the
following equations are used (Fig. 7):

where i0 is the fundamental zero sequence component of the line current and is
calculated using the Fortescue transformation (4).

In (3) pref, qref, vα, and vβ .are defined according with the instantaneous reactive power
theory [5]. The zero sequence fundamental components of the line currents are generated
by the source voltage unbalance. Since the system voltage unbalance is eliminated by
compensating the negative and zero sequence components present in the source voltage,
the magnitude of the fundamental component of the line currents are significantly
reduced, and therefore they need not to be compensated by the current control scheme.
For this reason, the fundamental component of i0 from equation (3) is filtered, leaving
only the zero sequence harmonic components of i0 (i0ref), which need to be eliminated

9
from the source line current. Finally, the general equation that defines the references of
the PWM voltage-source inverter required compensating voltage unbalance and
current harmonics is the following:

where K1 is the gain of the series transformer which defines the magnitude of the
impedance for high frequency current components, and K2 defines the degree of
compensation for voltage unbalance, ideally K2 equals to 1. Also, i0ref = i0 – i01, where
i01 is the fundamental component of i0. The block diagram of the control scheme that
generates (5) is shown in Fig. 7. It is important to note that the references signals
calculated with (5) allow the flow of only reactive power between the series active power
filter and the compensated power system. In order to compensate voltage regulation, the
positive sequence component of the line voltages must be included in (5). The
compensation of voltage regulation requires generating active power from the active
power filter to the power system. Since there is no active power storage element in this
topology, this function cannot be achieved with the proposed scheme.

Gating Signals Generator

This circuit provides the gating signals of the three-phase PWM voltage-source inverter
required to compensate voltage unbalance and current harmonic components. The current
and voltage reference signals are added and then the amplitude of the resultant reference
waveform is adjusted in order to increase the voltage utilization factor of the PWM
inverter for steady state operating conditions. The gating signals of the inverter are
generated by comparing the resultant reference signal with a fixed frequency triangular
waveform (5 kHz). The triangular waveform forces the inverter switching frequency to
be constant.

10
The higher voltage utilization of the inverter is obtained if the amplitude of the
resultantreference signal is adjusted for the steady state operating condition of the series
active power filter. In this case, the reference current and reference voltage waveforms
are smaller. If the amplitude is adjusted for transient operating conditions, the required
reference signals will have a larger value, which willcreate a higher dc voltage in the
inverter thus defining a lower voltage utilization factor for steady state operating
conditions.

SIMULATED RESULTS

The viability of the proposed series active power filter has been verified by a simulation
using PSpice. Relevant results are shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10. In particular, Fig. 8 shows
the effect of voltage compensation with the current harmonic generator circuit not
working, while in Fig. 9, only the current harmonic compensator scheme is operating. In
Fig. 10 the series active power filter is compensating voltage unbalances and current
harmonic components simultaneously. The simulation circuit is compensating three
single phase non controlled rectifiers, each one connected between phase to neutral. The
series active power filter starts compensating at

11
Fig. 8. Simulated waveforms for voltageunbalance compensation. Phase to neutral
voltages at the load terminals before and after series compensation. (Current harmonic
compensator not operating).

Fig. 9. Simulated waveforms for current harmonic compensation. a) Neutral current

flowing to the ac mains before and after compensation. b) Line currents flowing to the ac
mains before and after compensation. (Voltage unbalance compensator not operating).

Fig. 10. Simulated results for voltage

unbalance and current harmonic
compensation, before and after
compensation. a) Ac mains neutral
current. b) Phase to neutral load
voltages (C) As source line current
_
`

CONCLUSION

12
In this paper the use and advantages of applying active power filters to compensation
power distribution systems has been presented. The principle of operation of shunt,
series, and hybrid active power filters has been presented. Also, a brief description of the
state of the art in the active power filter market has been described. The shunt active
power filter performance under fault power distribution system was discussed.
Simulation and experimental results proved the viability of using active power filters to
compensate active power filters.

REFERENCES

[1] K. Eichert, T. Mangold, M. Weinhold, “Power Quality Issues and their solution”,
in VII Seminario de Electrónica de Potencia, Valparaíso, Chile, April, 1999.
[2] M. Rahmani, A. Arora, R. Pfister, P. Huencho, “State of the Art Power Quality
Devices and Innovative Concepts”, in VII Seminario de Electrónica de Potencia,
Valparaíso, Chile, Abril 1999.
[3] J. K. Phipps, J.P. Nelson, P. K. Sen, “Power Quality and Harmonic Distortion on
Distribution Systems”, in IEEE Trans. on Ind. Appl., vol. 30, No 2, March/April
1994, pp. 176-184.
[4] Y.H. Yan, C.S. Chen, C.S. Moo, and C.T. Hsu, Harmonic Analysis for Industrial
Customers”, in IEEE Trans. on Ind. Appl., vol.30, No 2, March/April 1994, pp.
462-468. c) Ac source line current.
[5] G. Joos, L. Morán, “Principles of Active Power Filters”, Tutorial Course Note. of
IEEE Ind. Appl. Society Annual Meeting, Oct. 1998.
[6] W. M. Grady, M.J. Samotyj, A. H. Noyola, “Survey of Active Power Line
Conditioning Methodologies,” in IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 5, no 3, pp.
1536-1542, July 1990.
[7] H. Akagi, “New Trends in Active Filters for Power Conditioning,” in IEEE Trans.
On Industry Applications, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 1312-1322, Nov./Dec. 1996.
[8] M. Aredes, K. Heuman and E. Watanabe, “An Universal Active Power Line
Conditioner,” in IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no 2, pp. 545-551,
April 1998.
[9] L. Morán, L. Fernández, J. Dixon, R. Wallace, “A Simple and Low Cost Control
Strategy for Active Power Filters Connected in Cascade”, in IEEE Trans. on
Industrial Electronics, vol. 44, no.5, pp. 621-629, Oct. 1997.

****

13
SRIKALAHASTEESWARA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
(AFFILIATED TO J.N.T.U)
SRIKALAHASTI-517644

DEPARTMENT OFELECTRICA L AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
 PAPER PRESENTATION ON

A DSP based On-Line UPS

BY

N.NAGARJUNA
JNTU No: 06381A0222
Year & Branch: 3rd EEE
Email: nagarjun_008@yahoo.com
Phone no:9703520336
ANUSHA.N
JNTU No:06381A0201
Year & Branch: 3rd EEE
Email:ani_jyothika@yahoo.com
Phone no:9951098123
ABSTRACT This paper presents the basic
design and merits of using real time
Many facilities such as patient
digital signal processing (DSP) control
health care centers, data processing
of UPS systems.
systems, critical telecommunication
links, LAN servers, offices etc rely on
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to
maintain a continuous supply of power
in case of line outage. In addition to
requiring continuous power, many
critical nonlinear loads are sensitive to
the incoming line transients and input
harmonic voltage distortion.
Conventional UPS systems operate to INTRODUCTION:
protect against such disturbances using
Un-interruptible power supplies
complex filtering schemes, often
(UPS) play an important role in
employing large passive components.
interfacing critical loads such as
Among the various UPS systems online
computers, tele-communication
UPS provides maximum protection to
links,data-processing systems, life
such loads against any power problems.
supporting systems and industrial
Because of multiple power conversion
controls,e.t.c to the power grid .Among
stages, online UPSs have been the most
the various UPS topologies, on –line
complex and expensive type of systems.
UPSs provides maximum protection to
Today’s low cost, high performance
such loads against any utility power
Digital Signal Processors(DSPs) provide
problem, as it protects against power
an improved and cost- effective solution
blackout.However,because of multiple
for online UPS design, making them
power conversion stages, on-line UPSs
software controllable, adding some
have been most complex and expensive
facilities like remote configuration and
type of systems.
monitoring and other network
management facilities.
Today’s low cost, high carrier signal & modulating signal
crosses eachother.These pulses are given
performance Digital Signal
to thyristors and pulsating output is
Processors (DSPs) provide an
generated. Depending on the number of
improved and cost- effective output pulses generated, switching
solution for online UPS design. frequency of inverter is determined.

Typical On-Line UPS: Width of the pulses is proportional to

A typical UPS consists of a magnitude of the output sine wave and if

rectifier supplied battery bank & a static the number of pulses per half cycle is

inverter-filter system to convert a dc more, lower order harmonics will be

voltage to a sinusoidal ac output. eliminated.

Modern UPS systems minimize the General PWM techniques for

harmonic content of the inverter output UPS:

voltage through the use of complex 1. Using Analog devices:
filtering schemes employing large
Analog PWM uses natural
passive components.
sampling technique, which compares a
sinusoidal modulating wave form with a
triangular wave (from a time-base
generator) to generate pulses.

Need for Pulse Width

Modulation:
PWM is nothing but the control
of UPS inverter switching, under
feedback control to realize the desired
output waveform and also to minimize
2. Using Microprocessors:
the harmonic content of the output
A digital PWM signal generator
voltage. Pulses are generated whenever a
is interfaced with a microprocessor. It
calculates the pulse width at every More reasons for using DSPs:
sampling instant. According to this • No analog circuitry. Thus no
calculated width, the pulse generator offsets( i.e. installation &
generates the pulses with a constant maintenance cost saved)
switching frequency.
• High speed DSP control allows
for real time harmonic
cancellation.
• Flexible configuration for many
power sizes.
• Sophisticated switching
Then, Why DSP? algorithm saving overall system
Most of the Microprocessor costs.
–aided UPS systems continue to depend • Features may be upgraded in the
on the analog op-amp controls and they same hardware, to fulfill
lack speed required for high frequency different incoming needs.
inverter control.
Therefore, harmonics are not eliminated DSP control of UPS systems:
in the output wave form, insisting on the Most electronic loads
large output LC-filter circuit. served by UPS systems are non-linear
With the availability of low and thus generate harmonic currents that
cost- high performance DSP chips must be filtered at the inverter output to
characterised by the execution of most reduce the distortion to acceptable
instructions in one instruction cycle, levels. The DSP controlled UPS systems
complicated control algorithms can be employs software controlled harmonic
executed with speed, making very high conditioners with the ability to
sampling rate possible for digitally dynamically adopt to changing load
controlled inverters. High speed DSPs conditions for compensating load
are now capable of executing over 30 harmonics without manual intervention.
million instructions per second (MIPS). The functional block diagram is
as shown below:

Thus, the application of advanced signal
processing using a DSP operates to
provide sinusoidal load voltages even
under varying load situations, while
eliminating the need of large passive
filters.
The figure shown gives the basic
block diagram of DSP control with
PWM inverter control circuit:
Description:
The output of the UPS PWM
inverter is sampled and converted to an
rms voltage that is processed in a
negative feedback loop. The actual
inverter output is compared to a software
rms reference value to determine the
error voltage. The error voltage is then
passed through a proportional integral
(PI) control to eliminate any steady state
errors present. The result is the
necessary error compensation signal.A
harmonic distortion correction signal is
then subtracted from the error
compensation signal and the result is
applied to the input of PWM inverter.
The above mentioned harmonic
distortion correction signal is generated
in the negative feedback loop. The
Digital Signal Processor detects the
harmonic distortion signal within the
output voltage waveform and determines
the amplitude of real and imaginary parts
of the harmonic components. This
process will be described for the
cancellation of the 5th harmonic,
however, any harmonic whose frequency
is below half the sampling frequency can
be cancelled in the same manner.
Each frame of the converted
digital output from the A/D converter
passes to a real and imaginary
component harmonic detectors for
phases a,b and c. For example, the
harmonic distortion waveform (Aa5) is
processed by a signal correlation
function in order to detect the real and
imaginary values of the 5th harmonic.
The amplitude components are then
This function can be written for phase
applied to a PI compensator to generate
‘a’ as,
the harmonic distortion correction signal
necessary to cancel harmonic distortion
from the output voltage. The resulting
harmonic distortion correction signal is
then subtracted from the error
Where va (n) is the output
compensation signal and applied to the
voltage of phase a for sometime n.
input of the PWM inverter to produce an
The distortion signal may be represented
output voltage waveform free of
more simply as
harmonic distortion. The same technique
can be applied to eliminate still higher
harmonics like 7th, 9th etc, below
figure shows the operation of UPS
without harmonic conditioner
Where λa5r is the real component of Aa5,
and λa5i is the imaginary component of
Aa5.
Once the harmonic distortion
signal (Aa5, Ab5 and Ac5) is detected by
the signal correlation function, the
amplitudes of the real and imaginary
components of the 5th harmonic are
But with all-harmonic
computed by averaging the amplitude
conditioners enabled, the output
components of the three phases as shown
below. voltage wave is like below:
 • Precision: the DSP controls the
electrical values directly,
guaranteeing extreme precision
and stability of output voltage
and avoidance of noise due to
distorting loads.
• Interactive communication:
DSP controls the UPS in its

Hence, the DSP controlled entirety and outputs on a serial

inverter and harmonic interface all the supervision

conditioners operate to provide reports, for automatic shutdown

Sinusoidal load voltages even under of servers, for communication on

varying non-linear load conditions while a LAN network, the Internet and

preventing higher operating Intranet and for IT maintenance

temperatures due to additional harmonic which is carried out without

currents. switching the equipment off.

• Knowing the history: The

Advantages of using DSP in control software provides users

UPSs: with operating and historical data

in the form of clear read-out
• High reliability and low
monitors, aiding them in taking
dimensions: with the DSP, the
any decisions.
number of electronic components Moreover the control system
is halved, thereby reducing upgrade can be implemented in software,
processing time and failure making the latest features available to
probability and increasing any compatible UPS without changes to
reliability and eliminating the use the hardware.
of redundant current and voltage
sensors.
Conclusion: Annette Von Jouanne and Prasad

The conventional methods of N.Enjeti sen.IEEE member, from IEEE

UPS control and with using DSP, how transactions on Industrial

the UPS control can be made more users Electronics,Vol 43,no.1,Feb,1996.

friendly, its advantages are discussed in (2)”Digital signal processing based

the paper. online UPS” manual by

No doubt, DSPs are going to lead www.cranessoftware.com

the market of control inverters in near (3) “Power Electronics Analysis Design

future and already big players in the & Apllications” by Ned Mohan, Tore M.

market like Texas Instruments, Eaton Undeland, William P. Robbins

group, Intel etc are in the arena to make (4)”Interfacing DSPs with high

use the technology in a full swing. performance analog converters” Jim

Ryan, Raheen Industrial estate, Ireland.
Bibliography:
(5)WEMPEC-25th anniversary review
(1)”DSP control of high-power UPS
meeting, R&D dept.innovation center
systems feeding nonlinear loads” by
Eaton Corporation.
From:-
NAME : N.D.GOWRI SHANKAR
REDG.NO : 06091A0218
BRANCH : EEE
EMAIL ID : gowri499@yahoo.com
CELL NO : 9966528391

NAME : J.MAHESWAR REDDY

REDG.NO : 06091A0251
BRANCH : EEE
EMAIL ID : maheshrgit@gmail.com
CELL NO : 9963037029
ABSTRACT:

A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired out put voltage and frequency is called an
inverter. Generally inverters are used in many industrial applications most of the industries are required
to have control over both voltage and frequency but we are not able to convert the voltage and frequency
simultaneously just by using an ordinary inverter.

The two possible ways of controlling ways of controlling the output voltage are

a) Series inverter inverter control

b)Pulse width modulation control {PWMC}.

In above methods pwmc has qualified no. of advantages:

1) variable voltage and frequency can be obtained in an effective and efficient manner

2) The rich harmonic component present in the output waveform will be reduced considerably up to
maximum extent

3) Efficiency both in terms of operational and economical aspects is improved

4) Minimum no. of filters are required to get high quality output waveform

5) Because of its more flexibility and good dynamic response it is extensively used in industrial
applications like uninterrupted power supply

The present study concentrates on the following types of PWM techniques

1) Single Pulse width modulation

2) Multiple Pulse width modulation

3) sinusoidal Pulse width modulation

The above techniques are analyzed by using MATLAB software and different wave forms are plotted.

Some other types of PWM are also discussed. And in this paper we will discuss abut different
applications and advantages of PWM inverter.
INTRODUCTION

Def: “A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is called
an inverter”.

Forced commutated inverters provide a independent AC output voltage of adjustable frequency and
adjustable voltage, thus can be used for wider applications.

Inverters can be broadly classified as:

1. Voltage source inverter.

2. Current source inverter.

A voltage source inverter is one in which the DC source has small or negligible impedance. But the
current source is fed with adjustable current from a DC source of high impedance. In CSI fed with stiff
current source output wave current waves are not affected by the load.

The circuit for a single phase bridge inverter, gating pulses and output waveforms are shown below:

Performance parameters:

The output of practical inverter contains several harmonics and analysis of inverter is normally
evaluated in terms of following performance parameters.

(a)harmonic factor of nth harmonic(HF):

The harmonic factor (or nth harmonic), which is measure of individual harmonic contribution, is define
as HFn=Vn/V1

Where V1 is RMS values of the fundamental component and Vn is Rms values of nth harmonics
component.
(b)total harmonic distortion(THD):

The harmonic distortion, which is a measure of closeness in shape between a waveform and its
fundamental component, is defined as

THD=1/V1( V2n)1/2

(c) DISTORTION FACTOR(DF):

Total harmonic distortion gives the total harmonic content but it does not indicate the level of each
harmonic component. If a filter were used at the output of the inverters, the higher order harmonics
would be attended more effectively. Therefore knowledge of both

DF=1/V1 )(Vn/n2)}1/2

The distortion factor of an individual (or nth) harmonic component is defined as

DFn=VN/(V1*n2)

(d) lowest –order harmonic(LOH):

The lowest order harmonic is that harmonic component whose frequency is closest to fundamental one,
and its amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental component.

The instantaneous output voltage in a Fourier series is

V0= 4Vs/n

CONTROL METHODS OF INVERTERS:

It is often required to vary the output of the inverter of the inverter in many industrial applications due to
the following reasons:

a) To compensate for the variations in the output voltage.

b) To compensate for the regulation of inverters
c) To supply some special loads which needs variation of voltage with frequency, such as induction
motor.

Inverter output voltage can also be adjusted by exercising a control with in the inverter itself. The two
possible ways of doing this are:
a) Series inverter inverter control

b )Pulse width modulation control {PWMC}.

SERIES INVERTER CONTROL:

In this type of control two or more inverters are used in series. The below figure shows the output
voltage of two inverters. The inverter output

Voltage is fed to two transformers whose secondary

are connected in series. Phasor sum of two voltages

EL1,EL2 gives the resultant voltage EL.

EL=[EL12+EL22+2EL1EL2COSα]1/2

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL:

The most efficient method of controlling the output voltage is to incorporate pulse-width modulation
control with in the inverter and a controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off
periods of the inverter devices. The PWM control has the following advantage

(a) The output voltage control can be obtained without an additional components.
(b) With this type of control, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its
output voltage control. The filtering requirements are minimized as higher order harmonics can
be filtered easily
(c) All the methods except the PWM technique require additional equipment. Hence PWM
technique is most efficient method.

An ordinary inverter cannot provide efficient way to control output voltage and frequency. Most
efficient way to control output voltage is to incorporate pulse width modulation with in th inverter.

PULSE - WIDTH MODULATION TECHNIQUES:

Pulse width modulation is a technique in which the output pulse width of the inverter is modulated to
obtain the inverter output voltage control and to reduce the harmonic content. This is obtained by
controlled switches in inverter at desired intervals.
WAVE FORM GENERATION:

By comparing the reference signal of amplitude Ar with a carrier signal of amplitude Ac, gating signals
to the inverter are obtained. The amplitude
and frequency of both can be adjusted as
desired.

One of the elegant ways to generate trigger

pulses is as shown below

If reference wave amplitude is greater than the carrier wave amplitude, comparator output is high.
Else, comparator output is low. Comparator output can be interrupted directly as a switching function.

The pulse width can be varied by varying the reference signal amplitude Ar with reference to Ac. The
ratio of Ar to Ac is a control variable and defined as the amplitude modulation index. The amplitude
modulation index or simply modulation index is

M=Ar/Ac

The frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency f0 of the inverter and the carrier and the
carrier frequency fc determines the number of pulses per half cycle, p.

TYPES OF PWM TECHNIQUES:

Depending upon the reference signal used, the pulse width modulation techniques are

1. Single pulse modulation

2. Multiple pulse modulation
3. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation.

Each PWM technique has its own merits and demerits, which has described below.

ADVANTAGES OF PWM TECHNIQUES:

1. The output voltage control has been obtained with out any additional components to basic circuit
of the inverter.
2. With this method lower order harmonics can be reduced significantly.
3. As the higher order harmonics can be filtered easily the filtering equipment are minimized.
4. PWM inverter drives have good transient response when compared to quasi-square wave inverters.
 5. As the dc link voltage can be maintained constant, a diode rectifier can be used on the line side.
This improves the power factor of the system.
6. Presence of the constant dc supply permits the parallel operation of several PWM inverters on the
same DC supply.
7. The commutating ability of PWM inverters remains substantially constant irrespective of the
voltage and frequency setting.
8. Amplitude of torque pulsations in the induction motors is minimum even at low speeds.

The above are the advantages of PWM inverter. The main disadvantages of
PWM techniques are that, due to large number switching ON and OFF process of VB power transistors,
switching losses would increase. However such higher order harmonics produce negligible ripple or can
be filtered out easily.

SINGLE PWM:

In single pulse-width modulation

control, there is only one pulse per half
cycle and width of the pulse is varied to
control the inverter output voltage.
Varying Ar from 0 to Ac as shown below
can vary the pulse-width “d” from 00 to
1800 .

The above figure describes the single pulse wave form of pulse width “d” symmetrical about п/2 and

3п/2 the following Fourier series describe the wave form of the output voltage V0. As

V0= . . . . . . . . . . .(6.1)

V0= . . . . . . . . .(6.2)

V01m=4Vs/п. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(6.3)

V0nm=(4Vs/nп)sin(nd/2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(6.4)
From the above equations 6.3 and 6.4 we get

(VOnm/V01m) = (sin(nd/2)/n)

The ratio as by the equation 6.6 is plotted in figure

6.2

For n=1,3,5,7 for different pulse widths From the

figure 6.2, it is seen that when the fundamental
component is reduced to nearly 0.33m, the third
harmonic is also 0.33, of the component fundamental
and also when the fundamental component is reduced to about 0.143, all type 3 harmonics(3,5,7)
become almost equal to the fundamental. Hence it is seen that in the single-pulse width modulation the
harmonics are reduced as compared to ordinary inverter.

SIMULATION OF SINGLE PWM INVERTER:

The figure 6.3 is is the circuit for the

simulation of 3-phase single pulse

width modulation technique. The

frequency is fixed at 60 hz. And the

triggering signals given to the inverter and

output waveform of inverter are shown in
below figures. The modulation index is 0.85 the simulated waveforms are also shown in below figures.
MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:

This method of pulse width modulation is an

extension of single pulse width modulation. In

multiple(PWM) several equidistant pulses per

half cycle are used. For mathematical analysis

only two symmetrical spaced pulses per half cycle

is used.

Let us assume the range of each pulses width is as d.

V0= is the amplitude of the nth harmonic

Vn=(8Vs/nп) sin(nr)sin(nd/2)

This expression also shows that when r=/n(or)d=2/n nth harmonic can be eliminated from the output
voltage.

SIMULATION OF MULTIPLE PWM INVERTER:

The inverter circuit in figure 6.3 is used to employ multiple pulse width modulation. The results
are obtained by simulating the given three phase PWM inverter. The modulation index is 0.85 and the
frequency is fixed at 60 hz. The output waveforms obtained from simulation are also shown in 6.11.
total harmonic distortion of the multiple pulse width modulation can be found as 4.993e+002.
SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION: In sinusoidal pulse width
modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of sin wave evaluated at the
center of the same pulse. But width of all pulses in the multiple pulse width modulation is same. In this
present technique distortion factor and lower order harmonics be reduced significantly.

In the SPWM comparing a sinusoidal reference signal with triangular carrier wave of
frequency fc generates the gating signals. The frequency of reference signal Fr, determines the inverter
output frequency,f0, and its peak amplitude, Ar controls the modulation index M, and then in turn the
RMS output voltage V0. The number of pulses per half cycle depends on carrier frequency.

1/2
RMS output voltage is given by V0=(
SIMULATION OF SPWM:

The inverter circuit shown in fig 6.3 is used to employ sinusoidal pulse width modulation. the
modulation index is 0.85. and frequency is fixed at 60 hz. The simulate figures are shown in below
figures.
ADVANCED MODULATION TECHNIQUES:

The SPWM, which is most commonly used, suffers from drawback of low fundamental output
voltage. The advanced PWM techniques that offer improved performance are
1. Trapezoidal modulation
2. Stair case modulation
3. Stepped modulation
4. Harmonic injection modulation

TRAPEZOIDAL MODULATION:

Comparing a triangular carrier wave with a

Modulating trapezoidal wave generates the
gating signals. The trapezoidal wave can
obtained from a triangular wave by limiting its
magnitude to Ar (or) –Ar. Where
Ar=σAr(max) Where σ is called triangular factor.
The modulation index M=Ar/Ac=σAr(max)/Ac

STAIR CASE MODULATION:

In this reference signal is stair case wave, which is not sampled approximation to the sine wave.
The levels of the stairs are calculated to eliminate specific harmonics. The modulation frequency ratio
mf and the no.of steps are chosen to obtain the desired quality of output voltage. This is optimized PWM
and is recommended output voltage and the low distortion factor; the optimum no.of pulses in one cycle
is 15 for two levels,21 for three levels and 27 for four levels. This type of control provides a high quality
of output voltage with fundamental value of upto 0.94 Vs.
HARMONIC INJECTED MODULATED:

Injecting selected harmonics to the sine wave generates the modulating signal. This results in
flat-topped waveform and reduces the amount of over modulation. The modulation signal generally
composed of Vr=1.15sinnwt+0.26sinwt-0.29sinwt. If only third harmonic is injected to a sine wave the
line to line voltage is sinusoidal PWM and the amplitude of fundamental component is approximately
15% more than that of a normal sinusoidal PWM. Since each arm is switched off for the one-third of the
period, the heating of the switching device is reduced.

APPLICATIONS OF PWM INVERTERS:

As the PWM inverter controls both the frequency and magnitude of the voltage output, therefore it
is generally used at the input, as an uncontrolled diode bridge rectifier.

1) It is used in designing of the motor, like magnetic property and switching frequency etc. because
of the harmonic losses it is generally recommended that a standard motor with a 5-10% higher
power rating be used.
2) By using PWM inverter the displacement power factor is approximately 100%, and it can be
observed from the input current waveform.
3) Electro magnetic braking.
4) In adjusting the speed control.

CONCLUSION:

Simulation studies are made on three phase PWM inverters in MATLAB

environment. From the above analysis, we conclude that by employing various PWM techniques
lower order harmonics are eliminated. So, lower order harmonics that is problem with normal
inverter circuit can be overcome by employing various PWM techniques. But by employing PWM
techniques the magnitude of some higher order harmonics are increases significantly which is
indicated by the total harmonic distortion. The PWM pushes harmonics into high frequency range.
So, magnitude of higher order harmonics increases but they can be filtered easily.

Similar analysis can be made for three phase inverter circuit. As in case of single phase inverter
circuit, even in three phase analysis the harmonic content in the output wave is minimized and the
output voltage control is obtained efficiently. Simulation of three phase inverter circuit becomes
complicated because the output wave is a quasi-square wave. Further, it is difficult to mention the
triggering inverters for six switching devices. So we have restricted our analysis and simulations to
single phase inverters only.
 A SURVEY OF POWER ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS IN
AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGIES
C. MUZIMIL BASHA1 and S.LOKESH2
1, 2 rd
3 year B.Tech (EEE)
Madanapalle Institute Of Technology And Science
Email id: muzimilbasha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The insertion of power electronics in
aerospace technologies is becoming widespread.
Power semiconductor devices form the heart of
modern power electronics. The application of
semiconductor devices and electronic converters, as
summarized in this paper, includes the International
Space Station, satellite power system, and motor
drives in ‘more electric’ technology applied to
aircraft, starter/generators and reusable launch
vehicles. Flywheels, servo systems embodying
electromechanical actuation, and spacecraft on-board
electric propulsion are discussed. Continued inroad
by power electronics depends on resolving
incompatibility of using variable frequency for
400Hz- operated aircraft equipment. Dual-use
electronic modules should reduce system
development cost.
The paper begins with the commonly used
basic semiconductor devices and characteristics in
aerospace technology. Later it emphasizes the
different types of converters employed, motor drive
technologies and management of power through
power electronic devices in aerospace technology.
The use of power electronics-based motion control
systems in selected aerospace systems is discussed
next. The power systems of aero space, space system
and satellite are presented. The concept of more
electric technology is also highlighted.
The usage of Variable Speed Constant
Frequency Motors (VSCF) is also presented. The
Power Processing Unit (PPU) of space craft electric
propulsion is shown. The usage of variable frequency
motors through More Electric Technology (MET) is
also discussed. Finally the paper concludes with the
future trends in power electronics of aero space
technologies.
1.
ph.no:+919052485186
1. THE POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEM
A power electronic system can comprise a
modular power electronic subsystem (PESS)
connected to a source and load at its input and output
power ports, respectively. The third port of PESS is
connected to the system control, as shown in Fig. 1.
PESS has been described as a power device module,
intelligent power module, smart power device, power
control module and, more recently, power electronic
building block (PEBB) of the Office of Naval
Research-initiated program.
The next three sections discuss the
commonly used power semiconductor devices and
their resident electronic converters, and electric
motor drive technologies which are enablers in the
‘more electric’ technology (MET) for aero-space
vehicle upgrades.
1.1. POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
The semiconductor device metal-oxide-
semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET),
Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), Mos-
controlled thyristor (MCT) and gate-turn-off
thyristor (GTO) represent the cornerstone of modern
power electronic converters. They are fully
controllable.
Their applications depend on their power
and frequency characteristics. The unipolar, voltage-
controlled MOSFET is relatively very fast, requires
only minimal snubbing due to its low switching
losses, and is protected from breakdown by its
inherent positive temperature coefficient of
resistance.
 1.2. POWER ELECTRONIC
CONVERTERS

Aerospace power systems have a considerable

real estate of DC power usage. Over the past decade,
AC power has emerged as a ‘driver’ for developing
MET’s. This has increased the use of power
electronic converters to condition and control power
in the related systems. The high frequency converters
of interest and their devices are noted in Fig. 2.

The semiconductor devices in a hard-

Figure 1. Three-Port Power Electronic System
Structure.
Its drain resistance increases with temperature. The
device is used in applications of few MHz and few
watts to few kilowatts, such as in voltage-source
pulse-width-modulated inverter (PWMI) and a zero-
voltage switching (ZVS) converter rated at 0.1 to
2kVA and 0.5 to 2MHz.
switching PWMI are stressed during turn-on/off
modes. Capacitive and inductive stray effects
compound the resulting switching losses. The PWMI
AC voltage output is harmonic-rich, variable-
frequency (VF), and commercially used in motor
drives. The PWMI is characterized by limited power
range and low switching frequencies, with attendant
acoustic noise and reduced efficiency. However, it
has low Volt-Ampere rating, and is relatively easy to
control.

The IGBT, a hybrid of a MOSFET and a turn/off

bipolar junction transistor (BJT), is a MOS-gated
device. When used in 0 to 300kVA, 1.5 to 5 kHz
Voltage-source PWMI and 20 to 150kVA, 40 kHz
Voltage-source converter drives, the IGBT requires
minimum cooling, is more reliable, experiences
reduced voltage spikes at turn-off, and exhibits
improved thermal life.

The GTO is turned-on/off by gate current

pulses. Turn-off-induced spike in the anode voltage
can cause hot spots in, and breakdown of the device.
A snubber can protect the GTO the high switching
losses of which limit its use to 1.0 to 2.0 kHz PWM.
Example application areas are 0.75 to 1.5kVA, 500 to
600Hz voltage-source PWMI and 2 to 12MVA, 700
to 1200Hz ZVS inverter.

The MCT is a MOS-gated device with a

high turn-off current gain. With switching speed
comparable to that of IGBT, the MCT shows promise
for application in snubbered voltage-source inverters
at 0 to 100kVA and 2 kHz, zero-current switching
(ZCS) at 150kVA and 40 kHz, and ZVS converter at
20 to 150kVA and 25 kHz. The above devices are Figure 2.Options for ‘More Electric’ Technology
constituent parts of electronic converters which (MET).
permeate aerospace power systems.
The snubbered converter employs switching
similar to that of the PWMI. It incorporates a series
2. Inductive snubber to limit the inrush-current though
its devices. A parallel capacitive snubber limits the
device voltage and reduces device stress. High
switching losses are dissipated in the snubber.
The zero-current switching (ZCS)
converter uses an inductive snubber for device turn-
off without current flow. Similarly, the zero-
voltage switching (ZVS) converter employs a
capacitive snubber for device turn-on, with an anti-
parallel diode conducting. The converters have high
switching frequency, lossless devices, high efficiency
and reliability.
The Resonant DC-Link (RDCL) in Fig. 3 and
Resonant AC Link converters overcome the
limitations of PWMI. The RDCL converter has low
switching losses, heat dissipation and acoustic noise,
higher operating frequency and reliability, and
reduced dv/dt and di/dt, resulting in low
electromagnetic interference. Eliminating the
Resonant Tank from Fig. 3 yields the conventional
hard-switched, voltage-source PWMI.
Figure 3.The Conventional Resonant DC Link
Inverter.
DC-DC converters have been used in aerospace
power systems to provide the required voltage for the
secondary distribution network. The basic topologies
are the step-down (buck) and step-up (boost)
converters for various load requirements. For a
given input voltage, the average output voltage is
obtained by switching the electronic devices at
constant frequency, while adjusting the device ‘ON’
duration.
Electronic converters constitute the heart of
motor drives which are essential for
electromechanical actuation (EMA) in MET.
3.
1.3. MOTOR DRIVE TECHNOLOGIES
The electric motor is the workhorse in a drive
System. Drive characteristics depend on the motor,
the power circuit, electronic devices and the
controller. Power rating, operating speed range,
environment, fault tolerance, reliability, performance,
thermal capability and cost affect motor selection for
an application.
In the past, the excellent drive performance
and low initial cost of DC machines made them the
primary choice for servo applications. Their built-in
commutator, high maintenance and spark-inducing
brushes hinder DC machine use in drives.
“Brushless” motors have emerged from coupling DC,
AC synchronous and induction motors with
electronic controllers. The resulting maintenance-
and spark-free brushless DC machine (BLDCM) or
permanent magnet synchronous motor
(PMSM),switched reluctance motor (SRM) and
induction motor (IM) have higher torque/inertia ratio,
peak torque capability, power density and reliability
than the DC brush motor.
The permanent magnet in the rotor of a
BLDCM produces an armature current-independent
field. The commutatorless BLDCM has laterally stiff
rotor which permits higher speed, especially in servo
applications. The intra-stator placement of the rotor
improves heat conduction which increases electric
loading, and yields a higher torque/amp, better
effective power factor and higher efficiency.
BLDCM-based drives are popular, due to their
performance and price improvements. Disadvantages
include the need for shaft position sensing and more
complex electronic controller.
The IM has been the traditional workhorse
for fixed and variable speed drive applications. It is
rugged, relatively inexpensive and almost
maintenance-free. The rotor slip-dependent torque
production worsens the performance and decreases
the efficiency of the motor. In the fractional and low
integral hp range requiring dynamic performance,
high efficiency and a wide speed range, the
complexity of induction motor drive makes the
BLDCM favorable. The gear-less, direct-application
SRM drives are widely accepted. Their applicability
to aircraft engine starter/generator has been
demonstrated. The motor design and converter
topologies of the drive have undergone significant
research and development in over two decades. The
series connection of the converter phase-leg switches
to the motor phase winding prevents shoot-through
fault by the converter switches. The motor is
economical, compact in construction, and has high
torque-to-inertia ratio, high torque output at low-to-
moderate speeds, and faster response in servo
systems. Its drawbacks are higher torque ripple and
acoustic noise, complex control, and the need for an
absolute rotor position sensor for the controller to
establish the phase current pulses.

2. AEROSPACE POWER SYSTEMS

The advent of MET for aerospace systems
has focused attention on AC-, and hybrid DC- and
AC-based power management and distribution
(PMAD) systems. The schematics in Figs. 4 and 5
show a commonality in the use of electronic
converters, photovoltaic (PV) solar arrays and
batteries. In aerospace systems, PEBB-related
integration issues are the level of power and
frequency range, application- and mission-dependent
extreme temperature range, weight and size,
electromagnetic interference and performance.
Resolution of these issues is expected to promote
expeditious insertion of electronic modules in
aerospace technologies.
3. POWER ELECTRONICS
APPLICATION IN
AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGIES
The International Space Station (ISS), satellite
Power systems, MET, starter/generator system,
reusable launch vehicles, flywheel technology and
on-board electric propulsion are discussed to
highlight the important role of power electronics in
these systems.
Figure 4.DC-PMAD-Based Electric Power System. 4
Figure 5: AC-PMAD-Based Electric Power
System.
3.1. SPACE STATION POWER
SYSTEM
A single channel diagram, Fig. 6, of the ISS
electric power system (EPS) shows a DC network of
PV solar arrays, batteries, power converters, switches
and user loads. The networks of 120V American and
28V Russian can exchange bi-directional power flow
via American-to-Russian Converter (ARCU) and
Russian-to-American Converter (RACU) units. The
primary distribution system (PDS) comprises the PV
arrays, batteries and the network up to the DC-DC
converter units (DDCU’s), for 160V to 120V step-
down to the secondary distribution system (SDS).
The sequential shunt unit (SSU) regulates the voltage
output of the PV array. The DDCU’s isolate the PDS
and SDS from each other, and condition the source
power for the SDS. The batteries store energy during
isolation periods, and supply load power during
orbital eclipse. The battery charge/discharge units
(BCDU’s) isolate the battery from the primary bus.
Remote power controller modules (RPCM’s), or
switchgears, distribute power to the load converters.
The BCDU’s, DDCU’s and the load converter
contain semiconductor switches in their circuitry,
thus underscoring the importance of power
electronics in the ISS EPS.

Figure 6.Single Channel Diagram of ISS Power
System.
In their modular form, power electronics are
expected to facilitate the control of PMAD and
diagnosis of system malfunctions, to yield reliability
improvement. Some level of electronic
modularity has already been built into some satellite
EPS, to permit adaptability of the EPS to various and
future programs, with minimal re-design.
3.2. SATELLITE POWER SYSTEMS
A partial block diagram of a satellite modular
EPS is shown in Fig. 7. It depicts only the north
portion of a ‘Dual Bus’ power system for a
geosynchronous satellite [15]. The primary-side
elements of the EPS are the PV arrays, battery and
power control unit (PCU). On the secondary side, the
PCU embodies the SSU, battery charge and
discharge converter modules (BCCM, BDCM), and
low voltage converter module (LVCM) of redundant,
main bus-connected DDCUs which feed the
spacecraft loads via the power distribution unit
(PDU). The operation of the satellite
EPS is similar to that of the ISS, regarding
sunlight and eclipse portions of a mission. The built-
in modularity makes it possible to vary battery
voltage and output power levels, by adding and
removing converter module(s).
This feature renders the EPS configurable
for future missions. Also, the modularity facilitates
power electronics packaging, equipment deployment
into space, and needed on-orbit EPS modifications
5.
Figure 7.Block Diagram of Satellite Power System.
The use of power electronics-based motion
control systems in selected aerospace systems is
discussed next.
3.3. MOTOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS
The key elements in electric actuation (EA) for
MET are the electric motor, its power electronics, the
control system and the actuator load(s). Lower
costs and advances in power electronics and high-
speed electric machines have fuelled the interest of
technologists, developers and researchers in industry,
Government Agencies, and academia, in aerospace
motion control systems. A key premise of the MET is
to replace the traditionally mounted auxiliary drives
and bleed air extraction with integral engine
starter/generators (S/G’s), electrical-driven actuators
and engine-gearbox-driven fuel pumps. The
replacement eliminates hydraulic, pneumatic and
mechanical power, and minimizes and/or eliminates
their associated costs, as well as high pre-flight
operation, maintenance and refurbishment of
hydrazine-driven auxiliary power units (APU’s).
3.3.1. MOREELECTRIC
TECHNOLOGY FOR AIRCRAFT
Figure 8 shows a conceptual diagram of the
Air Force’s ‘more electric aircraft’ (MEA)
subsystems. The hydraulic-driven flight control
actuators, the engine-gearbox driven fuel pump and
air-driven environmental control system (ECS) are
electrically powered by electric motor drives. A S/G
supplies electric power to a fault-tolerant PMAD
subsystem which feeds power to the EA, engine
starting, braking, ECS, fuel pump and anti-icing.
Uninterrupted power from an integrated APU and
battery system provides redundancy and engine start-
up.

Figure 8.Concept of More Electric Aircraft.
The candidate electric motor drives for the
MET are the IM, BLDCM and SRM drives. For each
selected drive in the MET, depending on the
application, the EA and its electronic controller must
suitably match the safety and reliability of hydraulic
actuation. This may require motor drive redundancy,
for assured flight and landing. Thus, the built-in
redundancy in its independent motor windings due to
magnetic isolation, and in power switching circuits
by electrical isolation, makes the SRM an attractive
choice for fault-tolerant EA. This ‘limp home’ ability
of the SRM has been one of the key factors in its
selection by the Air Force in their MEA
development.
3.3.2. STARTER/GENERATORS
A general variable speed constant frequency
(VSCF) S/G system is shown in Fig. 9. The machine
may be any of the three candidates in Section III–3.
During motoring, constant frequency (CF) electrical
power from the main AC bus is converted to VF by
the bi-directional power converter, and fed to the
machine to start the load such as an aircraft engine. In
the generating mode, the variable speed load provides
mechanical power to run the machine the variable
frequency of which is converted to a constant
frequency for the main bus. The control system
receives inputs from the VSCF sources, and provides
gating signals for the converter to maintain proper
interface between VF and CF requirements.
6.
Figure 9.Typical VSCF Starter/Generator System.
3.3.3. REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES
EMA has been under consideration for replacing
hydraulic systems used on reusable launch vehicles
for thrust vector control (TVC) gimbaling of engines
and aero surface control. The projected benefits are
as stated in Section III–3. In the early 90’s, the then
NASA Lewis Research Center (currently GRC) and
General Dynamics Space Systems Division
cooperated on demonstrating EMA technology
readiness to meet the hydraulic TVC requirements for
the Atlas Expendable Launch Vehicle. Concurrently,
a study by the NASA Kennedy Space Center
indicated that the MET would save nearly 66 percent
of man-hours needed for hydraulic TVC processing
of the Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster. The EMA in
embodied IM drive with a field-oriented control for
independent control of torque and flux, and a Pulse
Population Modulation technique for independent
control of voltage and frequency.
A more advanced motor drive is in use for on-
going Government-Industry development of flywheel
technology.
3.3.4. FLYWHEEL TECHNOLOGY
United States Government Agencies,
Industry and academia are jointly developing
advanced flywheel technologies to provide high
performance and reliability, and reduced losses in a
high speed, light weight flywheel energy storage
system (FESS), peak power and load leveling in
spacecraft and aircraft applications. The FESS
embodies advanced composite materials-based rotor,
low-loss magnetic bearings, high-speed motor-
generator set and electronic converter drive. The
above efforts and concurrent component technology
developments represent an advancement of prior
work by the collaborators. NASA GRC has been
leading an effort for a combined flywheel energy
storage and attitude control system, namely,
integrated power and control system, to enable the Such PPUs can generate high voltage start
development of a low cost, lightweight and higher pulse to ignite as many as four arc jet thrusters for
specific energy spacecraft. north/south station keeping orbit maneuvers, thus
Additionally to conditioning power and reducing propulsion system mass.
enabling bi-directional power and stored energy flow
in flywheel systems, motor drives feature in electric
upgrade of aircraft pumps, for the same MET
benefits.

3.3.5. SERVO SYSTEM

APPLICATIONS
The MET proposes the use of VF motor
drives to operate hydraulic and fuel pumps on
aircraft. Using high-density motor drives can
eliminate the usual size and weight limitations of
drives. However, issues of VF incompatibility with Figure 10.Electric Propulsion System.
400Hz-operated aircraft equipment such as fuel and Several challenges must be overcome for
hydraulic pumps, attendant increase in motor weight continued penetration of power electronics into
to achieve the required torque at high frequencies, aerospace systems.
and potentially high upgrade cost must be resolved.
By comparison with CF power, VF motor 4. FUTURE TRENDS
controllers can reduce transient inrush current at
motor start. Furthermore, a variable speed motor- VF is currently used in turbo-prop and business
driven fuel pump can provide only the required
jets. The cost and savings attractions of VF are
amount of fuel. Also, such a fuel pump can improve
aircraft performance by reducing engine gearbox tempered by the potential high cost of VF-upgrade
weight and enabling direct integration with the for conventional, 400Hz-operating equipment on
aircraft electronic propulsion and flight control. aircraft. Judicious use of power electronics, via a
hybrid hydraulic/pneumatic/motor drive design, to
Additionally to their use in aerospace power circumvent the VF–400Hz aircraft
systems, electronic converters play an important equipment incompatibility.
function in the on-board electric propulsion of
spacecraft. Continued improvements in power electronic
devices and their switching schemes, advances in
3.4. ON-BOARD ELECTRIC magnetic materials and capacitors, and better design
PROPULSION of motors and electronic controls are expected to
ameliorate weight, size and reliability issues of MET
Power electronics are constituent parts of the application to aerospace systems.
power processing unit (PPU) of spacecraft electric
propulsion which is credited with reducing launch The need for bi-directional converters for
vehicle requirements, notably for north-south station battery charge/discharge functions and fixed
frequency power and voltage, and expected varying
keeping of commercial geosynchronous satellites.
requirements of multiple loads in aerospace systems
suggest future use of hybrid AC and DC multi-
A PPU comprises one or more electronic
converters with multi-voltage levels [24].
converters. It provides electric power for the
spacecraft thruster, and commands and telemetry
Increasing use of power electronic modules
interface to the electric propulsion system, as shown
will require consideration of device ratings, bi-
in Fig. 10. The converters may be current-controlled
directionality or otherwise of power flow, power
and voltage-fed, to rapidly supply constant current to
density requirements and degree of integration, when
offset thruster voltage variations, typically during a
developing aerospace systems. Hardware
start-up period. Small-sized PPUs with a minimal
commonality will promote dual-use application of the
number of lightweight, highly efficient, soft-
modules, and decrease system development cost. For
switchingconverters Yield increased payload and
instance, NASA-planned development of 2 to 3kW
power.
power processor/thruster is expected to provide
7.
modular elements for various mission requirements.
5. ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF POWER
ELECTRONICS
The advantages possessed by the power electronics
are as under

High efficiency due to low loss in power
semiconductor devices

High reliability of power electronic
converter systems

Long life and less maintenance due to
absence of any moving parts

Fast dynamic response of power electronic
systems as compared to electromechanical
converter systems

Small size and less weight result in less floor
space and therefore lower installation cost of
the converter equipment

Mass production of the power
semiconductor devices has resulted in lower
cost of the converter equipment.
Systems based on the power electronics suffer
from the following disadvantages

Power electronic converter circuits have a
tendency to generate harmonics in the
supply system as well as in the load circuit
It causes the commutation problems in the
dc machines, increased motor heating and
more accoustical noise in both dc and ac
circuits. The performance of the equipment
connected to the same supply line. This can
be avoided by the usage of the filters at the
input side of the converters.

Ac to d and dc to ac converters operate at
low power factor under certain operating
conditions.

Power electronic controllers have low
overload capacity. Therefore these
converters must be rated for taking
momentary loads

Regeneration of power is difficult in power
electronic converters
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a survey of power
electronics applications in aerospace technologies. It
encompasses the International Space Station, satellite
and aircraft power systems, flywheel technology,
spacecraft on-board propulsion, and the ‘more
electric’ technology (MET) insertion in spacecraft,
8.
aircraft and launch vehicles. The development of new
semiconductor devices, new circuit topologies with
their improved performance and their fall in prices
have opened up wide field for new applications of
power electronic converters. No boundaries can be
earmarked for the applications of power electronics,
especially with the present of integrated design of
power semiconductor devices.
Power electronic converters are central to
the Performance of aerospace power systems and
spacecraft on-board electric propulsion. Resolution of
Incompatibility between conventional, 400Hz
operating equipment and the variable frequency of
MET should promote increased penetration of power
electronics into aerospace systems. Future multi-
voltage needs and varied load requirements will
necessitate the use of multi-voltage level converters.
The use of electronic modules with dual-use options
and hardware commonality for aircraft and spacecraft
should reduce development cost and maximize
system re-use, while improving system
reliability and performance. It is believed that in
early twenty first century, 60 to 80% of the electric
power consumed in utility systems will pass through
power electronics and this figure will eventually
reach 100% in nature.
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Book, John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
[5] Elbuluk, M.E., Kankam, M.D., “MotorDrive
Technologies for the Power-By-Wire (PBW)
Program:
Options, Trends and Tradeoffs, Part I: Motors and
Controllers,” IEEAES Magazine, Nov. 2006,
pp. 37–42.
 BY

S.SHAMA
III .B.TECH E.E.E
SREE VIDYANIKETHAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE
E-mail: shama06245@gmail.com
Mobile No: 9440269833
Abstract
In this paper, a novel active power filter
is proposed and implemented by sing a
voltage-source power converter with a
series connected inductor and capacitor
set. The power converter is controlled to
generate a compensating voltage that is
converted into a compensating current
via the series connected inductor and
capacitor set. The compensating current
flows into the power feeder in order to
suppress the harmonic currents
generated by nonlinear loads. The salient
advantages of the proposed active Power
filter are lower voltage rating of dc
capacitor and power switching devices,
smaller filter inductor, smaller
dimension, light weight, better filter
performance and low electromagnetic
interference (EMI). A three-phase 100 k
VA active power filter is developed to
demonstrate the performance of the
proposed method. The results show that
the proposed active power filter has the
expected performance.
I. INTRODUCTION
The power electronic related
facilities may generate a large amount of
harmonic current due to the nonlinear
input characteristic. The harmonic
current may pollute the power system
causing problems such as transformer
overheating, rotary machine vibration,
voltage quality degradation, destruction
of electric power components, and
alfunctining of medical facilities .In
order to solve the problem of harmonic
pollution effectively, many harmonic
limitation standards.
The harmonic current can be suppressed
by using a passive or active power filter.
Conventionally, the passive power filter
is used to solve the problems of
harmonic pollution in the industrial
power system due to its low cost.
However, it has the
Following disadvantages:
1) Sensitive to the variation of power
system impedance;
2) Sensitive to frequency variation of
the utility;
3) The risk of series/parallel resonance;
4) The filter frequency is fixed, and not
easy to adjust.
Among those listed above, the
series/parallel resonance is the most
serious disadvantage. It may result in
over-current/ over voltage on the
inductor and capacitor causing damage
to the passive power filter. Since the
system impedance has a significant
effect on the performance of passive
power filter, it is very hard to obtain an
excellent filter performance in practical
applications. Moreover, the harmonic
current produced by neighboring
nonlinear loads may flow into the
Passive power filter and result in the
overload of the passive power filter.
Recently, the harmonic
suppression facilities based on power
electronic technique have been
developed. These active harmonic
suppression facilities known as active
power filter can suppress the different
order harmonic components of nonlinear
loads simultaneously According to the
power circuit configurations and
connections, the active power filter can
be divided into parallel active filters,
series active filters and other filter
combinations The parallel active power
filter is connected in parallel to the load
and the generated compensation current
opposes to the load harmonic current to
being injected into the power feeder. The
parallel active power filter has many
configurations .Among these
configurations, the standard inverter type
is widely used and discussed
Fig.1.system configuration of active power filter
(a) standard inverter type parallel active filter,
(b) series active power filter, (c) hybrid power
filter.
Fig. 1(a) shows the system configuration
of the standard inverter type parallel
active power filter (conventional parallel
active power Filter). The conventional
parallel active power filter can perform
the harmonic current suppression,
reactive power compensation and
balancing three-phase currents. This
filter consists of a voltage-source power
converter and a filter inductor connected
in series. The role of the filter inductor is
used to suppress the high frequency
ripple current generated while switching
the power electronic devices of the
power converter. The inductance of the
filter inductor depends on switching
frequency, dc voltage, and ripple current
limitation. The dc bus voltage must be
higher than the peak value of the utility
voltage to force the output current of the
active power filter under the command
of compensating current in the
conventional parallel active power filter.
The use of high dc bus voltage has many
disadvantages such as large filter
inductance, and high voltage rating of dc
capacitor and power electronic devices.
Voltage waveform to be sinusoidal and
balance the three -phase voltages.
However, the series filter is less popular
in the industrial applications due to the
inherent drawbacks of series circuits,
namely it must handle high load
currents, which increases their current
rating compared with the parallel active
power filters
In some applications, the combinations
of several types of filters can achieve
greater benefits. The major combinations
include parallel active filter and series
active filter, series active filter and
parallel passive filter, parallel active
filter and parallel passive filter, and
active filter in series with parallel
passive power filter .Among these
configurations, the active filter in series
with parallel passive filter, also known
as the hybrid power filter, is more
widely discussed in the literature This
Configuration is shown in Fig. 1(c)
where the passive filter filters the
dominant harmonic, and the power
converter is used to enhance the filter
performance and to protect the passive
A larger filter inductor will result in
significant power loss, more heat
dissipation, bulk dimension and weight,
and degrades the performance of
frequency response. The requirement of
high voltage rating of dc
Capacitor and power electronic devices
limits high power application of active
power filters due to the high power
rating of the power converter and cost.
Fig. 1(b) shows the system configuration
of the series active Filter. The major
advantages of the series active filter over
the parallel active power filter are that it
can maintain the output parallel active
power filter, (b) series active power
filter, (c) hybrid power filter
filter from power resonance. Hence, the
capacity of the power converter is
smaller than that of the parallel active
power filter for the same nonlinear load.
Besides, the voltage stress applied to the
power electronic switches in the power
converter is low. As a result, the hybrid
filter is suitable to high-power
applications. However, the hybrid power
filter requires a bulk passive power filter
set and a voltage-matching transformer.
Based on the type of compensation, the
active power filter can be divided into
reactive power compensation, harmonic
compensation, balancing of three-phase
systems and multiple compensations.
The conventional parallel active power
filter belongs to multiple compensations,
and it can compensate for the harmonic
current and reactive power
simultaneously .The hybrid power filter
belongs to the harmonic compensation,
and it only compensates for the
harmonic current.
In this paper, a novel active power filter
is proposed. The proposed active power
filter is implemented by using a voltage-
source power converter with a series
connected inductor
And capacitor set. The proposed active
power filter can be regarded as a new
family of the hybrid power filter,
combing a parallel active filter and an ac
power capacitor. The proposed active
power filter has the advantages of lower
voltage rating of dc capacitor and power
switching devices, smaller filter inductor
, smaller dimension, light weight, better
filter performance and low EMI. Finally,
a three-phase 100kVA prototype is
developed to demonstrate the
performance of the proposed active
power filter.
II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
AND OPERATION PRINCIPLE
The system configuration of the
proposed active power filter is shown in
Fig. 2.
. Fig.2.system configuration of proposed active
power filter
It consists of a series connected inductor
and capacitor set, a power converter and
a high frequency ripple filter. The
voltage-mode control is used to control
the power converter. The power
converter generates a compensating
voltage that is converted into a
compensating current flowing through
the series connected inductor and
capacitor set, and the compensating
current flows into the power feeder in
order to filter harmonic currents
generated by nonlinear loads. The
configuration of the proposed active
power filter is similar to that of the
hybrid power filter in the first view.
However, the function and dimension of
the passive elements (L-C) are not the
same. In the proposed method, the
inductor of the series connected inductor
and capacitor set is very small, and it is
used to filter the switching ripple of the
power converter. The capacitor in the
series connected inductor and capacitor
set is used to supply a fixed reactive
power. However, the passive elements
(L-C) in the hybrid power filter are used
to tune the dominant harmonic
component of the load current. The
inductance in the hybrid power filter is
larger than that used in the proposed
active power filter, then, the dimension
and weight of the inductor used in the
hybrid power filter are also larger than
that used in the proposed active power
filter. The high frequency ripple filter is
configured by a set of capacitors and
resistor, and it uses to further filter out
the switching ripple of the power
converter.
. Fig.3.Equivalent circuit of proposed active
power filter
Fig. 3 shows the equivalent circuit of the
proposed active power filter. It consists
of two voltage sources, one is the utility
and the other is the power converter. The
compensating voltage generated by the
power converter is a dependent voltage
source whose voltage depends on the
harmonic components of the load
current. The equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 3 can be further divided into the
fundamental frequency equivalent circuit
and the harmonic frequency equivalent
circuit as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig.4.Equivalent circuit of proposed active
power filter, (a) fundamental equivalent circuit
(b) harmonic equivalent circuit.
Fig. 4(a) shows the equivalent circuit
under the fundamental frequency .If the
power loss is negligible; the
compensating voltage generated by the
power converter only contains harmonic
components. Hence, the voltage source
of the power converter can be regarded
as a short circuit under the fundamental
frequency. Also, it is evident that the
impedance of the series connected
Inductor and capacitor set is capacitive
under the fundamental frequency.
Hence, the series connected inductor and
capacitor set performs the fixed reactive
power compensation. Since the
inductance of the series connected
inductor and capacitor set is
Very small in the proposed active
power filter, the compensating reactive
power can be approximated as
(1) Is the capacitance of the series
connected inductor and capacitor set,
and is the RMS value of the
utility line voltage is. Fig. 4(b) shows the
equivalent circuit under harmonic
frequency. If the frequency is lower than
the tuned frequency, the
Series connected inductor and capacitor
set is capacitive. On the contrary, the
series connected inductor and capacitor
set is inductive if the frequency is higher
than the tuned frequency.
The switching frequency of the power
converter is significantly higher than the
tuned frequency of the series connected
inductor and capacitor set. As a result,
the series connected inductor and
capacitor set acts as an inductor to filter
the switching frequency of the power
converter. For suppressing the load
harmonic current, he desired
compensating voltage can be derived as
(2) Where is the harmonic
component of the load current, is
the impedance of the series connected
inductor and capacitor set. If the power
converter can generate a voltage as
shown in (2), then this voltage is
converted into a compensating current
that is opposite to the load harmonic
current. Hence, the load harmonic
current can be suppressed. As shown in
Fig. 4(a), the fundamental component of
utility voltage drops on the series
connected inductor and capacitor set,
hence, the compensating voltage
generated by the power converter
consists only the harmonic components.
In addition, (2) shows that the desired
compensation voltage is dependent on
the load harmonic current and the
impedance of the series connected
inductor and
Capacitor set. This value is smaller than
the peak value of the utility voltage.
From the operation theory of the bridge
power converter, the dc bus voltage of a
power converter must be higher than the
peak value of the compensating voltage.
Because the peak value of compensating
voltage is smaller than that of the utility
voltage, the dc bus voltage in the
proposed active power filter can be
reduced significantly as compared with
the conventional parallel active power
filter whose voltage must be higher than
the peak value of the utility voltage.
Consequently, the voltage rating of dc
capacitor and power electronic devices
can also be reduced. Besides, the ripple
current of the power converter is
dependent on the dc bus voltage and
filter inductance. This implies that the
lower the dc bus voltage, the smaller
filter inductance required for specified
ripple current limitation. Therefore, the
filter inductance used in the series
connected inductor and capacitor set is
smaller due to the lower dc bus voltage.
Besides, the high frequency response of
the proposed active power filter is better
than that of the conventional parallel
Active power filters due to the smaller
filter inductance. Compared to the
conventional parallel active power filter,
it shows that the proposed active power
filter uses three additional ac capacitors
to reduce the inductance of filter
inductor. In practice, the core of an
inductor with large inductance is made
from the iron alloy, which results in the
bulky volume, heavy weight and large
loss. The core of an inductor with small
inductance can be made from the ferrite
materials, which have the characteristics
of small volume, light weight and low
eddy current loss .The EMI, generated
by the switching of power converter, is
also dependent on the dc bus voltage.
Therefore, the salient advantages of the
proposed active power filter are low
voltage rating of dc capacitor and power
switching devices, smaller filter
inductance, smaller dimension, light
weight, good filter performance and low
EMI. Besides, the smaller filter
inductance can improve the high
frequency response performance of this
active power filter. Since, the capacity of
the dc bus voltage is dependent on the
amount of compensation current and not
the utility voltage, the application of the
proposed active power filter could be
extended to a wider voltage range. In the
limited variable voltage application,
such as 220 V to 480 V, the change in
the main components is only the voltage
rating of series connected inductor and
capacitor set. In addition, the proposed
active power filter can be applied in
50/60 HZ power systems only adjusting
the parameters of the control circuit. For
the conventional active power filter, the
voltage rating of both active and passive
components must be changed. The
hardware cost of the proposed active
power filter is very competitive in the
nonlinear loads whose input is a diode-
rectifier or phase-controlled rectifier
with a low level voltage below 480 V.
The conventional parallel active power
filter can supply the reactive power as
the variation of the load, and performs
the unity power factor compensation.
Nevertheless, the hybrid active power
only supplies a fixed reactive power.
This results in the leading power factor,
as the load condition is light. The
reactive power compensation
performance of the proposed active
power filter is similar to the hybrid
power filter supplying a fixed reactive
power.
III. CONTROL THEORY
Conventionally, the active power filter
was controlled by the current-mode.
However, it is hard to be implemented
under low filter inductance due to the
high switching ripple, and it may
generate multiple crossing during a
carrier period of pulse-width modulator.
The phenomenon of multiple crossing
will result in more than one switching
operation during a carrier period. In the
proposed active power filter, the voltage-
mode control is used. The three-phase
power converter controlled by the
voltage-mode control acts as a voltage
amplifier with the gain represented by
(3)
Is the dc bus voltage and is the
amplitude of the carrier signal of the
pulse-width modulator. Hence, the
control circuit of the voltage-mode
controller is used to determine a
reference voltage by dividing the desired
compensating voltage by the gain shown
in (3). From the above section, it can be
found that the desired compensating
voltage generated by the power
converter is derived
From (2). Hence, the first control signal
where can be further derived from (2),
and it is represented as
(4)
Where L and C are the inductance and
capacitance of the series connected
inductor and capacitor set respectively,
and R is the stray loss of active power
filter. If the power converter can
generate a harmonic voltage equal to the
first control signal and convert into a
compensating current by the series
connected inductor and capacitor set, the
harmonic components of the load current
can be compensated theoretically. In
practice, the filter performance is
degraded due to the parameters of the
series connected inductor and capacitor
set that may be varied due to age,
variable frequency, production and
temperature. For improving the
compensating performance, the second
control loop must be used to modify the
error of compensating result. The
concept of the second control loop is
based on the theory of conventional
hybrid power filter .The second control
signal is obtained by detecting the
harmonic components of the utility
current and then amplifying with a gain ,
and it can be represented as
(5)
Where is the harmonic component of the
utility current? If the power converter
can generate a voltage equal to the
second control signal, the utility
harmonic current can be derived from
Fig. 4(b) and represented as
(6)
is added to the denominator when the
power converter generates a voltage as
the second control signal From (6), it can
be found that a term . Hence, the second
control loop is used to control the power
converter to act as a virtual harmonic
resistor. The virtual harmonic resistor is
in series with the utility to block the
uncompensated harmonic components of
load current flowing back to the utility.
In the proposed active power filter, the
first control loop acts as rough tuning,
and the second control loop is used for
fine-tuning. Due to the use of voltage-
mode control in the proposed active
power filter, the series connected
inductor and capacitor set may result in
high frequency oscillation between the
utility and the active power filters.
Hence, the third control loop is applied
to avoid high frequency oscillation. The
third control loop is used to generate a
virtual harmonic resistor to be connected
in series with the series connected
inductor and capacitor set. The virtual
harmonic resistor acts as a harmonic
damper. It can be realized by using the In (9), the first control signal is the
power converter to generate a harmonic dominant component. Hence, the
voltage that is proportional to the compensating voltage generated by the
harmonic components of the active power converter is almost the product of
power filter current. Hence, the third the impedance of the series connected
control signal can be represented as inductor and capacitor set and the
harmonic components of load current.
(7)
Where the current harmonic component IV. CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM
of the active power filter is. Hence, the
power converter can act as a virtual
harmonic resistor. A dc capacitor located
at the dc bus of the voltage-source power
converter is used to supply a dc voltage
to the power converter and act as an
energy buffer. The dc bus voltage is
expected to be a constant voltage.
However, the virtual harmonic resistor in
the second and third control loops and
the switching loss of power converter
will consume the real power. Then, the
It consists of four control loops. From
voltage variation at the dc bus cannot be
Fig. 5, it can be found that four feedback
avoided. To maintain a constant dc bus
signals, namely the load current, the
Voltage, the fourth control loop is used.
utility current, the output current of
The voltage regulation of the dc bus
power converter and the dc bus voltage
voltage can be obtained by using the
are used in the control circuit of the
power converter to generate a
proposed active power filter to calculate
fundamental voltage in phase or out-of-
the reference voltage of the power
phase with the fundamental component
converter. The first control loop is used
of the active power filter current. The
to implement the product of harmonic
fourth control signal can be represented
components of the load current and the
as
impedance of the series connected
(8) inductor and capacitor set shown in (3).
Where the fundamental component of The load current is detected and sent to
the active power filter is current. Then, the band-rejection filter I to filter out its
the power converter acts as a fundamental component. From (3), it can
positive/negative fundamental resistor to be found that the product of harmonic
absorb/regenerate the real power from/to components of the load current and the
the utility, so as to maintain the dc bus impedance of the series connected
voltage at a constant value. From the inductor and capacitor set can be
above, the reference voltage of the obtained by feeding the harmonic
control circuit is the summation of the component of load current to a
first, second, third, and fourth control Proportional Integral Differential (PID)
signals, and it can be represented as controller.

(9)

TABLE I
MAJOR PARAMETERS OF
PROTOTYPE
Fig.5. Control block diagram of proposed active
power filter
The proportional, integral and
differential coefficients are the resistor
R, capacitor C and inductor L shown in
(3), respectively. Then, the output of the
first control loop is obtained. For
TABLE II
COMPARISON RESULT
Avoiding the effect of noise, a low-pass
filter is used in the front of Differential
controller and a high-pass filter is
inserted at the end of Integral controller
to reject the dc component due to the
initial condition. Since, the series
connected inductor and capacitor set is
located at the output of the power
converter, the capacitor also can block
the dc component due to the initial
condition. Hence, the effect of the initial
condition caused by the switch-on of the
proposed active power filter can be
suppressed. For improving the
compensating performance, the second
control loop is used to modify the error
of the compensating results of the first
control loop. In the second control loop,
the detected utility current is sent to the
band-rejection filter II to filter out the
fundamental component. Then, the
uncompensated harmonic components of
the utility current are obtained. The
output of the band-rejection filter II is
fed to the amplifier I to
Obtain the output of the second control
loop.
The third control loop is used to generate
a virtual harmonic resistor to be
connected in series with the series
connected inductor and capacitor set to
act as a damper. The output current of
the power converter is sent to a band-
pass filter to obtain the fundamental
component, and then, the detected output
current of the power converter and its
fundamental component are fed to a sub
tractor to obtain the harmonic
components. The harmonic components
are fed to amplifier II to obtain the
output of the third control loop.
The fourth control loop is used to
regulate the dc bus voltage. The fourth
control loop comprises a low-pass filter
to filter out the dc bus voltage ripple and
a subtract or to subtract a setting value
from the output of low-pass filter, then,
the sub tractor result is sent to a PI
controller. The output of the band-pass
filter is the fundamental component of
active power filter current, and the
output of the fourth control loop is the
product of the output of the PI controller
and the output of the band-pass filter.
Finally, the modulated signal can be
obtained by summing the outputs of the
first, the second, the third and the fourth
control loops. Then, the modulated
signal is sent to a pulse-width modulator
so as to drive the power switching
devices of the power converter.
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
For demonstrating the performance of
the proposed active power filter, a three-
phase 100KVA prototype is developed.
The major parameters of the prototype
are shown in Table I.
The utility power is supplied by a three-
phase three-wire utility system with 380
V and 60 Hz. A comparison of the
proposed active power filter and the
conventional parallel active power filter
is shown in Table II. Since the
inductance of series connected inductor
and capacitor set is only 58 H, a ferrite
core can be used to reduce the power
Fig.6. Experimental result of proposed active
power filter under steady state, (a) utility
voltage,(b) utility current, (c)load current, and
(d) output current of active power filter.
Current after compensating by the
proposed active power filter is only
4.5%. The waveform of the utility
current after compensating by the
proposed active power filter is nearly
sinusoidal. The test result shows that the
Harmonic suppression performance of
the proposed active power filter is
excellent. Fig 7 shows the experimental
result of the proposed active power filter
under switching-in the nonlinear load.
As seen in Fig. 7(b).
Loss, weight and volume. Hence, the
volume and weight of the proposed
active power filter is evidently smaller
than that of the conventional parallel
active power filter. In addition, the
hardware cost is also reduced
significantly. The tested load is a 300
Kva UPS with a six-pulse rectifier
charger. Fig. 6 shows the experimental
result of the proposed active power filter
in the steady state. The load current
shown in Fig. 6(c) is rich in harmonics;
its total harmonic distortion (THD) is
51%. However, the THD of the utility
Fig.7. Experimental result of proposed active
power filter under steady state, (a) utility
voltage,(b) utility current, (c)load current, and
(d) output current of active power filter
The utility current is still nearly
sinusoidal under the transient duration. It
verifies that the transient performance of
the proposed active power filter is
excellent.
In the industrial distribution power
system, a turbine generator is often used
as a back-up power. Because the
capacity of the turbine generator is not
large enough, the power source of the
turbine generator can be regarded as a
weak power source.

Fig.8. Experimental result under weak power
source before applying active power filter.
Fig.9. Experimental result under weak power
source before applying active power filter.
The experimental results shown in Figs.
8 and 9 are tested under the condition of
weak power source. The weak power
source is supplied by an 800 kva turbine
generator. The load used in the test is the
power equipment using a three-phase
rectifier in the input port. As seen in Fig.
8, the voltage waveform of the turbine
generator is distorted seriously due to the
nonlinear load.
The THD of the utility voltage and the
utility current are 12% and 25%
respectively. The distorted utility voltage
may disturb the normal operation of
power equipment itself or the
neighboring load using the same power
source. Fig. 9 shows that both
waveforms of the voltage and current of
the turbine generator are nearly
sinusoidal after applying the proposed
Active power The THD % of the turbine
generator’s voltage and current are 4%
and 4.5%, respectively. Hence, this can
demonstrate that the proposed active
power filter not only can suppress the
input current harmonics but also avoid
the waveform distortion of the voltage
under nonlinear loads.
VI. CONCLUSION
Recently, many power electronic
application technologies have been used
to replace the role of conventional
passive elements in the distribution
power system for solving the problems
of power quality. The active power filter
is used to solve the harmonic problems
in the industrial power system, and this
becomes popular gradually. However,
the wide use of the active power filter is
still limited due to the high cost and the
power rating of power electronics. In
this paper, a novel active power filter is
proposed. The proposed active power
filter has the advantages of lower voltage
rating for dc capacitor and power
switching devices, smaller filter
inductor, smaller dimension, light
weight, better filter performance and low
electromagnetic interference (EMI). A
three-phase 100 kva active power filter
is developed to demonstrate the
performance of the proposed method.
The experimental results show that the
proposed active power filter has
excellent performance in suppressing
harmonic current. The hardware cost of
the proposed active power filter is very
competitive in nonlinear loads whose
input is a diode-rectifier or phase-
controlled rectifier with a low level
voltage below 480 V.
 POWER QUALITY
Submitteby
K.CHANDRAKALA, E.SREEDEEPTHI REDDY
4th year b.tech. EEE 4th year b.tech. EEE
R.NO-306391, R.NO-305367,
Ph.No-9490033056, Ph.No-9966988049,
KSRM college of Engg..,
kadapa,

Our e-mail ID’s are:

chandu_kala39@yahoo.co.in
sreedeepthi367@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The present paper gives a brief introduction to power quality and ways for Energy
Conservation. Electric power quality may be defined as a measure of how well
electric power service can be utilized by customers. The term Power Quality means
different things to different people. There is no agreed definition for power quality, it
may be defined as the problems manifested in voltage, frequency and the effect of
harmonics, poor power factor that results in mis operation/failure of customer
equipment. The widespread use of high-power semiconductor switches at the
utilization, distribution and transmission levels have made non-sinusoidal load
currents more common. Certain type of power quality degradation result in losses and
thus losses in transmission and distribution system have come under greater scrutiny
in recent years.
This paper outlines the issues relating Reactive Power management to Power Quality
and hence Capacitor Demand Meter has been discussed as a Power quality enhancer.
The role of capacitor in power Quality Issues proves to be beneficial particularly
when energy conservation is outlined.This paper also gives a view on various factors
that affect power quality.

Introduction
Electric power quality may be defined as a measure of how well electric power
service can be utilized by customers. When wave shapes are irregular, voltage is
poorly regulated, harmonics and flicker are present, or there are momentary events
that distort the usually sinusoidal wave, and the power utilization is degraded. This is
 referred as degradation of power quality. The widespread use of high-power
semiconductor switches at the utilization, distribution and transmission levels have
made non-sinusoidal load currents more common. Certain type of power quality
degradation results in losses and thus losses in transmission and distribution system
have come under greater scrutiny in recent years. This paper outlines the issues rela-
ting to Power Quality and their impact on Energy Conservation.

Power Quality
The term Power Quality means different things to different people. Power quality is
the quality of the electric power supplied to electrical equipment. Poor power quality
can result in maloperation of the equipment the electric utility may define power
quality as reliability and state that the system is 99.95% reliable.

Ideally the power would be supplied as a sine wave with the amplitude and frequency
given by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case
of a power feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at
all frequencies.

No real life power feed will ever meet this ideal. It can deviate from it in the
following ways (among others):

• Variations in the peak or rms voltage (both these figures are important to
different types of equipment) When the rms voltage exceeds the nominal
voltage by a certain margin, a surge is produced. A dip is the opposite
situation: the rms voltage is below the nominal voltage by a certain margin.
• A sag occurs when the low voltage persists over a longer time period
• Variations in the frequency.
• Variations in the wave shape - usually described as harmonics
• Quick and repetitive variations in the rms voltage. This produces flicker in
lighting equipment.
• Nonzero low frequency impedance (if the appliance draws more power the
voltage drops)
• Nonzero high frequency impedance (if the appliance demands a large amount
of current or stops demanding it suddenly there will be a dip or spike in the
voltage due to the inductances in the power supply line)
• rapid spikes and dips and longer term variations in voltage (usually caused by
the interaction of other equipment with line impedance)

POWER QUALITY IN POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:

Most of the more important international standards define power quality as

the physical characteristics of the electrical supply provided under normal operating conditions
that do not disrupt or disturb the customer’s processes. Therefore, a power quality problem
exists if any voltage, current or frequency deviation results in a failure or in a bad operation of
customer’s equipment. However, it is important to notice that the quality of power supply
implies basically voltage quality and supply reliability. A voltage quality problem relates to
any failure of equipment due to deviations of the line voltage from its nominal characteristics,
and the supply reliability is characterized by its adequacy (ability to supply the load), security
(ability to withstand sudden disturbances such as system faults) and availability (focusing
especially on long interruptions).
Power quality problems are common in most of commercial, industrial and
utility networks. Natural phenomena, such as lightning are the most frequent cause of power
quality problems. Switching phenomena resulting in oscillatory transients in the electrical
supply, for example when capacitors are switched, also contribute substantially to power
quality disturbances. Also, the connection of high power non-linear loads contributes to the
generation of current and voltage harmonic components. Between the different voltage
disturbances that can be produced, the most significant and critical power quality problems are
voltage sags due to the high economical losses that can be generated. Short-term voltage drops
(sags) can trip electrical drives or more sensitive equipment, leading to costly interruptions of
production. For all these reasons, from the consumer point of view, power quality issues will
become an increasingly important factor to consider in order to satisfy good productivity. On
the other hand, for the electrical supply industry, the quality of power delivered will be one of
the distinguishing factors for ensuring customer loyalty in this very competitive and
deregulated market. To address the needs of energy consumers trying to improve productivity
through the reduction of power quality related process stoppages and energy suppliers trying to
maximize operating profits while keeping customers satisfied with supply quality, innovative
technology provides the key to cost-effective power quality enhancements solutions. However,
with the various power quality solutions available, the obvious question for a consumer or
utility facing a particular power quality problem is which equipment provides the better
solution.

Power quality varies significantly from one area to another. Some countries have
very stable power grids while others are extremely short on capacity.
Power disturbances are caused by the generation, distribution and use of power, and
lightning.
A power disturbance can be defined as unwanted excess energy that is presented to
the load.

Causes of Power Disturbances

• Power disturbance originate both outside and inside customer facilities.
• Load switching causes surges because of collapsing fields (-e = l * di/dt)
• Over loaded power distribution systems can cause significant voltage
variations between peak and off-peak hours.
• Significant momentary load changes, such as heavy inrush currents can cause
severe voltage variations
• Black-outs can cause severe voltage surges both on loss and return of power.
• Circuit-breaker tripping and fuse blowing can cause severe surge voltages
• Large ups and variable-speed drives can cause various surge voltages inside
buildings
Results of Power Disturbances

Sags and under voltages can cause component overheating or
destruction

Surges and over voltages can cause component overheating,
destruction or can trigger other electronic components such as SCR's.

Component overheating reduces the life and deteriorates the real
reliability as opposed to the estimated reliability based on steady-state
conditions of the product.

False triggering of other components can create nuisance alarm
tripping or, worse, can cause overheating or destruction of other
electronic components.
The manufacturer of the equipment defines power quality as characteristics of power
supply that is required to make his equipment work properly but the customer is the
one ultimately affected. While there is no agreed definition for power quality, it may
be defined as the problems manifested in voltage, frequency and the effect of
harmonics, poor power factor that results in mis operation/failure of customer
equipment. According to this approach Power Quality may be co-related with four
topics.
 Voltage
 Frequency
 Harmonic distortion
 Power Factor

Voltage
In the context this issue must be viewed from two different directions. The
first direction is variation in supply voltage due to the factors arising from
transmission and distribution of power. The second direction is variation in voltage
within a network due to the characteristics of the loads connected therein. It is well
known fact in many other developing Countries that the quality of voltage supplied by
the utilities varies widely depending on the type of distribution network and the
geographical locations of such networks. The problem of voltage variation in this
regard becomes more acute in rural distribution network.
To complicate this problem further the voltage variation is also a function of the
season of the year, for ex: rural feeders experience the lowest voltages when the drawl
of power is the highest, which is invariably in a particular time the year depending on
the agricultural output/crop of that area.
Similarly on particular feeders, which supply highly fluctuating loads of an
industrial nature, it is common to find voltage variations beyond permissible limits.
The impact of such voltage variations is to cause higher energy consumption due to a
combination of factors. Some of the important factors are
 For a given MW of power rating, the current drawn goes up inversely in
proportion to the voltage. Consequently, a drop in voltage would result in
increased current flowing on the network. This increased current then
causes increase in I2R losses of the network. For ex: a 20% drop in voltage
would increase the losses in the network by 56%. Further, this increased
current will contribute to increasing the voltage drop and thereby
intensifying the problem.
 Drop in efficiency of induction motors: It is well known that a substantial
part of electrical energy consumption occurs in induction motors. The cha-
racteristics of these motors are such that a drop in voltage will mean a
higher energy consumption to do the same job. Hence, extra energy is
consumed when there is a voltage drop on the network.
 A variety of studies has shown that the variations in voltage are a frequent
occurrence in power distribution networks. The voltage drop seen in such
 studies could be as much as 40%of the rated value, thereby increasing
corresponding I2R losses by 277 %. This results in increased energy
wastage and higher power demand from the system, i.e., the power
generation equipment has to supply higher MW for the same load.

Voltage imbalance have the following adverse effects:

 Overheating of motors lead to insulation breakdown.
 Imbalanced currents.
 Negative voltage sequence
 Motor bearings failure.
 Speed variation in motors.
 Reduced production quality.
 Reduced motor efficiency.
 Wasted energy which leads to higher electric bills-KWD, KWH.
 Wasted investment and operation capital.
 Use of oversized machinery.
 More difficult to provide adequate overload protection.
 Increased noise and vibration.
 Increased maintenance of equipment and machinery
Three phase motors are even less tolerant of phase-to-phase voltage
unbalance. A 5% unbalance will cause a 50% temperature rise in three phase
motors and is defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) as the absolute maximum unbalance under which motors should be
allowed to operate for short period of time as delineated in the NEMA
specification MG1-14.34 subsequently, 5% voltage unbalance will result in 35%
losses, where 4% voltage unbalance results in 25% losses, and 3% results in 15%
losses, and wasted energy.
The variation of temperature rise with voltage unbalance is shown below

Brownouts
Brownout by definition is low voltage for an extended period of time (greater
than half a cycle) in which the magnitude of the voltage is reduced.
Brownouts cause the following adverse effects:

Temporary low line voltage.

Shutdowns.

Loss of microprocessor memory.

Loss of control.

Overheating of motors - insulation breakdown.

Protective device tripping.

Speed variation

Reduced motor torque, which can lead to stalling

Frequency
While this is also an important factor, it is more stable than the voltage due
to the fundamental nature of electricity generation, transmission and distribution.
Frequency variations can occur, due to the load levels on the electricity supply
system, for ex: a highly overloaded power system will experience a drop in frequency.
Further, mismatch of frequency in different sections of a grid can cause power quality
and power supply problems particularly, when it is important to have an integrated
and interconnected grid. The issues relating to these topics are more relevant in the
area of power system stability and load dispatch and are hence, not touched upon in
this paper. Impact of this topic on Energy Conservation is less important in
comparison with the other three topics stated above.

Harmonic Distortion
The problem of Harmonic distortion primarily occurs in modern electrical
networks due to feedback of Harmonic currents from nonlinear loads. Harmonic
Voltage distortion is created due to interaction of such Harmonic currents with source
impedances. Consequently, this can be treated as a form of electrical pollution on the
network.
This has resulted in a situation where it is not uncommon for a new
consumer on the electricity grid to find that the incoming supply voltage consists of a
basket of frequencies including the fundamental frequency. This is due to the
pollution of the grid by other consumers. The presence of Harmonic distortion has a
significant impact in increasing energy consumption. Some of the important reasons
for this are listed below:

All electromagnetic equipment such as transformers, motors etc, have
two key constituents of losses namely, iron loss and copper loss. The
iron loss is also a function of the power of the frequency. Consequently,
presence of higher frequency components such as 5th harmonic, 7th
Harmonic etc, will result in an increase in iron losses. Hence energy
consumption will go up and this is a particular importance in the
distribution transformers whose All Day Efficiency could be
significantly reduced because of this aspect. It is also harmful for the
transformers and motors since it causes faster ageing of the insulation
due to higher temperature rise in the electromagnetic core.

The phenomena of skin effect are well known. The flow of Harmonic
currents therefore, increases the I2R losses depending on the occurrence
of the skin effect. This phenomenon is well understood and causes over
heating of equipment and current carrying parts thereby, increasing the
amount of energy consumption for the same network load.
Harmonics cause the following adverse effects:
 Overheating of transformers (K- Factor), and rotating equipment.
  Increase Hysterisys losses
 Neutral overloading / unacceptable neutral-to-ground voltages.
 Distorted voltage and current waveforms.
 Failed capacitors banks.
 Breakers and fuses tripping.
 Unreliable operation of electronic equipment, and generators.
 Erroneous register of electric meters.
 Wasted energy / higher electric bills -KWD & KWH.
 Wasted capacity - Inefficient distribution of power.
 Increased maintenance of equipment and machinery

Power Factor
Power factor is the phase shift between voltage & current. While the theoretical
definition of Power factor is the ratio of active power to apparent power, it is well
known that in electricity distribution systems this is measured as a ratio of active
energy to apparent energy over a specified time period.
The ideal power factor is unity. However, this cannot be achieved in
reality due to the nature of the loads used. For ex: inductive loads, nonlinear loads etc,
A lower power factor means more current drawn for the same load. This causes
increase in the apparent power demand i.e., kVA demand as well as increases
I2Rlosses.
Consequently, more system capacity is needed to supply the same load. In
other words a lower power factor results in higher energy consumption. Further,
lowering of power factor also causes a drop in voltage which then brings us back to
the ill effects of voltage variation as described earlier.
A lagging power factor is generally caused as a result of inductive loads, and
particularly, motors that are not fully loaded.
Low Power Factor causes the following adverse effects

Increased line losses I2R

Wasted generation capacity (KVA)

Wasted distribution /transformer/ capacity (KVA)

Wasted system capacity (KVA)

Reduced system efficiency (KW)

Increased maximum demand (KVA), and related charges.

Possible power factor charges

In line with the above problems, we can expect energy wasted and reduced power
quality through:

•Increased maintenance of equipment and machinery.

•Wasted energy / higher electric bills – KWD and KWH.
•Wasted investment and operation capital.

The oldest solution for a low power factor in industry, in terms of counter
balancing the lagging power factor, are capacitors. But, there are problems
associated with capacitors which industry is staying away from because of the
potential side-effects to today’s sensitive equipment (ex.electronics, computers,
etc.).

Improving power factor is a great idea because it increases the efficiency of the
distribution, reduces losses, and power factor charges are eliminated (if charged)
In addition to these problems intermittent supply failure and phase loss
also adversely affects the power quality.

Intermittent Supply Failure:

Generally, intermittent supply failures are caused by the utility company switching
loads, lines, and source supplies.
The fastest this switching can occur is three to five cycles.
During this period, there is a complete drop-out.
This may or may not be a concern for all industries but intermittent supply failure
takes its toll on the operation and efficiency of equipment and machinery.
Supply failure causes the following adverse effects:
 Voltage control relay tripping.
 Phase imbalance relay tripping.
 Plant and equipment shutdown - downtime!
 Loss off critical microprocessor memory.
 Possible jogging, pinching and stalling of motors.
 Loss of control and resetting of equipment.
 Loss production

Phase Loss
In case of phase loss, a lost phase from the remaining two phases causes
interruption of power supply to industries and thus causing loss of valuable
production time.
Phase loss causes the following adverse effects:

Imbalanced operation of three phase motors, resulting in insulation breakdown
and destruction.

Increased downtime

Loss of production.

Major maintenance and replacement capital requirement
SOLUTIONS TO POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:
There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems.
The first approach is called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less
sensitive to power disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage
distortion. The other solution is to install line conditioning systems that suppress or
counteracts the power system disturbances. A flexible and versatile solution to voltage quality
problems is offered by active power filters. Currently they are based on PWM converters and
connect to low and medium voltage distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active
power filters must operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load
current harmonics. Series active power filters operates as a controllable voltage source. In
addition to it we can also use capacitor demand meter for better power quality.

SERIES ACTIVE POWER FILTERS:

It is well known that series active power filters compensate current
system distortion caused by non-linear loads by imposing a high impedance path to the current
harmonics which forces the high frequency currents to flow through the LC passive filter
connected in parallel to the load. The high impedance imposed by the series active power filter
is created by generating a voltage of the same frequency that the current harmonic component
that needs to be eliminated. Voltage unbalance is corrected by compensating the fundamental
frequency negative and zero sequence voltage components of the system.
Proposed series active filter topology

CONTROL SCHEME:

The block diagram of the proposed control scheme is shown in the fig below. Current and
voltage reference waveforms are obtained by using the Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory.
Voltage unbalance is compensated by calculating the negative and zero sequence fundamental
components of the system voltages. These voltage components are added to the source
voltages through the series transformers compensating the voltage unbalance at the load
terminals. In order to reduce the amplitude of the current flowing through the neutral
conductor, the zero sequence components of the line currents are calculated. In this way, it is
not necessary to sense the current flowing through the neutral conductor.
GATING SIGNAL GENERATOR:
This circuit provides the gating signals of the three-phase PWM voltage-
source inverter required to compensate voltage unbalance and current harmonic components.
The current and voltage reference signals are added and then the amplitude of the resultant
reference waveform is adjusted in order to increase the voltage utilization factor of the PWM
inverter for steady state operating conditions. The gating signals of the inverter are generated
by comparing the resultant reference signal with a fixed frequency triangular waveform (5
kHz). The triangular waveform forces the inverter switching frequency to be constant.
The higher voltage utilization of the inverter is obtained if the amplitude of the resultant
reference signal is adjusted for the steady state operating condition of the series active power
filter. In this case, the reference current and reference voltage waveforms are smaller. If the
amplitude is adjusted for transient operating conditions, the required reference signals will
have a larger value, which will create a higher dc voltage in the inverter thus defining a lower
voltage utilization factor for steady state operating conditions.

Capacitor Demand Meter

A brief discussion regarding the Capacitor Demand Meter is presented in this part of
paper. Reactive Power Management is one of the aspects of Power Quality issues as this
directly relates to the customer receiving end voltage .When a capacitor is added to the
electrical network , the magnitude of the resultant network current shall change and this
current needs to be minimum at the load end terminals.
The basic objective of the development of the Capacitor Demand Meter is to develop
an instrument, which when connected at the load end terminals shall directly indicate the
KVAR rating of capacitors to be connected at that point, to keep the supply current drawn at
minimum value. Capacitors, current transformers and micro controller are the basic elements
of Capacitor Demand Meter.
The Role of Power Capacitors in Saving Energy :
As outlined above the problems of voltage drops are primarily due to excessive flow of
Reactive Power in the network. The use of Capacitor banks to carry out shunt compensation as
well as Series compensation would go a long way in improving the voltage profile and making
it more consistent.
Similarly, if all consumers of electricity can improve their power factor closer to unity,
the release of system capacity and reduction in losses would be very significant. Power
Capacitors are the most well proven and cost effective devices to achieve this objective.
As regards Harmonic distortion it is possible to reduce the same by the use of passive
and active harmonic filters. Power capacitors of various types form an essential constituent of
such harmonic filtering devices.
Thus a capacitor plays a vital role in the Reactive Power Management and thus in the
Power Quality problems.
 Conclusion
The Power Quality issues such as voltage variations, Harmonic distortions and power
factor combine together to reduce the overall operating efficiency of electrical networks and
also result in increased power supply demand and unnecessary wastage of energy.
Power quality can be improved by providing capacitor demand meter, capacitor banks
at the load side. In this paper the use and advantages of applying Series active power filters to
compensation power distribution systems has been presented. The principles of operation of
series active power filter have been presented

References:
 www.nadacys.com
 www.reliability web.com
 www.drantz_bmi.com.
 www.puc_state.nh.us.
 www.aafp.org.
 www.google.com
 www.altavista.com.
Soft computing paradigm for hybrid fuzzy controllers: Experiments and
applications

Presented by

M.Anil V.L.Ravindra

III-B.Tech EEE III-B.Tech EEE

Rao & Naidu Engg. College, Rao & Naidu Engg. College,

ONGOLE ONGOLE

E-Mail ID: E-Mail ID:

Marnenianil4@gmail.com ravindrakumar28@gmail.com

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dept.

RAO & NAIDU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ONGOLE-523001
 Soft computing paradigm for hybrid fuzzy controllers: Experiments and
applications

Abstract
Neural Networks (NN), Genetic Algorithms (GA), and Genetic Programs (GP) are
often augmented with fuzzy logic-based schemes to enhance artificial intelligence of a
given system. Such hybrid combinations are expected to exhibit added intelligence,
adaptation, and learning ability. In this paper, implementation of three hybrid fuzzy
controllers are discussed and verified by experimental results. These hybrid
controllers consist of a hierarchical NN-fuzzy controller applied to a direct drive motor,
a GA-fuzzy hierarchical controller applied to a flexible robot link, and a GP-fuzzy
behavior-based controller applied to a mobile robot navigation task. It is
experimentally shown that all three architectures are capable of significantly improving
the system response.
Introduction
Traditional methods which address robotics control issues rely upon
strong mathematical modeling and analysis. The various approaches proposed
to date are suitable for control of industrial robots and automatic guided vehicles
which operate in environments and perform simple repetitive tasks that require
only end-effector positioning or motion along fixed paths. However, operations in
unstructured environments require robots to perform more complex tasks for which
analytical models for control can often not be determined. In cases where models
are available, it is questionable whether or not uncertainty and imprecision are
sufficiently accounted for. Under such conditions fuzzy logic control is an
attractive alternative that can be successfully implemented on real-time complex
systems. Fuzzy controllers and their hybridization with other paradigms are robust
in the presence of perturbations, easy to design and implement, and efficient for
systems that deal with continuous variables. The control schemes described in
this paper are examples of approaches that augment fuzzy logic with other soft
computing techniques to achieve the level of intelligence required of complex robotic
systems.
Three soft computing hybrid fuzzy paradigms for automated learning in
robotic systems are briefly described and experimentally verified. The first
scheme concentrates on a methodology that uses to adapt a fuzzy logic controller
(FLC) in manipulator control tasks.
The second paradigm develops a two-level hierarchical fuzzy control
structure for flexible manipulators. It incorporates in a learning scheme to adapt
to various environmental conditions.
The third paradigm employs GP to evolve rules for behaviors to be used in
mobile robot control. Experimental results of fuzzy controllers learned with the aid
of these soft computing paradigms are presented.
Figure 1: Block Diagram of the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Controller Figure 2: Hardware for

Implementing
Neuro-Fuzzy Controller for Real Time Control of a Direct Drive Motor Using a Digital Signal
Processor
2 Neuro fuzzy
Neural networks exhibit the ability to learn patterns of static or dynamical
systems. In the following fuzzy approach, the learning and pattern recognition
of NN are exploited in two stages: first, to learn static response curves of a given
system; and second, to learn the real-time dynamical changes in a system to serve
as a reference model. The neuro-fuzzy control architecture uses the two neural
networks to modify the parameters of an adaptive FLC. The adaptive capability
of the fuzzy controller is manifested in a rule generation mechanism and
automatic adjustment of scaling factors or shapes of membership functions. The
NN functions as a classifier of the system’s temporal responses. A multi-layer
perceptron NN is used to classify the poral response of the system into different
patterns. Depending on the type of pattern such as with overshoot”, “damped
response”, oscillating response” etc. the scaling factor of the input and output
membership functions are adjusted to make the system respond in a desired
manner. The rule generation mechanism also utilizes the temporal response of
the system to evaluate new fuzzy rules. The non-redundant rules are appended to the
existing rule base during the tuning cycles. This controller architecture is used
in real-time to control a direct drive motor. Figure 1 illustrate the architecture
of the Neuro-fuzzy controller where the two and the fuzzy control architecture
are integrated for adaptive control of nonlinear systems

2.1 Real-Time Adaptive Control of a Direct Drive Motor

In order to perform real-time control, it is necessary that the controller to
stand alone with the sole task of calculating the output needed to control the
object system. This means the task of communicating data for storing as well as
acquiring controller parameters (if the controller is adaptive) should be performed
by external processors. In this way a real-time control can be achieved with
required sampling rate for high bandwidth operation. The FLC algorithm requires
processing of several functionalities such as fuzzification, inferencing and
fuzzification. This means the computation time taken by the FLC itself does not
 leave any room for an Figure 2: Hardware for Implementing Neuro-Fuzzy
Controller for Real-Time Control of a Direct Drive Motor Using a Digital Signal
Processor tive algorithm such as rule generation, calculating the
scale factor of the membership function, or NN algorithms. In order to implement
all these functionalities, a multi-processing architecture is needed. This can be
achieved by combining a sufficiently fast processor
specifically designed for real-time processing, such as a digital signal processor
(DSP) combined with a PC Intel processor (Pentium or 486). Figure 2 shows the
hardware built to interface and control a direct drive motor.
The dynamics of a direct drive brushless DC Motor exhibits nonlinear
characteristics. This is evident in the dead-zone regions of operation and frequency
load characteristics. A digital to analog converter of resolution is used to interface to
the DSP board through a memory mapped register I/O port. The position of the
motor is measured by an optical encoder (which generates 8000 pulses per
revolution of the motor). This is converted to digital position data by encoder
circuitry. The expansion memory is accessible to the PC with which the data
communication is carried out using direct (DMA). The experimental data as well as
fuzzy controller parameter and communication control data are sent back and forth using
this DMA.
Figure 3(a) shows the result of the experiment. Initially there are no rules in the
fuzzy controller. Hence for the first two cycles when the motor was commanded
to go from to -1000 encoder readings, there is no action and the motor is
stationary (O-1000 sampling time; each cycle corresponds to 500 sampled data).

However, in the third cycle when the motor is commanded to goto counts,
the motor spins out of control clockwise. This is because the rule generation
mechanism has produced 4 new rules in the last two cycles and they are in
action. These rules are unstable because the rules generated are not the right ones
or may be insufficient to control the motor adequately. This unstable behavior
continues until after the 8th tuning cycle (after 4000 sampling instant). The cor-
Responding motor command shows a bounded region. Figure 3(b) shows the
stabilized response. Here, the fuzzy controller has completely learned to control the
direct drive motor.

3. GA-Fuzzy Systems for Control of Flexible Robots

Members of the initial population are made up of mutation of the

knowledgeable As a result, a higher fit initial population results in a faster rate
of convergence as is exhibited in Figure 5(a). Figure 5(a) shows the time
response of the GA-optimized controller when compared to previously
obtained results through the non-GA fuzzy controller. The rise time is
improved by 0.34 seconds (an 11% improvement), and the overshoot is
reduced by 0.07 radians (a 54% improvement). The average fitness of each
generation is shown in Figure 5(b). A total of 10 generations were simulated.
Mutation rate for creating the initial population was set at 0.1. Mutation rate
throughout the rest of the simulation was set to 0.01. Probability of crossover
was set to 0.6. Initial experimental results demonstrate that the GA learned
controller is able to control the actual experimental system as in Figure c .
The hardware used to implement the above algorithms is the same as was
explained in the previous section with few modifications pertaining to
flexible robot control such as tip end position sensor and several strain gauges
distributed evenly across the length of the flexible beam.
4. GP-Fuzzy Hierarchical Behavior Control
The robot control benefits to be gained from soft computing-based
hybrid are not limited to rigid and flexible manipulators. Similar benefits can
be gained in applications to control of mobile robot behavior. Autonomous
navigation behavior in mobile robots can be decomposed into a finite number
of special-purpose task-achieving behaviors. An effective arrangement of behaviors
as a hierarchical network of distributed fuzzy rule-bases was recently proposed for
autonomous navigation in unstructured environments The proposed approach
represents a hybrid control scheme incorporating fuzzy logic theory into the
framework of behavior-based control. A behavior hierarchy that encompasses some
necessary capabilities for autonomous navigation in indoor environments is shown
in Figure 6. It implies that goal-directed navigation can be decomposed as a
behavioral function of goal-seeking and route following. These behaviors can be
further decomposed into the lower-level behaviors shown, with dependencies
indicated by the adjoining lines. Each block in Figure 6 is a set of fuzzy logic rules.
The circles in the figure represent dynamically adjustable weights in the unit
interval which specify the degree to which low-level behaviors can influence
control of the robot’s actuators. Higher-level behaviors consist of fuzzy decision
rules which specify these weights according to goal and sensory information. Each
low-level behavior consists of fuzzy control rules which prescribe motor control
inputs that serve to achieve the behavior’s designated task. The functionality of this
hierarchical fuzzy-behavior control approach depends on a combined effect of the
behavioral functionality of each low-level behavior and the competence of the
higher-level behaviors which coordinate them. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of
applying the approach is the formulation of fuzzy rules for the higher level
behaviors. This is not entirely intuitive, and expert knowledge on concurrent
coordination of fuzzy-behaviors is not readily available. We have successfully
addressed this issue in using GP to computationally evolve rules for composite
behaviors. In this section, we describe the genetic programming approach to fuzzy
rule-base learning. Next, we present a representative experimental result of applying
the behavior hierarchy’ to autonomous goal-seeking.

4.1 GP-Fuzzy approach

Figure 6: Hierarchical decomposition of mobile robot

behavior.
The GP paradigm computationally simulates the Darwinian evolution process by
applying fitness-based selection and genetic operators to a population of individuals.
Each individual represents a computer program of a given programming language,
and is a candidate solution to a particular problem. The programs are structured as
hierarchical compositions of functions (in a set F) and terminals (function
arguments in a set T). The population of programs evolves over time in response to
selective pressure induced by the relative fit nesses of the programs for solving the
problem. For the purpose of evolving fuzzy rule-bases, the search space is contained in
the set of all possible rule-bases that can be composed recursively from F and T.
The set, F, consists of components of the generic if-then rule and common fuzzy
logic connectives, i.e. Functions for antecedents, fuzzy intersection, rule inference, and
fuzzy union The set, is made up of the input and output linguistic variables and the
corresponding membership functions associated with the problem. A rule-base that
could potentially evolve from F and T can be expressed as a tree data structure
with symbolic elements of F occupying internal nodes, and symbolic elements of T
as leaf nodes of the tree. This tree structure of symbolic elements is the main
feature which distinguishes GP from which use the numerical string representation.
All rule-bases in the initial population are randomly created, but descendant
populations are created primarily by reproduction and crossover operations on
rule-base tree structures. For the reproduction operation several rule-bases selected
based on superior fitness are copied from the current population into the next, i.e.
The new generation. The crossover operation starts with two parental rule-bases and
produces two offspring that are added to the new generation. The operation begins by
independently selecting one random node (using uniform probability distribution) from
each parent as the respective crossover point. The subtended from crossover nodes are
then swapped between the parents to produce the two offspring. GP cycles through
the current population performing fitness evaluation and application of genetic
operators to create a new population. The cycle repeats on a generation by
generation basis until satisfaction of termination criteria (e.g. Lack of improvement,
maximum generation reached, etc). The GP result is the best-fit rule-base that
appeared in any generation. In the GP approach to evolution of fuzzy rule-bases, the
same fuzzy linguistic terms and operators that comprise the genes and chromosome
persist in the phenotype. Thus, the use of GP allows direct manipulation of the
actual linguistic rule representation of fuzzy based systems. Furthermore, the dynamic
variability of the representation allows for rule-bases of various sizes and different
numbers of rules. This enhances population diversity which is important for the
success of the GP system, and any evolutionary algorithm for that matter. The
dynamic variability also increases the potential for discovering rule-bases of smaller
sizes than necessary for completeness, but sufficient for realizing desired behavior.
4.2 Real-time navigation

GP was used to evolve fuzzy decision rules to be used for goal-seeking by

a mobile robot. Population sizes of rule-bases were run for a number of ranging
from 10-15. In GP, genetic diversity remains high even for very small
populations due to the tree structure of individuals The experimental is a
custom-built mobile robot driven by a two-wheel differential configuration with two
passive casters for support. The independent drive motors are geared DC motors.
The robot stands about 75 cm tall and measures about 60 cm in width. Range
sensing is achieved using a layout of 16 ultrasonic transducers; optical encoders
on each driven wheel provide position information used for dead-reckoning. Its
maximum speed was limited to the vehicle is controlled using a Pentium-based
master processor (laptop PC) and Motorola microprocessor slaves for sonar
processing and low-level motor control functions. In the current implementation,
the cycle time of the control system is 0.15 seconds This includes time spent
acquiring and preprocessing sonar and encoder data, and commanding the motors.
The overall inference of the behavior hierarchy consumes about seconds of
this time. That is, the hierarchy itself can run at a rate of during operation, the
robot is not provided with an explicit map of the environment. However, it is
cognizant of the notion of a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Its
paths are not pre-planned; they are executed in response to instantaneous sensory
feedback from the environment. Therefore, we are essentially dealing with a
local navigation problem as opposed to a global navigation problem which relies on
a global map that is either provided a priori, or is acquired via exploration. The
experiment was conducted in an indoor environment consisting of corridors and
doors. The robot’s task is to navigate from one location to another on the same
floor of the building. The result of the navigation task is shown in Figure 7 as the
path traveled in a portion of the indoor test environment which includes the start
and commanded goal. The robot is displayed as an octagonal icon with a radial line
indicating its heading. It was commanded to navigate from a start pose, y=22m to a
goal located at As shown in Figure 7, the robot successfully navigates in close
proximity to the goal without prior map-based information. The fuzzy-behavior
based motion control relied primarily on sonar and dead-reckoning information,
both of which are known to be sources of uncertainty in mobile robot navigation.
Throughout the navigation task, the behavior hierarchy continuously modulates the
weights of low-level behaviors in order to appropriately coordinate their concurrent
activity. The hierarchy of fuzzy-behaviors provides an efficient approach to synthesis
of behavioral capabilities necessary for autonomous navigation by mobile robots.
This hybrid control scheme incorporates fuzzy logic into the a behavior-based control
framework for which coordination rules can be discovered

Figure 7: Goal-seeking navigation using

fuzzy
behaviors.

Using GP. For the purpose of evolving fuzzy rule-bases, GP has certain advantages.
Namely, it facilitates manipulation of the linguistic variables directly associated
with the problem, and it allows for populations of rule-bases of various sizes.
The navigation result demonstrates robustness of the fuzzy-behavior hierarchy to
uncertainty in real world sensor-based control of mobile robots. In addition, the
result shows that the approach is useful in situations where maps are not available,
or are perhaps unreliable.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, three experiments illustrate the utility of soft-computing
approaches in handling complex models and unstructured environments. Neuro-fuzzy,
fuzzy, and GP-fuzzy hybrid paradigms are successfully implemented to solve three
prominent robot control issues, namely: control of direct drive robot motors, control
of flexible links, and intelligent navigation of mobile robots. In the future, as these
paradigms mature, we will gain more knowledge of their exact nature and
advantages. This will allow us to combine soft computing paradigms for more
intelligent and robust control. Not long ago, a hybrid combination of these
paradigms could not be applied to a real-time system. However, as shown in this
paper, with the current advances in increase of speed of processing and DSP
parallel processors, various combination of hybrid soft computing paradigms are now
realizable.

References
K. K. Kumbla,Neuro-Fuzzy Controller for Passive Nonlinear Systems,” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
New Mexico, April, 1997.

D. E.Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine Learning,”Wesley, MA, NY, 1989.

A. Homaifar E. McCormick, “Simultaneous Design of Membership Functions and Rule Sets

for Fuzzy Controllers Using Genetic Algorithms,” IEEE on Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.129, 1995.

M. A. Lee and H. Takagi, “Integrating Design Stages of Fuzzy Systems Using Genetic Algo-
rithms,” Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy Systems, San Fran-
cisco, CA, pp. 612-617.

M.-R. Akbarzadeh-T. “A Fuzzy Hierarchical Controller For A Single Flexible of the International
Symposium on Robotics and Manufacturing, Maui, Hawaii. 1994.

M.-R. Akbarzadeh-T. and M. Jamshidi, “Incorporating A Priori Expert Knowledge in Genetic

Algorithms,” Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence in Robotics
and Automation Monterey, California, 1997.

E. H. Mamdani, “Twenty Years of Fuzzy Control: Experiences Gained and Lessons Learnt”, IEEE
Conf. on Fuzzy Systems, pp. 339-344, 1993.

E. Tunstel, “Mobile Robot Autonomy via Hierarchical Fuzzy Behavior Control”, 6th Symp.
on Robotics and Manufacturing, 2nd tomation Congress, pp. 837-842, May, 1996.

E. Tunstel, T. Lippincott and M. Jamshidi, “Behavior Hierarchy for Autonomous Mobile Robots:
Fuzzy-behavior modulation and evolution”, Journal of Intelligent Automation and Soft Com-
puting, Vol. 3, No. 1. pp. 37-49, 1997.

J. R. Koza, Genetic Programming: On the programming of Computers by means of natural se-

lection, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.
SRIKALAHASTEESWARA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
(AFFILIATED TO J.N.T.U)
SRIKALAHASTI-517644
PRESENTED BY

JANARDHAN BALAJI

JANASUVALA@YAHOO.COM GURUBOPPANA@GMAIL.COM
GURUBOPPANA@GMAIL.COM

9966799229 9966556115

Dept
Dept of electrical & electronics engineering

SRI KALAHASTEESWARA
KALAHASTEESWARA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SRIKALAHASTHI
 ABSTRACT:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer science focusing on creating machines that
can engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent. The ability to create intelligent
machines has intrigued humans since ancient times and today with the advent of the computer and
50 years of research into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart machines is becoming a
reality. Researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat
the best human chess player, and countless other feats never before possible. Actually, artificial
intelligence can be defined in two ways

1. An attempt to make computers more intelligent

2. An attempt to understand how humans think

Artificial intelligence would be impossible without the work that led to the modern
programmable digital computer. Calculating machines were built in antiquity and improved
throughout history by many mathematicians, including, once again, philosopher Gottfried Leibniz.
The first modern computers were built based on the theoretical insight of mathematicians like Alan
Turing and John Von Neumann. Birth of artificial intelligence took place in 1956 at a conference,
on the Dartmouth campus. This was born as an answer to the recognition that a machine that could
manipulate numbers could also manipulate symbols. There are four different problems we face
while dealing with systems and software. They are:

1) User interface problems

2) Turing test problems

3) Computationally complex problems

 4) Rational agents

Artificial intelligence introduced four approaches to solve these problems. Each

approach is used to solve a specific problem.

Artificial intelligence has applications in several fields. We can find this applicable in
linguistics and games. Linguistics includes natural languages and CPAN modules. Games include
techniques which are developed by artificial intelligence.

There are now in the world machines that can think that can learn and that can
create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until--in a visible
future--the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the
human mind has been applied.

Definition:

Usually Artificial Intelligence is defined as:

1. An attempt to make computers "more intelligent"

2. An attempt to understand how humans think
HISTORY

Artificial intelligence would be impossible without the work that led to the modern
programmable digital computer.Calculating machines were built in antiquity and
improved throughout history by many mathematicians, including, once again,
philosopher Gottfried Leibniz. The first modern computers were the massive code
breaking machines of the Second World War (ENIAC and Colossus, to name two). These
could not have been built without the help and theoretical insight of mathematicians like
Alan Turing and John Von Neumann.

The birth of artificial intelligence 1943-1956

The IBM 702: the machine that Arthur Samuel taught to play checkers.

The first computers cost millions of dollars, filled entire rooms and had less computing
power than a modern clock or toaster. A number of researchers from many fields
(mathematics, psychology, engineering and even political science) instinctively
recognized that a machine that could manipulate numbers could also manipulate symbols,
and that the manipulation of symbols could well be the essence of human thought. In
1956, at a conference on the Dartmouth campus, the field of artificial intelligence was
born.
Several approaches to AI

Systems that Reason Systems that Act

Human 2. Turing Test

1. User Interface problems
model problems

3. Computationally complex
Neo rational 4. Rational agents/bots
problems

Approach 1:

With this approach, it is not important to solve tasks correctly. It is important to

solve tasks in the same way as humans. Applications of this approach include Man-
Machine communication and user interfaces.
Approach 2:

This approach is rare in AI, however it is the most popular, there are yearly

Turing Test competitions.

Approach 3:

This logical approach concerns laws of thought. Informal tasks (usually very
computationally complex) should be described using formalism. Applications include
expert systems and games

Approach 4:

This approach describes rational agents. These act in the best way to achieve
goals, based on their information about the world. The decisions should be taken even if
this information is not sufficient. Applications include all kinds of bots.

AI applications – Linguistics:

Natural languages:

Any existing human language has the following properties: pretty rich, complex and
inconsistent, with a lot of rules and a lot of exceptions. In short, human languages are
extremely informal, just like our whole crazy world that these languages try to describe.
Constant attempts however are made to teach computers to speak and understand natural
languages.

CPAN modules:

There are plenty of CPAN modules dealing with different linguistic problems:

• Simulating typos
o Is it possible to simulate typical human typos on QWERTY or other
keyboard types?
• Correcting typos, word distance
o Given two words, what is their distance? Used in spell checkers.
• Auto-correcting typos in Perl programs
o Symbol::Approx::Scalar, Symbol::Approx::Sub
• Intelligent chat and info bots
o Chatbot::Eliza module and a lot of others
• Semantic phrase parsing
o Lingua::Wordnet module
• Sonnets generated by Perl
o Automatic poetry, haiku, Coy module
Example problem

Smart matching of human names

Is "Mikhail Goihman" and "Michael (Migo) Goikhman" the same person?

How about "Bill Gates" and "William Gates III"? Or "Peggy Green" and "Green Mary-
Ann"?

The problem is more complex than it sounds, because it is not quite formal. One aspect is
name nicks and mutations, like:

Peggy -> Margaret -> Martha -> Mary -> Maryanne -> Anna -> Roseanne
-> Rosalyn -> Linda -> Melinda

Some aspects may be solved by a database of names and their relations, but there is

certainly a place for heuristics. The problem may be even worse in other languages.

Solving using Perl module

use Lingua::EN::MatchNames;

# 85% of certainty
if (name_eq("Leonardo Da Vinci", "Leonard d'Vinchi") >= 85)
{
print "Match\n";
}
AI applications - Games

Why games are important?

Games are integral attribute of human beings. They are perfect for learning and fun,
develop conscious reaction and satisfy human's thirst of knowledge and curiosity. So, if
computers are going to mimic people they should be able to play games.

Game playing is search problem:

Classical game rules are usually perfectly formalized. The optimal game play is a search
of the best next state in the game space, defined by:

• Initial state (board)

• Expand function (build all successor states)
• Cost function (payoff of the state)
o Goal test (ultimate state with maximal payoff)

Game playing is characterized by:

• "Unpredictable" opponent: Should be able to react to all possible opponent

moves.
 • Time limits: Games become boring if there is no action for too long.
Opponents are unlikely to find goal, must approximate.

Types of games:

Deterministic Chance element

Complete 1. Chess, 2. Backgammon,

information Checkers monopoly

Incomplete
3. Card games
information

Minimax algorithm:
The perfect play for deterministic complete-information games: Choose move to position
(one of the immediate tree nodes) with the highest minimax value, i.e. the best achievable
payoff against the best opponent play.

It is possible to skip some sub trees using alpha-beta pruning algorithm.

Minimax algorithm:

• is complete if tree is complete (chess has specific rules for this, but finite strategy
can exist even in an infinitive tree)
• is optimal against optimal opponent (again, if tree is complete)
• depth-first exploration takes O(bm) time, or O(bm/2) with alpha-beta pruning
• depth-first exploration takes O(bm) space
CONCLUSION:

The simplest way we can summarize is to say that there are now in the world
machines that can think that can learn and that can create. Moreover, their ability to do
these things is going to increase rapidly until--in a visible future--the range of problems
they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been
applied.

Thus, AI programming techniques, the dream of smart machines is

becoming a reality.

THANK YOU
Design of buck converter

AUTHORS
HARINI RATAKONDA

ratakondaharini@yahoo.co.in

III B. tech II Sem

Dept of EEE
 ABSTRACT Electrical energy, though available
extensively from storage sources such as
This paper presents batteries, or from primary converters such
as solar cells, or from distributed ac utility
the designing of buck mains, is hardly ever used as such at the
utilization end. The electrical energy is
converter with closed
converted at the utilization end to forms of
loop operation in energy as required (thermal, chemical,
light, mechanical and so on). Electrical
continuous conduction power converter interfaces between the
available source of electrical power and
mode. In controller each
the utilization equipment (heaters, storage
section has been designed battery chargers, lamps, motors and so on)
with its characteristic demands of
separately such as electrical power. The need for this
interface arises on account of the fact that
triangular wave
in most situations the source of available
generation, PI controller, power and the conditions under which the
load demands power are incompatible with
etc. A pole zero each other

compensation technique DC to DC power converters form a

has been used for making
the closed loop operation
stable.
subset of electrical power converters. Both
the output and input power specifications
of dc to dc converters are in dc. Most dc
loads require a well stabilized dc voltage
capable of supplying a range of required

INTRODUCTION current, or a variable dc current or

pulsating dc current rich in harmonics. The
dc to dc converter has to provide a stable
DC to DC power converters
dc voltage with low output impedance
convert electrical power provided from a
over a wide frequency range. These
source at a certain dc voltage to electrical
features of the dc to dc converter are
power available at a different dc voltage.
known through the output regulation and
output impedance of the converter. Most
dc sources are either batteries or are
derived by rectifying the ac mains. The
source voltage may vary as much as 40%
in the case of batteries. It may contain
substantial superimposed voltage ripple in
the case of rectified supplies. Most dc
sources also exhibit finite source
impedance (against the ideal of zero
source impedance). The dc to dc converter
must maintain the integrity of the output
power in the presence of these nonideal
source characteristics. This capability of
the dc to dc converters is known through
the line regulation, ripple susceptibility,
and the input impedance of the converter.
1. Simple dc to dc Converter:
The simplest and the traditional dc
to dc converter is shown in Fig. 1.1. Power
is available from a voltage source of Vg .
The load connected to the output of the
converter is resistive (R ) demanding
power at a voltage level of Vo (Vo £ Vg).
In this converter the
excess voltage between the source ( Vg )
and the load (Vo ) is dropped in the resistor
(Rc) inside the converter. The converter
also has an internal current sink (Ic )
connected at the output of the converter.
The output voltage of the converter may be
readily found as a function of and Rc, Ic,
Vg, and R .
Vo may be controlled to the desired
level by controlling either Rc (with Ic = 0
), or by controlling Ic (with a fixed value
of Rc ). The former is called a series
controlled regulator, and the latter is called
a shunt controlled regulator. The two types
of regulators are shown in Fig. 1.2. Notice
that in both regulators the series element is
present. The distinguishing feature is the
presence of control capability either in the
series element or in the shunt element.
1.1. Series Controlled Regulator
The defining equation of the series
controlled regulator is
In order to obtain the required output
voltage Vo, against input (Vg ) variations,
or load (R) variations, the controlled
resistor Rc must be varied as per the
following relationship.
The output voltage, power loss, and the
efficiency of power conversion may be
readily found.

1.2. Shunt Controlled Regulator

From the above the following features of
the series controlled converter may be The defining equation of the output
observed. voltage of the shunt controlled regulator is

1 The converter may be used as a

step down (Vo £ Vg ) converter
only. In order to obtain the required output
2 The power loss in the converter is voltage (Vo ), against input voltage (Vg )
dependent on the value of Rc . It is variation, or load (R ) variation, the
zero for both the extreme values of controlled current Ic must be varied
Rc = 0 (input is directly connected according to the following relationship.
to the output), and Rc = inf (input
is totally isolated from the output).
This feature in fact is the seed idea The output voltage, power loss, and the
of switched mode dc to dc efficiency of power conversion may be
converters. found as follows.
3 The power conversion efficiency is
dependent on the ratio Vo/Vg
(called the gain of the converter).
The lower the required gain of the
converter, the lower is its The following features of the converter
efficiency. may be observed from the above set of
relationships.
1 The converter may be used as a
step down converter (Vo ≤ Vg )
only, on account of the series pass
 element Rc . For a given Rc there
will be a further limit on Vo,
depending on the current Io to be
supplied.
2 The power loss in the converter
never reaches zero for any positive
value of the control quantity.
Remember that in a series
controlled regulator, the power loss
in the converter was zero at either
end of the control quantity (Rc = 0 ,
and Rc = ∞ ).
3 The efficiency of power conversion Voltage gain:
is worse than the series controlled From the Wave forms apply volt-sec
converter. The efficiency is balance on inductor.
degraded on two counts; the Vo = dVg
efficiency on account of the series
Current Ripple:
element (Vo/Vg ) and the efficiency
In each sub period [dTs and (1-d)Ts] the
on account of the shunt branch
rate of change of current is constant.
[Io/(Io + Ig) ].
2. Buck converter:

Voltage Ripple:
The charging and discharging current of
the capacitor decides the voltage ripple.
We consider that the entire ac part of the
The buck converter steady state
inductor current flows into the capacitor.
waveforms are shown in Fig. We may
apply the assumption that the output
voltage ripple is low (δv = δVo/Vo << 1 )
and carry out the analysis for the steady
state performance of the converter.
 is the 0 dB crossover frequency of the loop
gain, then the settling time (for a stable
system) will be about 3/wc to 4/wc
seconds. The approximate transient
overshoot is related to the phase margin
(Φm) of the loop gain according to the
following Table 1.
Input Current:
The average of the source current is found
as for the primitive converter.
Ig = dIo
3. CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
OF POWER CONVERTERS For acceptable transient overshoot, the
phase margin may be taken as 45°. The
The objective of obtaining constant dc
first design step in closed loop controller
output voltage from the converter is
design is to convert the control
achieved through closed loop control of
specification to the following.
the output. i.e. the control duty ratio is
1. Desired T(0) . [to meet the
automatically adjusted in order to obtain steady state error.]
the desired output voltage. 2. Desired ωc . [to meet the
settling time.]
3. Desired Φm. [to meet the
Control Requirements transient overshoot.]
The control specification of the converter
4. Compensator Structure
will be in two parts.
1. Steady state accuracy. The requirement in the design of a closed
2. Settling time and allowed transient loop controller is to identify and design a
overshoot in the event of compensator H(s) such that the loop gain
disturbances or command changes. T(s) [G(s)H(s)] satisfies the above
The steady state error is related to the loop requirements. The structure of the close
gain T of the closed loop at dc. The steady loop controller [H(s)] is shown in Fig. The
state error is approximately 1/T(0). The blocks h1(s) and h2(s) are the cascaded
settling time and transient overshoot are stages of the compensator. The closed loop
related to the 0 dB cross-over frequency of compensator design is considered in [H(s)
the loop gain and the phase margin. If wc = h1(s) h2(s)] two parts. The first stage
h1(s) of the compensator achieves the
desired bandwidth wc and the desired
phase margin Φm, and the second stage
h2(s) is designed to meet the desired
steady state error.
Design of h1(s)
The important rule that is used here
is that, if the loop gain crosses over 0 dB
(unity gain) with a single slope (-20
dB/decade), then the closed loop system
will be stable. The reason is that the phase
gain of a function crossing 0 dB with a
single slope at a frequency of wc is
approximately the same as that of the
function wc/s and is equal to -90°. This
argument is valid only when the loop gain
is a minimum phase function. The actual
phase angle will depend on the poles and
zeroes nearest to the crossover frequency.
With the above simple rule in mind, the
compensator function h1(s) is selected to
be a simple lead-lag compensator.
The purpose of h1(s) is to make the slope
of cross-over section of the loop gain
G(s)h1(s) to -20 dB/decade near the
desired cross-over frequency ωc, and to
improve the phase margin.
1. If G(s) is a first order system in the
vicinity of ωc, then h1(s) may be
just K1.
2. If G(s) is a second order system in
the vicinity of ωc , then select ωz1
and ωp1 such thatωz1 < ωc < ωp1 .
3. If G(s) is a second order system
with a complex pole pair ωo then
ωz1 may be taken as ωo . ωp1 is
usually chosen as ten times ωz1.
4. Now K1 may be selected to meet
the requirements of ωc and Φm.
Design of h2(s)
The next part of the compensator
h2(s) is needed to meet the steady state
error specification. If G(0)h1(0) is already
compatible with the desired steady state
error, then h2(s) is 1. However, if
G(0)h1(0) is not compatible with the
steady state error, h2(s) is different from
unity. The conditions on h2(s) are
1 G(0) h1(0) h2(0) = T(0).
2 h2(s) must not affect the gain &
phase margin already designed. Or
 in other words, phase and
magnitude gain of h2(s) in the
vicinity of wc must be 0° and 0 dB
respectively.
3 A PI controller of the form

The overall compensator is

5. Power MOSFET Gate Drive:

6. Specification of buck converter

The TLP250 consists of a GaAlAs Input Voltage 50 V

light emitting diode and a integrated photo to 80 V

detector. TLP250 is suitable for gate Output Voltage 40 V

driving circuit of IGBT or power MOS Voltage ripple 1%

FET. Load Current 1A

to 3 A
Switching Frequency 5
KHz
Design Procedure:

It is known that L
min = (1-D)*RL / (2*f s )
Where D and RL correspond to maximum
input voltage and minimum load current
From the above equation L min = 2 mH
The output Voltage ripple is given by
From which C can be calculated as C =
125 µF. But this is not commercially
available and hence a nearest greater value
of 220 µF is chosen.
For stable operation of the system PI
controller and Feedback network values
are calculated using Bode Plot as
Ric = 10 KΩ, Rfc = 1.5 KΩ, Cfc =
4.7 µF, Rifb = 4.7 KΩ, Cfb = 47 µF,
Rfb = 820 Ω

Bode Plot of overall

compensated system
 Closed Loop Buck TRIANGULAR WAVE
GENERATION
Converter Circuit
CIRCUIT:
Diagram

The above diagram shows closed

loop operation of buck converter here the
input dc voltage source is varying 50 to 80
V and the load current is varying between
The time period of the triangular wave is
1 to 3 A still the output voltage is
maintained at 40 V because of the PI
Controller.
The frequency of the triangular wave is
 `A Paper Presentation on

“EXPERT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT FOR ABSTRACT:

FAULT DIAGNOSIS TO IMPROVE
POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY”.
The present day scenario of growing
demand for electrical power claims a lot of
work to be done in the field of reliability of
the power systems diagnosis and clearing of a
fault in power system generally calls for an
expert who is specialized in that particular
domain the scenario continues even if the
same faults occur again. The use of a system
that stimulates the expert’s reasoning is
obviously a helpful tool for such situations.
Prepared by:
It is in this direction that the paper
M.Sravani
makes an attempt to develop an expert system
Y.Prasanthi
for fault diagnosis to improve power system
EEE III YEAR
reliability the system is capable of dealing
EEE III YEAR
with faults in general power system
makamsravani@yahoo.co.in
equipment. It is developed with the data
santhi_264@yahoo.com
obtained from experts in different domains
RAJEEV GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGE
and is capable of handling faults on D.C
OF
motors, transformers, induction motors and
ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY
synchronous motors etc.
NANDYAL.

1

INTRODUCTION:
Expert System :
“An expert system is a computer
program that represents and reasons with
knowledge of a specialized subject with a view
to solving problems directly or giving advice”.
ADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEM:
Expert system works by storing
expertise of a domain expert. Then a user can
interact with the system and let it solve a
problem using the same logic generally used
by the expert. Usually the expert system is
faster and more accurate than a human, and
does not get tired or bored. A very strong
benefit of expert system is being able to widely
distribute the knowledge of a single expert, or
being able to accumulate in one place the
knowledge of several widely represented
experts.
Some situations when Expert System
should be considered:
Only one expert is available, but is needed in
multiple locations.
Expertise is divided among several experts.
Expertise is required is a harsh environment.
An expert is retiring. Expert systems are
especially helpful when a task is performed
only occasionally and the expert has to
relearn the procedure each time it is
performed. One can use expert systems are
especially helpful when a task is performed
only occasionally and the expert has to
relearn the procedure each time it is
performed. One can use expert systems to
standardize operations; another use for
expert system is as job aid for experts. This
will allow them to perform more accurately,
more consistently, and faster freeing up time
for the expert to be more creative in
performing the task. This is especially helpful
when dealing with tedious, repetitious tasks.
Thus an expert system is needed to completely
fulfill a function that normally requires a
2
human expertise or it may play the role of an
assistant to a human decision maker. An
expert system can be distinguished from a
more conventional application program in
that:
It simulates human reasoning about a
problem domain, rather than simulate the
domain it self. It performs reasoning over
representations of human knowledge, in
addition to doing numerical calculations or
data retrieval. It solves problems by heuristic
or approximate methods, which unlike
algorithmic solutions are not guaranteed to
succeed. Traditional program is termed as
procedure oriented programming where as
for as an expert system term is object oriented
programming.
EXPERT SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:
EXPERT SYSTE
INTERFACE TO CONVENTIONAL DATA
BASES AND DATA PROCESSING
SYSTEMS
FIG 3: COMPONENTS OF EXPERT
SYSTEMS:
Experts systems have two main components,
knowledge base and an inference Engine in
addition, there are couple of interfaces to
allow data input and user interaction with the
system.
KNOWLEDGE BASE:
This is where the expertise is stored
the software we use stores knowledge in the
form of production rules, which contain IF-
THEN statements the knowledge can be either
factual or heuristic. Heuristic knowledge is
rules of thumb learned from experience one
characteristics that distinguishes the expert
system form conventional programming is
that the knowledge and searching mechanism
(inference engine) are completely separate.
INFERENCE ENGINE:
It provides the system control it applies the
expert domain knowledge to what is known
about the present situation to determine new
information about the domain this process
will lead to the solution of the problem the
inference engine also enables the expert
system’s interface to data sources and to the
user the method use to reproduce part of an
expert’s reasoning process is called chaining
there are two methods presently available,
namely, forward chaining and backward
chaining. Input interference: this allows the
expertise to be entered into the knowledge
base by the expert or a knowledge engineer.
User interface:
This allows user to control expert
system
Working memory:
The working memory contains that the
information that the system has received
about a problem at hand .In addition to any
information the expert system derives about
3
the problem is also stored in working
memory.
APPLICATION TO FAULT DIAGNOSIS:
The expert systems to be used for
fault diagnosis calls for a very
knowledge base the knowledge base is formed
by the knowledge engineer by collecting
knowledge form the expert’s and representing
it using the expert system shell the expert in
the particular domain should have extreme
expertise in his field and preferably should be
an ‘operation engineer’.
The knowledge base designed for this
application of fault diagnosis deals with the
symptoms, causes and remedies of various
faults frequently occurring in power system
equipment. The data was collected form the
MES of Vishakhapatnam section.
The expert system developed is very
user friendly. It starts with a menu displaying
the equipment to be selected, followed by
options of probable symptoms and the system
ends giving a remedy or solution for the
occurred fault.
VP EXPERT SYSTEM:
Paper back software VP Expert is primarily a
rule base expert system building tool but it
offers several additional features and costs
less than $100. Its dominant control
mechanism is backward chaining; how ever
the program can do limited forward chaining
through the use of a special command.
VP Expert offers a standard IF-THEN rule
structure and can handle situation –involving
uncertainty very effectively. More ever,VP
Expert also supports limited induction feature
that can generate rule for data. But unlike
true induction tools, even when this features is
used in VP Expert the end result is that the
deep
program still performs its reasoning from a
standard IF-THEN set.
It has an effective lay out,
incorporates plenty of graphics and is well
written. VP Expert takes a straight forward
“EDITOR” approach to knowledge entry.
The rules can be typed in directly and
even when induction is used the editor is still
the primary means for finishing or refining
the expert system. VP Expert also supports
other methods for visualization of the
reasoning process. TRACE feature when
invoked will save the search patron that led to
particular result during a consultation. It
handles certainty or “confidence factors” in
variety of ways. It also offers a high level
graphic feature for tracing system logic. A
typical module of the expert system developed
for the present cause using VP Expert is
presented here. This is for induction motor.
RULE 3:
IF INDMOT = YES AND
SYM2 =FAIL _ START AND
FAULT6 = BURNT _ FUSE
THEN FAULT = BURN _ FUSE
DISPLAY “THE REMEDY IS “
DISPLAY“EXAMINE THE FUSES.
REPLACE IF NECESSARY”.
4
RULE 4: CHECK THE BEARINGS. REPLACE THE
BEARINGS.
SUPPLY SHOULD BE CHECKED.
IF INDMOT = YES AND
The detailed knowledge base has been created
SYM2 = FAIL _ START AND
for some of the power system equipment and
FAULT6 = WORN _ BEARINGS the package is found to work satisfactorily.
THEN FAULT = WORN _
BEARINGS CONCLUSIONS:
DISPLAY “THE REMEDY IS”
If through knowledge is gathered in
DISPLAY “CHECK THE
the domain of work, the expert system is one
BEARINGS.REPLACE IF
of the best and most powerful tools in fault
NECESSARY. SUPPLY SHOULD
diagnosis and can be used by a person who is
BE CHECKED”;
new to the domain environment. The
knowledge base is developed for a few power
These rules form a part of the
system equipments using the expertise of a
knowledge base and are hidden from the user.
person completely familiar with them. The
When the system is used the user will be
expert system will now be a useful tool to an
posed the following questions
operator / engineer who is unfamiliar with the
WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT OF THE
equipment. With the symptoms manually
FAULT?
INDUCTION MOTOR TRANSFORMER observed in the system, the person can take
When checked on for INDUCTION MOTOR
the help of the expert system to diagnosis the
the user interface again asks:
fault and also have an idea about the remedy.
WHAT ARE SYMPTOMS OBSERVED?
FAIL _ START, NOT RUN PROPERLY,
This is an attempt towards fault
RUN SLOWLY,
EXCESS _ HOT, ABNORMAL NOISE, diagnosis of power system equipment and can
RUNS REVERSE:
be extended to other power system
When clicked on for FAIL _ START the user components like relays, circuit breakers,
interface again asks:
isolators, insulators etc to make it
MOTOR FAILS TO START DUE TO? commercially viable. With the detailed
BURNT FUSE, WORN BEARINGS, OVER
statistics available over past breakdowns and
LOADING,
OPEN PHASE, SHT COIL, LOOS BARS, faults, the expert system can help in
WRONG CONN:
identifying the equipment which is most
When clicked on for BURNT FUSE the user vulnerable to faults. This analysis would help
interface gives the remedy as follows:
to move in the direction of “total preventive
EXAMINE THE FUSES AND REPLACE IF maintenance” by enabling the decisions
NECESSARY
regarding the periodicity and extent of
When clicked WORN BEARINGS the user maintained of various equipment.
interface gives the remedy as follows.

5
REFERENCES:
1. “Introduction to Expert systems” by Peter
Jackson.
2. “Artificial Intelligence and Expert
Systems” by D.A.N.Patterson
3. “Fault Diagnosis & Expert Systems”,
Milne, R.W and Chandrasekhar an

6
 Power Quality
Innovation in Harmonic Filtering

By:

M.V.S.SRIKANTH G.BHIMA SANKAR

III B-
B-Tech KUMAR
III B-
B-Tech
EEE EEE

9966770220 9963918485

Email:yourssree81@gmail.com
Email:yourssree81@gmail.com
Email:Shankar.bhima@gmail.com
Email:Shankar.bhima@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:

“POWER QUALITY” is defined as “the concept of powering and grounding

electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of the equipment i

and compatible with the premise wiring system and other connected equipment.

Power quality has become a great concern for both energy suppliers and their

customers because the increasing use of sensitive devices and the significant

consequences of a poor power quality for the competitiveness of the companies.

The increasing developments need increasing use of electricity. While meeting

this power demand, there causes a pollution in electrical system called Harmonics.

The harmonics are integral multiples of fundamental currents/voltages. Substantial

presence of harmonics results in excessive overheating of the equipments and other

problems. Harmonics are created by non linear loads that draw current in abrupt

pulses rather than in a smooth Sinusoidal manner. Different problems due to

harmonics have different solutions. In this paper we are going to present you the

Basic concept of harmonics, their generation, problems created by them and

HARMONIC FILTERATION as a solution for this problem of Harmonics.

INTRODUCTION:

“POWER QUALITY” is defined as “the concept of powering and grounding

electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of the equipment and
compatible with the premise wiring system and other connected equipment.

power quality has become a strategic issue for the following reasons:
• The economic necessity for businesses to increase their competitiveness.
• The widespread use of equipment which is sensitive to voltage disturbances and
/or generates disturbances itself.
• The deregulation of the electricity market.
In this context, it is essential for the utility and the customers to prevent and detect
power quality problems and to have solutions available to fix them.
The power quality correction and harmonic filtering system give solution to solve the
problems of harmonic disturbances and voltage fluctuations.

MAIN POWER QUALITY DISTRUBENCES:

DISTRUBENCES:

Power quality usually involves characterising low frequency conducted electromagnetic

disturbances which can be ranked in different categories.
VOLTAGE SAG:-
SAG:-
Voltage sag is a sudden reduction (between 10% and 90%) of the voltage
magnitude at a point in the electric
System and lasting from 0.5 cycles to few seconds. Either switching operations or any
type of faults as well as fault clearing process can cause a voltage dip. Switching like
those associated with a temporary disconnection of the supply or flow of heavy currents
associated with the starting of large motor loads is the most common. These events
maybe originated at the utility side or at the customer site.

VOLTAGE VARIATIONS
VARIATIONS AND FLUCTUATI
FLUCTUATIONS:
LUCTUATIONS:-
ONS:-

Voltage variations are variations in the rms value or the peak value with amplitude of less
than 10% of the nominal voltage. Voltage variations are a series of voltage changes
which are characterised by the frequency of variation and the magnitude.
Voltage variations are caused by a slow variation of loads connected to the network and
mainly due to rapidly varying industrial loads such as welding machines.
HARMONICS:-
HARMONICS:-

Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental power frequency. The fundamental frequency itself is called as the first
Harmonic. The second Harmonic as frequency twice that of the fundamental, the third
Harmonic has frequency thrice that of the fundamental and so on. For example – if the
fundamental frequency is 50Hz then the second Harmonic is 100 Hz, the third Harmonic
is 150Hz etc.
Generation of Harmonics:-
Harmonics:-
Harmonics are created by non-linear loads that draw currents abrupt pulses rather than in
a smooth sinusoidal manner. These pulses cause distorted current wave shapes, which in
turn cause harmonic currents to flow, back into other parts of the power system.
Consumers Generating Harmonics:
Harmonics are not generated by power generators but are produced by Non-linear
loads as under:
Loads that make use of semi conductor devices like transistor, thyristor i.e., static
rectifiers. (AC/DC conversion using SCRs), static frequency converters, static inverters
like:
- Static Power converters (AC – DC conversion using SCRs)
- Static rectifiers
- Static frequency converter
- Static uninterrupted power supplies
 - Static induction regulators.
i) Variable impedance loads, using electric arcs, are furnaces, welding units,
Fluorescent tubes, discharge lamps, light control, brightness etc.,
ii) Loads using strong magnetizing currents, saturated Transformers, inductance,
furnaces, reactors etc.,
Office automation equipment like computers, UPS, printers and fax machine etc.,
PROBLEMS DUE TO LOW POWER QUALITY:
• Damaging of computer hardware and memory.
• Motors fail to start due to low voltages
• Setting and resetting of electronic equipments will be out of control .
• Industrial and domestic loads will get damaged.
Solution to Harmonic Distortion:
Harmonic Filtration:
Harmonics in AC & DC waveforms are minimized by following means:
1. Use of DC smoothing reactor.
2. Use of DC harmonic filters.
3. Use of AC harmonic filters.

DC Smoothing Reactor: This is oil cooled, oil insulated reactor having high inductance
(0.35H to 1H).It is connected in series on the DC side of the converter. It smoothen the
ripple in the DC current. The DC reactor also helps in reducing the rate of rise of current
surges appearing on the DC side of the converter due to sudden changes in DC power
flow due to faults or load change.

AC Filters: These are shunt connected AC harmonic filters. They are connected between
AC busbars and earth. They offer low impedance to harmonic frequencies and high
impedance to power frequency. Thus, harmonic frequencies are passed to earth and are
eliminated from the AC network.
AC shunt filters serve dual purpose on AC side:
1. They divert harmonics to earth and reduce the harmonic contents in main AC
network.
2. They provide shunt compensation required on AC side for satisfactory converter
operations.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF AC SHUNT FILTERS: -

Tuned AC shunt filters are used for suppressing lower order characteristic harmonics
eg. Separate tuned branches for 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th harmonics. These branches may be
either single tuned for each of the above characteristic frequency or each branch double
tuned for two frequencies eg. 5th/7th, 11th/13th, 23rd/25th, 3rd/36th etc.,
Tuned AC shunt filters are classified into two types.
a) A Single frequency tuned Shunt filters is a single RLC series circuit connected
between a phase and earth. The filter is tuned to one particular characteristic
harmonic frequency. Separate branches are necessary for each lower
characteristic harmonic frequency. The filter is tuned to the resonates frequency
equal to the corresponding characteristic harmonic order.
b) A Double frequency tuned shunt filters has two resonant frequencies eg. 5th /
7th, 11th / 13th, 3rd /36th. A typical circuit of a double tuned AC shunt filter
consists of a RLC series circuit in series with another L2, C2, & R3, L3 parallel
circuit. The values are selected such that the total filter has two resonant
frequencies (One given by CLL2C2 & other by CR3 L3).
 1) High pass filter branches are arranged to suppress harmonics of higher order say
24th & above. With High pass AC shunt harmonic filter connected near AC Bus
bars, all the higher harmonics are diverted to earth and are not allowed to proceed
to the AC Network. At resonant frequencies, the circuit of the double tuned filter
is equivalent to two parallel single tuned branches. A double frequency tuned
filter has lowest impedance at two resonant frequencies. These filters are also
called as Damped Filters.

DC Harmonic Filters
DC filters are designed to reduce DC harmonics to minimize the telephone
interference in voice frequency range (100Hz to 5 KHz). In addition to the telephone
interference criterion, the DC filter is designed with interior of avoiding the resonance
between DC filters & DC line at lower order harmonics.
CONCLUSION:
Power quality has become a strategic issue for consumers. In this present
economic context, the consequences of electrical disturbances become more and more
serious.
Harmonic currents & voltage distortion are becoming the most severe and
complex electrical challenge for the electrical industry. So by designing and giving
complete solutions in the form of detuned and tuned harmonic filter systems, Active
filters and other protection systems for industrial installation that can ensure the trouble
free operation of electrical installation for industries.
By defining and implementing these solutions users will be provided with the right
quality of power supply for their requirements .

BIBLOGRAPHY:-
BIBLOGRAPHY:-

ANSI STD C84.1 – 1995, Electric Power System and Equipment-Voltage Rating
(60 Hz).

IEEE STD 493 -1997, IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Reliable
Industrial and Commercial power systems.

IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and commercial Power
Systems.

American society of electrical engineers.

MIT’s Department of Physics, Department of Electrical Engineering

www.nadacys.com

www.drantz_bmi.com.

www.puc_state.nh.us.

www.aafp.org

www.altavista.com.
 1

RADIO FROM THE INTERNET

….even on mobile…, (using ‘WIMAX’, the advanced
Wireless Technology for internet)

BHOJREDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

FOR WOMEN
SUBMITTED BY:

Y.PAVITHRA(06321A0457)

III B-TECH, ECE

EMAIL: pavithrasai.y@gmail.com

G.ANUSHA(06321A0404)

III B-TECH, ECE

EMAIL:akki.anusha@yahoo.com

SUBMITTED TO:

JNTU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ANANTHAPUR
 2

ABSTRACT: provided he would have some basic

Yes now we can have radio on the requirements.
internet and on mobile, from any part of
the world. We can listen live music from
any part of the world! Think of a INTRODUCTION:
technology where we can listen to music The internet radio is a broadcasting

that is playing in U.S lively by sitting on service transmitted via the internet that

our terrace how awesome it would be… crosses the geographical boundaries and

Here my paper would explain you the reaches out to every place with internet

entire schematic view of how it would connection. This internet radio offers

be possible to have radio through market rates and diverse programming to

internet on mobile. its listeners. It is one of the online music

In this paper I have explained the services that mirror the emergence of

procedure with the help of a flowchart, streaming technology and recent

and followed by step discussion. Also advancements in audio software and

my discussion would introduce you a hard ware. Featuring an unlimited

advanced wire less technology for number of stations and live streams, it

internet. allows the users to access the streams of

This technology is entirely different recordings that they missed. For

from the traditional radio station which instance, BBC’s ‘Listen Again’ service

would depend upon the power of the is the only online radio service station

radio station’s transmitter and the available.

available broadcast spectrum. The The internet radio revolution has given

internet radio will not be limited to any rise to an altogether need breed of

geographical location. Any broadcaster listeners and broadcasters. Unlike the

from any corner of the world could listen traditional radio station which depends

programs from any corner of the world upon the power of station’s transmitter
and the available broadcast spectrum,

internet radio is not limited to any
geographical location. With this
technology, a broadcaster in London can
be heard in Mumbai as well.
IMPORTANCE AND INCREASING
POPULARITY:
Many millions of consumers use
internet every day. The reasons for this
ever-growing popularity are, however,
quite obvious.
The internet radio allows the users
the users to control and choose the music
being played. Interactions for request are
allowed through text messages, e-mail
forums and chat rooms. Internet radio
websites offer live and on demand audio
programs. This on demand service
allows the users to shift broadcast time
and frees them from the constraint of
adhering to station schedules. Thus the
listeners are able to create their own
schedule of programs. Hear, they have
access to audio not available elsewhere.
Internet radio offers a great variety of
music and the clarity of signal is also far
better than the terrestrial radio. Thus it
provides the listeners a wide variety of
music on their demand and interest from
any part of the world.
3
The other uses of this radio other than
just listen are…
Internet radio enhances the
relationship between advertisers and
consumers, making it interactive and
personal. It is also capable of conducting
training programs and providing links to
documents. Payment options are made
available as well. Above all, the cost of
getting ‘on air’ is also reasonable for an
internet broadcaster. The choice of
service providers is also widened by
internet radio.
Also we can search and select
different contents according to the
station name, country of origin, genre
and style. We are also free to contribute
to the website audio-visual content with
the growing number of audio-video
messages.
Internet radio offers place content
based on education, specialist music and
programmes aimed at ethnic minorities,
which may be of interest to a relatively
small section of audience. For example
there may not be enough fans of Sufi
music in a given part of the world to
justify a local broadcaster station. But if
listeners having interest in this genre of
music are added from across the world,

the potential audience will zoom further
in a healthier way.
Internet radio has the advantage of
measuring the audience, directly set up
by the broadcasters. They can have
detailed reports of the streams played,
while those using web servers can
estimate the listener size by checking the
traffic statistics found in the web-server
log file an automatically generated list of
all the files served.
Under current broadcast rules, private
FM radio stations are not allowed to
broadcast news and other analysis.
Internet radio has no such restrictions.
We will be able to listen to Indian and
international news, anytime, any where.
This is certainly a major advantage that
internet radio has over terrestrial
broadcasting.
CREATING AN INTERNET RADIO
STATION:
There are two ways to deliver audio
over internet.
The easiest way is to make audio files
available for down load. The compressed
format like MP3 is the most popular, but
any type of audio file can be delivered
4
through a website. This allows you to
store the file on your own system.
A more complex way to deliver audio
over the internet is called the streaming
media. Audio or video files flow from
the internet directly to the users sound
card. These are not stored on the user’s
computer, but only played. Streaming
makes it possible to deliver a continuous
broadcast over the internet.
To create an internet radio station, the
requirements are:
• CD player, microphones and
audio mixer
• Ripple software which copies
audio track from a CD on to a
computer hard drive.
• Assorted recording and editing
software
• Outboard audio
gear(compressor)
• Digital audio card
• Dedicated computer with
encoder software
• Streaming media server
Now let us draw a flow chart that would
explain the procedure and the
requirements explained above, so the
that we can have a schematic view over
 5

this procedure of having mobile internet. CD and tape players:

which is shown below For any music or any recorded voice
can be played by using a CD player or a
FLOW CHART EXPLAINING THE tape player which is the main basic
PROCEDURE : required technology which we would
follow in traditional radio stations. Here
we also use microphones which are
capable of recording a very low voice
which later would be broadcasted
clearly.
Audio mixer:
Audio mixer is capable of mixing
voices at different frequencies. Say for
example a voice and a song which are at
different frequencies are to be
broadcasted, by using this audio mixer it
is capable of mixing both these audio
signals at some reference frequency
Network (internet):
If this technology is to be worked out
on the mobile phone then we would
certainly need an advanced wireless
technology for internet, which is so
efficient, faster in accessing. So one of
the modern technologies in this context
is ‘WIMAX’. This technology aims to

FROM THE ABOVE FLOW provide low-cost, high-performance
CHART… broadband wireless access to residential
The main requirements for an internet and small business applications. With its
radio station are explained below.. abbreviation as ‘Worldwide

Interoperability for Microwave
Access’. This will provide mobility to
end users in a MAN environment.
WiMAX is both faster and has a
longer range than compare to many other
technologies like Wi-Fi. However,
WiMAX does not necessarily conflict
with Wi-Fi, but is designed to co-exist
with it and may indeed complement it.
Technical Details:
• Range - 30-mile (50-km) radius
from the base station.
• Speed - 70 megabits per second
• Line-of-sight not needed between
user and base station
• Frequency bands - 2 to 11 GHz and
10 to 66 GHz (licensed and
Unlicensed bands)
• Defines both the MAC and PHY
layers and allows multiple PHY layer
Specifications
WiMAX covers a couple of different
frequency ranges. Basically, the standard
addresses frequencies from 10GHz to
66GHz, and with an extension of covers
bands in the 2GHz-to-11GHz range.
6
WiMAX has a range of up to 30 miles
with a cell. WiMAX's channel sizes
range from 1.5 to 20MHz as well, and
offer a WiMAX-based network the
flexibility to support a variety of data
transmitting rates such as T1 (1.5Mbps)
and higher data transmitting rates of up
to 70Mbps on a single channel that can
support thousands of users. This
flexibility allows WiMAX to adapt to
the available spectrum and channel
widths in different countries or licensed
to different service providers.
WiMAX Working:
In practical terms, WiMAX would
operate similar to WiFi but at higher
speeds, over greater distances and for a
greater number of users. WiMAX could
potentially erase the suburban and rural
blackout areas that currently have no
broadband Internet access because phone
and cable companies have not yet run
the necessary wires to those remote
locations.
WiMAX transmitting tower:
A WiMAX system consists of two
parts:
• A WiMAX tower, a single WiMAX
tower can provide coverage to a very

large area as big as 3,000 square miles
(~8,000 square km).
• A WiMAX receiver - The receiver and
antenna could be a small box or
PCMCIA card or they could be built into
a laptop the way WiFi access is today.
A WiMAX tower station can
connect directly to the Internet using a
high bandwidth wired connection. It can
also connect to another WiMAX tower
using a line-of-sight, microwave link.
This connection to a backhaul, along
with the ability of a single tower to cover
WIMAX transmitting tower
Up to 3,000 square miles, is what allows
WiMAX to provide coverage to remote
rural areas.
WiMAX actually can provide two
forms of wireless service:
 There is the non-line-of-sight,
7
where a small antenna on your computer
connects to the tower. In this mode,
WiMAX uses a lower frequency range
2 GHz to 11GHz. Lower-wavelength
transmissions are not as easily disrupted
by physical obstructions, they are better
able to diffract, or bend, around
obstacles.
 There is line-of-sight service,
where a fixed dish antenna points
straight at the WiMAX tower from a
rooftop or pole. The line-of-sight
connection is stronger and more stable,
so it's able to send a lot of data with
fewer errors. Line-ofsight transmissions
use higher frequencies, with ranges
reaching a possible 66 GHz. At higher
frequencies, there is less interference and
lots more bandwidth.
 8

server, just like a web page or other

From the above discussion over downloadable files. For a live broadcast,
WIMAX technology we can conclude however, the encoder must work along
that, this method of networking would with the server in real time. An audio
certainly be best fit for the emerging feed runs to the sound card of the
wireless world in all strategies. Also this computer running the encoder software
would best suit for our present at the broadcast location. From there, the
discussion. Also Mobile WiMAX stream is uploaded to the streaming
technology is designed to provide high- server, which may, of course, be at a
quality, mobile broadband multimedia different location.
services; however, it presents challenges Presently, there are three main players
that operators need to consider before in streaming media: Real Networks,
deploying their networks. apple and Microsoft. All three offer both
streaming servers and streaming media
STREAMING MEDIA SERVER clients with their own native media
SOFTWARE: formats.
The technical centerpiece of an internet CONCLUSION:
radio station is a software called By following the above procedure for
‘streaming media server’. Just as a web creating an internet radio station, we can
server delivers web pages, a streaming easily have an internet radio.
media server delivers audio and video The main thing to mention is creating
streams. just an internet radio is quite easier, but
Streaming media works through a triad for an online radio on mobile we would
of software packages-the encoder certainly need an advanced technology
converts audio or video content into a like wimax which is yet to achieve its
streaming format, the server makes the importance. Presently Tata Indicom is
content available over the internet and providing internet radio service over
the player (at the users end) retrieves the mobile phone through an application
content. Prerecorded material is prepared called ‘Brew’ that connects us to 41
for streaming with the help of the international and local radio stations.
encoder, and then simply stored on the
 9

Users of this service can also download

music and ringtones from the internet.
So soon we can expect online radio on
all mobile networks by following the
above procedure.
 A paper presentation on

“Servo Control Systems 2 Digital

Servomechanisms”
By
M.Reddy Haritha A.Neelima
07691A0267 07691A0239
II B.tech, EEE II B.Tech, EEE
reddyharitha72@yahoo.com neelima.amineni@gmail.com
MITS,ANGALLU MITS, ANGALLU
 Servo Control Systems 2: Digital Servomechanisms
ABSTRACT: This is one of a series of
white papers on systems modeling, analysis
and control, prepared by Control Systems
Principles.co.uk to give insights into
important principles and processes in
control. In control systems there are a
number of generic systems and methods,
which are encountered in all areas of
industry and technology. These white papers
aim to explain these important systems and
methods in straightforward terms. The white
papers describe what makes a particular type
of system/method important, how it works
and then demonstrates how to control it. The
control demonstrations are performed using
models of real systems designed by our
founder and senior partner Peter Well stead,
and have been developed for manufacture by
TQ Education and Training Ltd in their CE
range of equipment. This white paper uses
the computer based control and simulation
tool CE300 to demonstrate a digital
servomechanism for position control of a
servo using an optical position sensor.
1. Introduction:
Position control systems are an important
component of many industrial products.
Examples are found in disk drives,
automotive products, robotics, process
control and many others. The Control
Systems Principles white paper Servo
Control Systems 1 has described some of
these applications and the basics of servo
control. The first white paper was for direct
current (DC) servos, however many modern
servo control systems are implemented
digitally using digital sensors. The aim of
this white paper is to describe, in simple
terms, how digital servos are implemented,
using digital sensors and direct digital
control system implementation. All the
Illustrations are done using the CE300 Logic
Trainer.
In all servomechanisms one of the most
important components is the position sensor.
It measures the position of the servomotor
and converts into an electrical signal that the
control system can interpret and use. Digital
optical position sensors are particularly
important because they are non-contact and
thus not subject to the wear and noise of
analogue position controllers. A further
advantage of optical sensors is that they can
be used in severe environments where strong
magnetic fields and RFI exist. Optical
digital position sensors use a special coded
disk to measure shaft position. Several
different types of rotary shaft encoders used
to measure relative or absolute shaft
position; however a commonly used form of
angular position encoding is based on the
Gray code. In this white paper we will show
how to control angular position using a Gray
code shaft encoder. We assume that you
have read the first Servo Control white
paper, so that there is very little control
theory in this white paper. Instead we
concentrate upon the basics of digital servo
implementation.
2. Position control:
A basic position control system consists of a
servomotor, position sensor and controller as
shown in Figure 1. This block diagram is
redrawn in Figure 2 to show how the
position control system is implemented on
the CE300. All the signals in Figure 2 are
digital signals with only two levels, high and
low. The shaft encoder outputs the position
of the shaft in Gray code. This is then
converted to binary using a decoder. A four-
bit adder is used to compare the measured
shaft position with the reference shaft
position. The inputs to the adder are two
four bit binary numbers. The adder is placed
in subtract mode. So the output from the
adder is a four-bit number representing the
position error. Some logic is then used to
decide when the motor should be turned on
and in which direction the motor should go.
When the error is zero then the motor is
turned off. So the motor control signal is
either on or off. This is called bang-bang
control in the control literature because the
size of the control signal is independent of
the magnitude of the error.
 errors are present when using Gray code
3. The optical shaft encoder: however because only one bit changes at a
time the chance of an error occurring is
Shaft encoders are transparent discs with the significantly reduced. The CE300 optical
angular position digitally coded on (in shaft encoder uses 4 bits to encode the
black), so that by reading the code an optical position of the shaft. With just these 4 bits
sensor can determine the angular position of we can only encode 16 positions, so that the
the shaft. In practice 12bit or 16 bit encoders encoder resolution is 360/16=22.5 deg.
will be used, giving high degrees of position
For use in a digital controller the output of
accuracy, of approximately 0.1 deg and 0.05
the shaft encoder has to be converted to
deg resolution respectively. In our examples
binary. This allows
however we will use a 4 bit optical shaft
encoder, as shown in the Figure 3. This is
much less accurate than would be used in an
industrial digital servo, but it is much easier
to explain the operation with just four bits.
The disk shown in figure 3 is the type
supplied with the CE300. It is made from
clear plastic with the Gray code shown in
black. Gray coding is used because is that
there is only a one bit change between any
two adjacent positions of the encoder. This
reduces the possibility of an error being
introduced as the encoder is rotating. With
alternative binary shaft encoder all the bits
can change simultaneously between two
adjacent positions. This introduces the
possibility of errors occurring due to noise Figure 3. CE300 Gray code shaft encoder
and timing differences in the logic. For
example, as shown in Table 1 going from the error calculation to be done in binary.
decimal 7 to decimal 8 causes all four bits to Fortunately, as shown in the next section,
change in binary while only one bit changes the conversion of a Gray coded position into
in Gray code. Of course noise and timing Binary coded position is simple.
4. Gray to Binary Decoder:
The conversion from Gray code to binary is
performed with a simple logical decoder.
The decoder logic uses exclusive OR gates
connected as shown in figure 4 below. The
block diagram shown in figure 4 was taken
from the CE300 block library.
The block diagram expresses graphically the
logic equations for translating Gray code
into binary logic, where is the logic symbol
for XOR. The equations for this conversion
for 4-bits are shown in equation 1. This
equation set can be extended to any number
of bits.
5. The summer:
The decoded binary shaft position is fed
directly to an adder to be compared to the
shaft position reference. The reference
signal is also coded as 4-bit binary giving a
possible 16 different reference positions. For
reference purposes the traditional symbol for
an adder is compared to the logic symbol
used for a 4-bit adder in the CE300 in figure
5.

6. Decision logic:
In this form of digital servomechanism, the
control signal is computed directly using
logical (on/off or bang-bang) control as
shown in figure 6. In this control scheme,
the output from the adder is the position
error signal in 4-bit binary. If this error
signal is not zero then we want the motor to
7. CE300 Implementation: Putting
it together:
The complete digital position servo program
is shown in Figure 7. A 4-bit binary
reference position is generated using a
digital source connected to each of the
move. This is achieved in a logical
controller by feeding the outputs from the
adder to an OR gate, so that the output will
only be zero if all the bits are zero, (e.g. the
error is zero). The most significant bit Q3 is
used to determine the direction of the motor.
Note that in Figure 6 there are two OR gates
used because the maximum fan-in is 3 for
each gate on the CE300
reference inputs B0 to B3. Toggling the
digital sources generates the 16 reference
positions. The actual shaft position is
obtained from an input block and decoded
into binary. The binary shaft position is then
also fed to the adder.
By adding 4-bit DA blocks the reference and
output signals can be viewed on a chart
recorder as shown in Figure 8. Here the
reference signal for position is generated
from a signal generator that is fed to a 4-bit
AD converter to generate a 4-bit reference
signal.
In Figure 8 the digital servo system is shown
with the output following a simple step
input. However, the response of the servo to
different waveforms can also be explored.
Moreover, it is possible to generate an
approximate frequency response by varying
the sine wave reference frequency. Of
course a 4-bit implementation of a sine wave
will look quite different to the continuous
time version because of the quantization
errors inherent in a digital controller.
In Figure 9 Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)
are connected to the reference and measured
signal to give yet another visual indication
of the servo in operation. For any setting of
the reference the LED’s should match in the
steady state. Four-bit digital to analogue
converters have again been used to convert
binary signals to analogue form for display
on the chart recorder. The chart recorder
shows the motor shaft (blue) tracking the
reference (red).
As noted previously, the quantization error
will be significant. Specifically, because we
are using a 4-bit shaft encoder, an error of
+/- approximately 11 deg is possible on the
actual servo shaft, even though the binary
signals match up. In figure 9 the green trace
is the motor on/off signal. The motor speed
can be increased by turning on SP0 to SP6.
Effectively this is increasing the controller
gain so now the motor responds faster to an
error signal.
 Figure 8. CE300 Position Servo Control with AD and DA
Figure 10 shows the digital servo control
system when it is tracking a 0.2 Hz square
wave and a 0.1Hz sine wave. The reference
amplitude of 7.0 volts is plotted in red.
Notice that the output from the optical shaft
encoder is showing some noise. The lower
part of the figure shows sustained oscillation
when the servo reference is constant and set
to the fastest speed setting. High gain setting
causes a limit cycle and the motor shaft
oscillates about the desired reference
position. This is a commonly encountered
feature of control systems and is called limit
cycling. It is a generally undesirable
phenomena in feedback systems. Even so
limit cycle oscillations like this tell us
something about the system. In this case the
limit cycle is caused in part by the
communication lag between the PC and the
CE300 Logic Trainer.
Figure9.CE300PositionServoControlwith4BitLED

8. A Simple Model:
In this section we show a simple model
(Figure 11) of the feedback system. This can
be used as a starting point for analysis and
simulation. The simulated results show in
Figure 12. using this model are a reasonable
representation of the results obtained with
the CE300 servo. The time delay is set to 0.1
sec and the gain can be varied to simulate
the effect of changing the motor speed. The
numbers shown are approximate and will
vary from system to system. In the above
block diagram the gain K controls the motor
speed. The time delay T is used to take into
account communication between the
computer and servo and other processing
delays. For the CE300 equipment used for
this white paper the values of K=10 and
T=0.1 were used.
In the model a quantizer is used to simulate
the effect of the 4-bit Gray code shaft
encoder. The motor time constant of 0.4
seconds is again an approximation and the
values used will be slightly different
depending on the equipment used. Despite
these approximations, the above simulation
gives qualitative results that are similar to
the actual servo. For example, the
simulations corresponding to Figure 10. Are
shown in Figure 12 .

9 Feedback control of an UP/down
counter:
Dynamic systems where feedback is used to
control a logic system are very common. In
the example below we show how feedback
can be used to control an up/down counter.
The behavior of this system is similar to the
servo control example using a shaft encoder.
We can think of the motor as a digital
counter. As the shaft rotates the count
increases of decreases depending on the
direction of the motor. Thought of in this
way we can use the same feedback circuit to
control the count in a binary counter. Gray
code is not used however because there is no
shaft encoder.
A CE300 simulation to control an up/down
counter is shown in Figure 13. The reference
in this example is a signal generator fed to
an analogue to digital converter. This
provides a four-bit binary reference count.
The output from the adder is fed to the OR
gates in the same way as before, but now a
clock is toggled on and off which allows the
up/down counter to count. The direction
signal is used in a similar manner to change
the direction of the count. DA converter
blocks are used to give a visual indication of
the count and reference. The counter tracks
the reference signal in a similar manner to
the servomotor. (Note: All DA and AD
blocks are set to 4 bits).
The clock speed in this simulation is
equivalent to motor speed where
are no longer in the loop. This is sometimes
called a discrete event system. Another
common application using counter control is
dual slope integrating AD converter. When
the counter reaches the desired reference
count it will be the equivalent binary
representation of the reference input.
10. Conclusions:
In this white paper we have shown how the
CE300 Logic Circuit Trainer can be used to
control the CE300b position servo. A simple
simulation model has been developed which
can be used to explore the expected behavior
of the CE300 position servo control. We
have deliberately not included to much
theory as the aim of this white paper is to
explain the logic techniques that are used in
digital servomechanisms.
References:
1. Dorf, R C and Bishop, R H, Modern
th
Control Systems, (9 Ed) Prentice
Hall, (New York), 2000.
2. M Healey, Principles of automatic
control. (3rd ed.) English
Universities Press, (London), 1975

and the motor speed varies from

approximately 15 RPM and 40 RPM as
measured at the output shaft. The motor
speed can be measured by measuring the
disk rotation period on each speed setting.
With four bits we get the equivalent of 16
clock pulses per rotation. The main
difference here is that the motor dynamics
Presented by:-
MD.Suleman MD.Azhar
BTech III year(EEE) BTech IIIyear(EEE)

N.C.E.T N.C.E.T

Email id:mohammad_suleman@yahoo.com

ph:9640040920

1
ABSTRACT
This paper proposes a novel bionic based on autonomous decentralized
approach for enhancing reliability of architecture is investigated in the
power electronic system by utilizing method of PEB. The designed
some principles including converter has advantages in
autonomous decentralized reliability and flexibility compared to
architecture inspired from human conventional power converter .The
body system. The application of goal of this paper is to provide some
bionics in power electronics is novel ideas for designing high
innovative from the methodological reliable power system based on
point of view. Finally a single phase PEB and to stimulate further
full-bridge power inverter based on discussion on application of bionics
autonomous decentralized in power electronics from the
architecture is investigated. The methodological point of view.
investigated inverter has INTRODUCTION
advantages in reliability, flexibility In Industrial fields such as avionic,
and user-friendliness compared to space, military, telecommunications
conventional centralized power industry, the power electronic
converters. The proposed system requires high reliability. To
autonomous decentralized meet such stringent requirement, a
architecture in this paper has a valid approach for enhancing power
promising prospect and paves the electronic system reliability is urgent
way towards future Plug and Play and significant. Bionics is a
power electronic systems for so promising scientific discipline, which
many significant advantages .This is characterized by finding principles
paper studies reliability principle in from biological objects that embody
human body system and applies it superior principles of previous
to the design of power electronic technology and to which a
system requiring high reliability. A technological exploitation can be
single phase full-bridge inverter assigned. Applying these principles

2
to the power electronic system typical power electronic system
design can result in Power come in variety of physical media.
Electronics Bionics (PEB). PEB is Thus it makes the standardization
fusion of Power Electronics and and modularization of system and
Biology but not mere sum of them, subsystems very difficult. Moreover,
which involves innovation performances of power converters
processes. based on centralized control
HIGH RELIABLE POWER including online maintenance, online
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN expansion and fault tolerance are
BASED ON PEB usually bad. As a result, some
The human body system is one of complicated power electronic
the most complicated system ever systems based on centralized
known; failures are not rare, but the controller are usually low reliable.
overall function is high reliable. The A human body system and
high system reliability results from subsystems exhibit autonomous
principles including autonomous and spontaneous behaviors with
decentralized architecture, hierarchically ordered relationships,
redundancy, self diagnosis and self- which is a source of inspiration in
repair, which can be a source of designing Autonomous
inspiration in designing power Decentralized Power Electronic
electronic system requiring high System (ADPES). Structurally, the
reliability. cell is the basic unit in all parts of a
A. Autonomous Decentralized biological system. Cell acts as
Architecture: building blocks to make up the
Control of today’s power converters hierarchical layers in organisms.
is based on a centralized digital Thus, tissues (e.g., muscle tissue)
controller. One of the main are formed by cells with similar
drawbacks of this approach is the functions and shape. Different
large number of signal links that tissues combine to form organs with
connect the controller and other a particular function (e.g., heart).
parts. Furthermore, the signals in Organs, in turn, group together to

3
form body systems and the systems Autonomous Controllability:
make up the complex organisms. In In case one APEBC fails, other
such hierarchical structures, each APEBCs cooperate autonomously
layer in the same hierarchy each other to achieve overall
communicates each other and is system function. As a standardized
supported by the adjacent layers. & integrated power electronic
The bottom layer such as cells building block, APEBC is similar to
exhibits low-level autonomous and Power Electronic Building Block
spontaneous behavior (e.g., (PEBB) in some degree. However,
immunity to virus infection), thus APEBC is not equal to PEBB.
adapting itself to changed APEBC is characterized by
environment. So the brain is librated autonomous controllability and
from the many low-level tasks and cooperation. Compared to the
perform the higher-level functions conventional centralized
(e.g., reasoning). With this architecture, the ADPES has
autonomous decentralized several predominant operational
architecture, the organisms show features such as enhanced
enhanced reliability and adaptability. reliability, flexibility, online
Based on bionics, the principle of reparability, online expansion and
autonomous decentralized fault tolerance.
architecture can be applied to power B. Redundancy:
electronic system requiring high The concept of redundancy is well
reliability. Thus ADPES comes in. understood:
ADPES is homogeneous, i.e. In case an element of a system
ADPES is composed of identical fails, there is a spare element that is
units named Autonomous Power able to operate in the place of the
Electronic Building Cell (APEBC) failed one so that the operation of
here. Acting as a building unit like a the overall system is uninterrupted.
biological cell, APEBC is essentially Redundancy is the addition of
a subsystem which is characterized resource, information what is
by automaticity. needed for normal system

4
operation. The redundancy includes optimum redundant biological
organs- redundancy (e.g., double systems.
lung), function-redundancy (e.g., 2) Function-redundancy:
neural network) and time- In function-redundancy the working
redundancy results in high reliability modules perform the same function
of human body system. The originally performed by the failed
redundancy in biological system one. There being no spare modules
resembles redundancy in power or sub-systems, there is no increase
electronic system. in size, weight and cost arising from
1) Hardware Redundancy: function-redundancy. So function-
Any system, subsystem or redundancy will be regarded as a
component is replicated. Spare novel approach for designing high
elements are used to replace the reliable and economical power
faulty ones. To increase system electronic system.
reliability, N-Modular redundant 3) Time-redundancy:
power electronic systems are Time-redundancy is the ability of a
designed. As applied to critical power electronic systems to tolerate
avionics on aircraft, illustration cost interruption of some of their
and weight savings in addition to elements for a given time period
improved power system reliability. without leading to immediate failure
However, redundant components of the whole equipment. This time
usually add size, weight and cost of can be used for auxiliary functions,
the whole equipment. So it is such as to repair failed equipment.
significant to find optimum This has to be emphasized that
configurations for N-Modular function-redundancy and time-
Redundant systems. To meet such redundancy are ways of enhancing
requirement, further research must system reliability by utilizing some
be carried out in order to determine special features of system function,
to what extent the models proposed instead of increasing the number of
hold for any fault-tolerant systems elements for system redundancy as
with guidance of inspiration from hardware-redundancy.

5
Understanding & proper use of circuits technology, the power-
these features can provide electronic-system-on-board
significant opportunities for characterized by self-diagnosis and
increasing reliability, while self-repair becomes possible based
simultaneously reducing the cost of on cell hierarchical structures.
developing large-scale system.
AUTONOMOUS
DECENTRALIZED POWER
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM BASED
C. Self-diagnosis and Self-repair: ON PEB:
The self-diagnosis allows fault Consider a set of widely used power
detection in case a component, the electronic converters given in Fig.1,
self-repair allows reconstruction of Fig. 2 and Fig.3
parts damaged without assistance.
These two properties are
particularly desirable for
complicated power electronic
systems requiring improved
reliability. The growth and operation
of all living beings are directed by
the interpretation, in each of their
cells, of a chemical program, the
DNA string or genome. This can
offer inspiration for an electronic
project, whose objective is the
design of high reliable & robust
integrated circuits, endowed with
properties usually associated with
the living world: self-diagnosis and
self-repair. With the development of
high frequency and integrated

6
 characterized.So this power switch
cell shown in Fig. 4 can not be
called APEBC described above.
The Autonomous Hardware
Manager (AHM), shown in Fig.5,
consists of gate drives, PLD, optic
transmitter and receiver, A/D
converter, temperature, current and
voltage sensors.

Partitioning them, an universal

power converter building block cell
shown in Fig.4 can be identified.

By connecting this switch cell in

series and/or parallel, families of Acting as a building cell, the
different switching power converters structure of APEBC is totally
such as AC/DC, DC/DC, DC/AC independent of the converter
and AC/AC can be built. This topologies. The AHM, designed as
switching cell is assembled by an integral part of the APEBC, is
simply connecting two IGBTs, responsible for hardware related
without some basic subsystem tasks as follows:
functions such as communication • ·Current, voltage and
each other. This unit has no temperature sensing with A/D
autonomous controllability and conversion;
cooperation by which APEBC is

7
 • Communication of PWM, Numbers of desired power
status and measurement converters can be built using the
information; same APEBC by the following step:
• PWM generation and isolated • Connect APEBC in series
gate drive for switches; and/or parallel;
• Local fault protection • Update system
All hardware tasks are handled by reconfiguration and control
the communication & control block algorithm through software
which is implemented in PLD. In only.
fact, PLD acts as a low-level local A single-phase inverter, shown in
controller. APEBC, show in Fig.6, Fig. 7, based on autonomous
built by integrating the switch block decentralized architecture is
shown in Fig. 4 and AHM shown in constructed by connecting the two
fig.5. APEBC shown as Fig. 6.in parallel.

Each APEBC has on-board PLD, a

microprocessor, so that local
communication among connection
units as well as communication In order to eliminate noise and the
between the unit & higher controller number of communication links, the
such as DSP is possible. Thus serial fiber optic communication
APEBC exhibits autonomous network is selected. It’s pointed out
controllability and cooperation. above that all kinds of low-level
oriented-tasks such as gate driving,

8
protecting and sensing are engineering efforts towards system-
performed by AHM. Thus DSP is oriented design.
liberated from any kind of low-level
hardware-oriented tasks and CONCLUSION:
performs higher-level tasks such as The implications of bionics to the
algorithms optimization and system field of power electronics are very
supervisory. System adaptability & evident from this paper. Innovative
multi-functionality can be achieved and ergonomic designs based on
by software reconfiguration. day to day functioning of biological
Compared to the conventional life will come to stay as the fulcrum
centralized architecture, the for the development of power
autonomous decentralized power electronic in the future. The
electronic system shown as Fig. 7 is advantages in implementing system
characterized by the following design based on bionics are in
predominant features, such as: cutting down cost of system design,
· Enhanced reliability arise from a improvement in performance,
high level of integration of APEBC enhancement of reliability and
and reliable communication network implementation of the redundancy
as well as the artificial function such factor as explained in the paper.
as self-diagnosis and self-repair in ADPES does have some cost
APEBC; liabilities due to the fact that some
· System flexibility due to in-circuit components (such as sensing and
programmability to allow for simple communicating elements) must be
software and hardware replicated among APEBC. However,
reconfiguration and use of the there are some cost benefits to the
standardized APEBC in different approach arising from the reduction
topology; of labor costs in system
· User-friendliness comes from development time as well as
open autonomous decentralized engineering and manufacturing due
architecture as well as utilizing to the use of standard APEBC. The
standardized module to focus proposed autonomous

9
decentralized architecture in this
paper has a promising prospect and
paves the way towards future Plug
and Play power electronic system
for so many significant technical and
economic advantages. In the future,
the methods of adopting
decentralized architecture will hold
the key to the rise of power
electronics as a potential field of
development for human life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY :-

1. B.K.Bose." Autonomous
decentralized architecture for
power electronic system design
based on Bionics”

2.www.wikipedia.com

10
 FUZZY GAIN SCHEDULING FOR AGC OF A SINGLE AREA
SYSTEM NEGLECTING DEAD BAND AND GRC
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
St. Johns College of Engineering and Technology, Yemmiganur.
kmanjunath7@gmail.com and saimadhu206@gmail.com.

Abstract: At present fuzzy logic control is receiving increasing emphasis in process

control applications. This paper presents a self-adjusting, fast acting fuzzy gain
scheduling scheme for conventional integral gain, k-I of Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) in a single area power system. The application of the fuzzy logic
control on the performance of the system is investigated. The integral gain, k-I is
determined from the set of fuzzy theory. The premise variables chosen for the fuzzy
membership functions are speed error and its derivative. The effectiveness of the
proposed controller is demonstrated by simulation studies for different types of load
changes.
Keywords: Power Generation, Conventional-PI controller, Gain scheduling, Fuzzy
Logic Control.
INTRODUCTION:
Load Frequency Control (LFC), or Automatic Generation Control (AGC), is very
important issue in power system operation and control for supplying sufficient and both
good quality and reliable electric power. Investigations have shown that following a
sudden load change or disturbances in a single area power system, the frequency
undergoes a fluctuation which persists for a very long time. This fluctuation is very
poorly damped. Since these oscillations are the result of imbalance of power [3, 4].
Automatic Generation Control is adjusted the generation automatically to restore the
frequency to the nominal value as the system load changes continuously [5].
The proportional integral (PI) control approach is successful in achieving zero
steady-state error in the frequency of the system, but exhibits relatively poor dynamic
performance as evident by large overshoot and transient frequency oscillations.
Moreover, the transient settling time is relatively large [2]. Consequently, the nonlinear
nature of the load frequency control (LFC) problem makes it difficult to ensure stability
for all operating points when an integral or a PI controller is used [2]. Fixed integral gain
controllers have been proposed for nominal operating conditions but they fail to provide
best control performance over a wide range off-nominal operating conditions. In this
paper, the fuzzy logic is effectively used to change the integral gain, KI of AGC settings
automatically to restore nominal system frequency for various wide-range off-nominal
power system parameters and load changes. A typical single area power system is
considered as a test network and simulation results are presented and discussed.
MAIN ASPECTS CONCERNING WITH SYSTEM MODELING
The first step in the analysis and design of a control system is mathematical
modeling of the single area power system. Proper assumptions and approximations are
made to linearize the mathematical equations describing the system, and a transfer
function model is obtained for the component [5].

Figure 1 shows a well known block diagram used for AGC of a typical single-area
power system [2, 5, 7] along with a conventional PI controller only. The dynamic models
in state-space variable form, obtained from the associated transfer function, is

are the state vector, the control vector and the output variables, respectively. The values
of the elements of the system matrices A, B, and C may be computed from the nominal
parameter value [2, 5, 7].
 The above described model (shown in Fig. 1) does not consider the effect of
Generation rate constraints (GRC). For testing further the effectiveness of the proposed
controller, the GRC is taken into account by replacing the non-reheat turbine (linear)
block APt/APg in Fig. 1 with the reheat turbine (non-linear) block of Fig. 2. The
generation rate limitation 6 is set to 0.028 p.u. MW/s which is a typical value up to 4 MW
[2].
CONVENTIONAL PI CONTROLLER AND MOTIVATION OF THE
PROPOSED (FGS) CONTROLLER:
The integral gain must be set to a value that provides good damping in the
dynamic response of the overall system. Consequently, this type of controller is relatively
slow and not allows the designer to consider possible system nonlinearities. Fig. 3 shows
the frequency deviations for different values of KI for a specific load change. It is
observed that a higher values of KI, results in reduction of maximum deviation of the
system frequency but the system oscillates for longer times. Decreasing the value of KI
yields comparatively higher maximum frequency deviation at the beginning but provides
very good damping in the later cycles. These initiate a variable KI which can be
determined from the frequency error and its derivative. Obviously at the initial stage,
higher values of KI will be needed and gradually it will be changing depending on the
system frequency changes.
In this paper, the fuzzy logic controller is used to tune the integral gain, KI
of AGC in a single area power system to restore the nominal system frequency for
various system load changes. The critical value of KI of conventional PI controller is
considered as the base value in the design of the proposed fuzzy logic control scheme.
K-I FOR CONVENTIONAL PI CONTROLLER
The tuning of the value of gains KI at Kp=0 was achieved using a systematic
exhaustive search according to the IAET criterion shown in equation 2.

It is clear from Fig. 4 that in the absence of GRC the best tuned of integral gain
value is Ki = 0.29 [2], which is also called the critical value. This Ki value also calculated
by the equation 3 [7]. In the presence of GRC the integral gain value, Ki=0.27[2].
FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER FOR INTEGRAL GAIN SCHEDULING
Fuzzy control is special form of knowledge-based control. In designing a fuzzy
control system, the precise mathematical model of target plant is not needed. Only the
relevant experiences and heuristics concerning the plant are utilized to form a set of fuzzy
control rules. These are linguistic in nature, and often use the simple cause-effect
relationship to link a fuzzy partitioning of certain state-space of the plant with a fuzzy
partitioning of the control action. The final control signal is generated by an appropriate
defuzzifying process [8].
Fuzzification:
The precise numerical values are obtained by measurements are converted to
membership values of the various linguistic variables [2].

For the FL controller the inputs are the frequency variation (i.e. error) and the rate
of change in the error defined as:
Fuzzy Rule base:
The heuristic rules of the knowledge base are used to determine the fuzzy
controller action. For example the FL controller employs a rule: If et is NB and ce is NB
then the controller action (KI) is PB. The part et is NB and ce is NB defines another
linguistic variable.
Though it is possible to derive a membership value for this variable in many
possible ways, one of the rules that has been chosen

The fuzzy rule bases are constructed by using trial and error methods. The values
of output integral gains K1 is given in Table 1.
 Table 1: Fuzzy rule base

Defuzzification:
The well-known center of gravity Defuzzification method has been used because
of its simplicity:

Where, uj is the membership value of the linguistic variable recommending

the fuzzy controller action and uj is the precise numerical value corresponding to that
fuzzy controller action. The membership functions, knowledge base and method of
Defuzzification essentially determine the controller performance.
PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER:
• Type fuzzy in the matlab command window then the matlab editor window will be
opened. Select the box labeled with input-1 and add one more input by choosing
add variable (input) from edit menu.
• Select the box labeled with input-1 and change the name and membership
function using edit menu and specify the details.
• Select the box labeled with input-2 and change the name and specify the details.
• Select the box labeled as output and change the name and member ship function
using edit menu and specify the details.
• Choose the add rules from edit menu and enter the rules.
• Save the design by selecting file menu and export to workspace.
 • Select view menu and choose rule viewer, which gives graphical construction of
the control signal of FLC module. By changing the cursor position various control
actions can be analyzed.
• The surface viewer gives the response of the fuzzy logic controller.
SIMULATION RESULTS AND PERFORMANCES:
The simulation results of the studies are depicted in Fig. 7 for step load change
PL=0.01 without and with considering the GRC. The damping of the system frequency is
not satisfactory with fixed integral gain, KI. With the addition of proposed schemes, the
damping is improved significantly. A comparison of settling time is shown in Table
2.
Table 2: Comparison of the settling times
CONCLUSION:
The fuzzy gain scheduling of AGC in a single area power system is developed
and applied successfully to regulate the system frequency. The fuzzy logic approach to
integral gain scheduling yields overall better performance regarding transient responses
in comparison to the case of f1ixed integral gain. The settling time is reduced to a great
extent with the proposed mode of scheduling than that of reference [9]. The gain
scheduling approach yields automatic, self-adjusting outputs irrespective of widely
varying, imprecise, uncertain off-nominal conditions. The memory and the computational
burden have been reduced and also settling time reduces drastically in the fuzzy logic
approach scheme.
REFERENCES:
[1] Q.P. Ha, H. Trinh, A Variable Structure-Based Controller with Fuzzy Tuning for
Load Frequency Control, International Journal of Power and Energy Systems, Vol.0,
No.0, 2001.
[2] Y.L. Karnavas, D.P. Papadopoulos, AGC for autonomous power system using
combined intelligent techniques, Electric Power Systems Research 62 (2002), 225-239.
[3] J.B.X. Devotta, M.G. Rabbani, S. Elagovan, Effects of SMES unit on AGC dynamics,
IEEE Catalogue No. 98EX137, 07803-4495-2/98/$ 10.00 1998 IEEE.
[4] W.C. Chan, Y.Y. Hsu, Automatic Generation Control of Interconnected Systems
Using variable structure controllers, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 128,Pt. C. No. 5, pp.
269-279, September, 1981.
[5] Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis (Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi).
[6] Dr. S. P. Ghoshal, Multi-area Frequency and Tie-line power flow control with Fuzzy
logic based integral gain scheduling, IE (I) Journal-EL, Vol 84, December 2003.
[7] 0. I. Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Theory (McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Newyork).
[8] C. S. Indulkar and B. Raj, Application of Fuzzy Controller to Automatic Generation
Control, Elect. Machines Power Systems, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 209-220, Mar.-Apr. 1995.
[9] J. Talaq and F. Al-Basri, "Adaptive Fuzzy Gain Scheduling for Load-Frequency
Control," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 145-150, Feb. 1999.
 POWER
SYSTEMS
 POWER QUALITY IN ENERGY
CONVERSION SYSTEMS.

Madanapalli Institute of Technology and Science

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ABSTRACT harmonics and methods to minimize harmonics.
Power electronics and power quality Finally we discuss various IEEE Standards in
are irrevocably linked together as we strive to case of power quality problems.
advance both board areas. With the dramatic
increases over the last20 years in energy Introduction
conversion Systems utilizing power electronic The term “power quality “means
devices, we have seen the emergence of “power different things to different people. To utility
quality” as a major field of power engineering. suppliers, power quality initially refers to quality
From a Power quality impact view point, of service delivered as measured by the
applications such as Switched Mode Power consumer’s ability to use energy delivered
Supplies, adjustable speed drives, and FACTS desired manner. This conceptual definition
are often cause for concern. From utility supply included such conventional utility planning
system view point, these converter-based topics as voltage and frequency regulation and
systems can lead to Operational and life reliability.
expectancy problems for other equipment ,
possibly not owned or operated by the same The end-user’s definitions of Power
party. It was from his initial perspective that the quality also centers around their ability to use the
field of power quality emerged. delivered energy in the desired manner, but the
topics considered can be much more specific
In most cases, the same devices and and include magnitude and duration of different
systems that create Power quality problems can events as well as wave shape concerns.
also be used to solve power quality problems."
Problems solving” applications such as active I. Categories of power quality:-
harmonic filters, Uninterruptible power supplies 1. Steady state voltage magnitude and
all utilize the same switching device technology frequency,
as the “problem causing” applications. 2. Voltage sag’s,
3. Grounding,
4. Harmonics,
In this paper we first discuss what power 5. Voltage fluctuations and flicker,
quality is and then various Categories of power 6. Transients and
quality .Harmonics is identified as potential 7. Monitoring and measurement.
power quality problem. We discuss effects of
II.Reactive power and harmonic compensation:
1. Typical harmonics produced by equipments
2. Harmonic filters
1. STEADY STATE VOLTAGE FREQUENCY AND equipment that as controlled out put like an
MAGNITUDE:-
Frequency deviations can
affect power electronic equipment
that use controlled switching devices unless
the controlled signals are derived from a signal
that is phase-locked with the applied voltage.
In most cases, phase-locks are used, or the
converters consist of uncontrolled rectifiers. In
either case, frequency deviations are not a
measure cause of problems. Steady state
voltage regulation is a much more pronounced
issue that can impact a wide range of endues
equipment in most cases, utility supply
companies do a very effective job of providing
carefully regulated voltage with in permissible
ranges. Equipment manufactures typically
offer equipment that is tolerant of steady state
voltage deviations in the range of
+10%.virtually all equipment, especially
sensitive electronic equipment ,can be effected
by voltage deviating out side the + 10% range
in most cases over voltages above +10% lead
to loss of life, usually over time ;excessive
over voltages can immediately fail equipment.
Under voltages below -10% usually lead to
excessive current demands, especially for
adjustable speed drive controlling a motor to a
constant speed /torque point.
2 Voltage Sags:-
Voltage sags are probably
the most problematic of all power quality
problems. At this time, a number of standards
making bodies, including IEEE ANSI and
ICE, are working on standards related to sag.
In most cases, sags are generally agreed to be
more serve and outside of scope of ANSI
C84.1 and they are temporary in nature due to
the operation of system protection elements.
Because the electrical system is a continuous
electrical circuit, faults in any location will
have some impact on voltages throughout the
network of course, areas closer to the faulted
area will sea greater voltage sag due to the
fault than other, more (electrically) remote
areas. Sags can originate any where in a
system, but are more pronounced in utility
distribution systems because of greater
exposure of low voltage systems to the causes
of short circuits.
 From a power quality perspective,
improper grounding can be considered into three
broad categories:

1. ground loops,
2. improper neural-to-ground connections, and
3. Excessive neural-to-ground voltage.

Most utility companies implement

distribution system protection in what is
known as a “fuse saving” methodology.
Following figure shows a typical over head
distribution system with two feeders being
supplied from the same substation transformer.
Each primary circuit has its own automatic
circuit recluse (ACR) and shows one fused tap.
The ground loop problem is a significant
Voltage sags are probably the most common
issue when power, communications, and control
power quality problem that is “given” to the
signals all originates in different locations, but
end user by the supplying utility. However,
come together at a common electrical point.
improper equipment grounding is responsible
Transient include in one location can travel
for the vast majority of power quality
through the created ground loop, damaging
problems on the customer’s side of the meter.
equipment along the way. Improper neural-to-
ground connections will create a “noisy” ground
reference that may interfere with low-voltage
communications and control devices. Excessive
neural-to-ground voltage may damage equipment
that is not properly insulated or that has an
inexpensive power supply.

4. Harmonics:-

3 Grounding:-
In most cases power electronic

Grounding of equipment was equipment is considered to be the “cause” of

originally conceived as a personal safety harmonics. While switching converter of all

issue.However, the presence of an electrical types produces harmonics because of the non

conductor that is zero potential has been widely linear relationship between the voltage and

used in many power electronic and current across the switching devices, harmonics

microprocessors-controlled loads. are also produced by a large variety of

“conventional” equipment including:

power generation equipment (slot Transients, especially in the voltage
harmonics), supply, can create numerous power quality

induction motors (saturated magnetics), problems. The major source of transients is

transformer (overexitation leading to
saturation), 1. lightning,

magnetic-ballast fluorescent lamps 2. utility circuit switching and fault clearing,
arcing),and 3. capacitor switching, and

Ac electric arc furnaces (arcing). 4. Load switching.
All these devices will cause harmonic currents to Lightning events can create the most severe
flow, and some devices actually directly produce overvoltages, but these transients decay
voltage harmonics. Rapidly, a typical lightning transient has decayed
to zero in a few hundred microseconds,
Any ac current flow trough But it can reach a peak magnitude of several
any circuit at any frequency will produces a hundred percent if not controlled with surge
voltage drop at that same frequency. Harmonic suppression devices.
currents, which are produced by power electronic
loads, will produce voltage drop in the power
supply impedance at those same
Harmonic frequencies.Besause of this
interrelationship between current flow and
voltage drop, harmonic currents created at any
location will distort the voltage in the entire
supply circuit.

5. Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker:-

7. Monitoring and Measurements:-
Voltage flickers is not
directly caused by electronic loads except in The most basic category of
the largest of applications. Voltage power quality measurement tool is the hand-held
fluctuations, and the corresponding light voltmeter. It is important that the voltmeter be a
flicker due to them, are usually created by true-rms meter, or erroneous readings will be
large power fluctuations at frequencies less obtained that incorrectly suggest low or high
than about 30 Hz. voltages when harmonics are present in the
In most applications, only signal. It is especially important to have true rms
1. Large dc arc furnaces and welders, capability when measuring currents; voltage
2. Reactive power compensators, and distortion is not typically severe enough to create
3. Cycloconverters. large errors in the readings of non-true-rms
meters.
6. Transients: II.REACTIVE POWER and
HARMONIC COMPENSATION:-
 The previous section significant harmonics of all
specifically identified harmonics as a potential orders, including harmonics that
power quality problem. In that discussion it was are not integer multiples of the
pointed out that nonlinear loads such as power frequency.
adjustable speed drives create harmonic currents, 4. Cycloconverters produce
and when these supply systems, harmonic dominant harmonics that are
voltages are produced. integer multiples of the power
frequencies that are not integer
multiples of the power
frequency. In some control
schemes, the amplitudes of the
1. Typical Harmonics produced By sideband components can reach
Equipment:- damaging levels.

In theory, most harmonic currents 2 Harmonic Filters:-

follow the “1/n” rule where n is the harmonic
currents in three-phase systems are not integer
multiples of three. Finally
, in theory, harmonic currents are not usually
even-order integer multiples of the fundamental.
In practice, none of these statements are
completely true and using any of them “exactly”
could lead to either over- or under-conservatism
depending on many factors. Consider the
following examples:
Harmonic filters come in many
“shape and size”. In general, harmonic filters are
“shunt” filters because they are connected in
parallel with power system and provide low
impedance paths to ground for currents at one or
more harmonic frequencies. For power
applications, shunt filters are almost always
more economical than series filters for the
following reasons:

1. switching-mode power supplies, 1. Series components must be rated

such as found in televisions, for the full current, including the
personal computers, etc., often power frequency components.
produce a third harmonic current Such a requirement leads to large
that is nearly as large (80 -90 %) components sizes and therefore
as the fundamental frequency costs.
component. 2. Shunt filter components generally
2. Unbalance in voltage supplied to must be rated for only part of the
the production of even-order system voltage. Such
harmonics and, in some extreme requirements lead to smaller
cases, establish a positive component size and therefore
feedback situation leading to cost.
stability problems. Shunt filters are designed in three basic
3. Arcing loads, particularly in the categories as follows:
steel industry, generate
 1. single-tuned filters,
2. multiple-tuned filters, and
Current Distortion Limits For General Transmissio
3. Damped filter.

Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion Percent OF IL

Individual Harmonic Order h (odd harmonics)

Isc/Il < 11 11 < h < 17 17 < h < 23 23 < h <

< 50 2.0 1.0 0.75 0.3

> 50 3.0 1.5 1.15 0.45

In supply system owned by the utility

company,

The closest electrical point
to the end-user’s premises,
and

As in (2), but further
restricted to points where
III.IEEE STANDARDS:-
other customers are

(or could be in the future)
IEEE 519-1992 establish the” point
provided
of common coupling”, or PCC, as the point at which
harmonic limits shall be evaluated. In most cases
In this context, IEEE 519-1992 harmonic
(recall that IEEE519-1992 is a “recommend
limits are designed for an entire facility and should
practice”), this point will be:
not be applied to individual pieces of equipment
without great care because the
PCC is used to evaluate harmonic limit compliance,
system strength(impendence) is measured at this
point and is described in terms of available(three-
phase) short circuit current. Also the end user’s
maximum average demand current is evaluated at this
point
.Maximum demand is evaluated based on one of
the following:
 The maximum value of
the 15or30 minute average
 demand, usually minimize the financial impacts of the majority of
history, or considering power quality problems.
the previous 12 month’s
billing.
 .The connected KVA or BIBLOGRAPHY:-
horse power, perhaps
multiplied by a diversity 1. ANSI STD C84.1 –
factor with electric 1995, Electric
service. Power System and
Equipment-Voltage
Rating (60 Hz).
2. IEEE STD 493 -
1997, IEEE
Recommended
Practice for the
Design of Reliable
Industrial and
Commercial power
CONCLUSION systems.
3. IEEE
In this paper, various power quality Recommended
phenomena have been described, with particular Practice for
focus on the implications on power electronic Grounding of
converters and equipment. While one popular Industrial and
opinion “blames” power electronic equipment commercial Power
for “causing” most power quality problems, it is Systems.
quite clear that power electronic converter
systems can play an equally important role in
reducing the impact of power problems. While it
trues that power electronic converter s and
systems are the major cause of harmonic related
problems, the application (in general terms) of
IEEE 519-1992 limits for current and voltage
harmonics has led to the reduction, elimination
and prevention of most harmonic problems.
Other power quality phenomena, like
grounding’s, sag’s, and voltage flicker, are most
often completely unrelated to power electronic
systems. In reality, advances in power electronic
circuits and control algorithms are making it
more possible to control these events and
 Paper Presentation
On
HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Presented by

G.SREENIVASULU V.SUDHEER
III EEE III EEE
sree296@gmail.com vagicherlasudheer@yahoo.com

Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of Engg. & Tech.,

Nandyal-518501
ABSTRACT required. The increase in need for
electricity after the Second World
Electric power War stimulated research,
transmission was originally particularly in Sweden and in
developed with direct current. The Russia. In 1950, a 116 km
availability of transformers and the experimental transmission line was
development and improvement of commissioned from Moscow to
induction motors at the beginning Kasira at 200 kV. The first
of the 20th Century, led to greater commercial HVDC line built in 1954
appeal and use of a.c. was a 98 km submarine cable with
transmission. Through research ground return between the island
and development in Sweden at of Gotland and the Swedish
Allmana Svenska Electriska mainland. Thyristors were applied
Aktiebolaget (ASEA), an improved to d.c. transmission in the late
multi-electrode grid controlled 1960’s and solid state valves
mercury arc valve for high powers became a reality. In 1969 d.c. link
and voltages was developed from in Canada was awarded as the first
1929. Experimental plants were set application of solid state valves for
up in the 1930’s in Sweden and the HVDC transmission. Today, the
USA to investigate the use of highest functional d.c. voltage for
mercury arc valves in conversion d.c. transmission is +/- 600 kV for
processes for transmission and the 785 km transmission line. D.c.
frequency changing. D.C. transmission is now an integral
transmission (HVDC) now became part of the delivery of electricity in
practical when long distances were many countries throughout the
to be covered or where cables were world.
 systems, and discusses the HVDC
INTRODUCTION: systems from a design,
construction, operation and
It has been maintenance points of view. The
widely documented in the history paper then discusses the recent
of the electricity industry, that the developments in HVDC
first commercial electricity technologies. The paper concludes
generated (by Thomas Alva with a remark that, HVDC power
Edison) was direct current (DC) transmission system as a whole is
electrical power. The first electricity preferable to a system using
transmission systems were also exclusively
direct current systems. However, HISTORY:
DC power at low voltage could not
be transmitted over long distances, An early method of
thus giving rise to high voltage HVDC transmission was developed
alternating current (AC) electrical by the Swiss engineer Rene Thury.
systems. Nevertheless, with the This system used series-connected
development of high voltage motor-generator sets to increase
valves, it was possible to once voltage. Each set was insulated
again transmit DC power at high from ground and driven by
voltages and over long distances, insulated shafts from a prime
giving rise to HVDC transmission mover. This system transmitted
systems. Beginning with a brief 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a
introduction of High Voltage Direct distance of 120 km. Other systems
Current (HVDC) transmission operating at up to 100 kV DC
systems, this paper depicts the operated up until the 1930s, but
need of HVDC systems in the world the rotating machinery required
today. It then reviews the high maintenance and had high
underlying technology of HVDC energy loss.
HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

asynchronous. This allows the

The system interconnection of non-
characteristics of an HVDC link synchronous networks.
differ a lot from AC transmissions. In general terms the different
One of the most important reasons for using HVDC can be
differences is related to the divided in two main groups,
possibility to accurately control the namely:
active power transmitted on a 1. HVDC is necessary or
HVDC line. This is in contrast to AC desirable from the technical point
lines, where the active power flow of view.
cannot be controlled in the same 2. HVDC results in a lower
direct way. The controlability of total investment (including lower
the HVDC power is often used to losses) and/or is environmentally
improve the operating conditions of superior.
the AC networks where the In many cases, projects are
converter stations are located. justified on a combination of
benefits from the groups. Today
Another important property of an the environmental aspects are also
HVDC transmission is that it is becoming more important. HVDC is
 CURRENT CONVERSION
in That respect favorable in many PRINCIPLE:
cases, as the environmental impact A converter transforms
is less than with AC, This is due to power from ac side to dc side or
the fact that an HVDC transmission vice-versa. On ac side three phase
line is much smaller and needs less voltages vary sinusoidally. The dc
space than AC lines for the same side should have study constant dc
power capacity. voltage. To achieve smooth
matching between ac and dc
NEED FOR DC quantities a large smoothing
TRANSMISSION: reactor is connected on dc side in

¾ An overhead dc transmission series with the converter.

line with its towers can be TRANSMISSION OF HVDC:

designed at less cost.
We have so many
¾ Dc cable transmission
techniques in HVDC transmission.
systems with hundreds of
In order to transform HVDC from
kilometers and even
one place to another place (long
distances of 600 km or
distance) we have extra sub
greater have been
station components than EHVAC
considered feasible.
because the power generated is AC
¾ Dc converter station can
and it should be converted into DC
transfer the required power
by using rectifier station. We know
flow even though the ac
that our all electronic devices are
systems connected remain
designed to work on AC supply
asynchronous.
only. So, we need an inverter
station to convert the DC into AC
.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HVDC:

CONFIGURATIONS: connection at the inverting station

1.MONOPOLAR: by means of a second conductor. If

no metallic conductor is installed,
current flows in the earth between
the earth electrodes at the two
stations. Modern monopolar
systems carry typically 1500 MW.
If underground or sea cables are
used the typical value is 600 MW.

These effects can be eliminated

In a common configuration, called
with installation of a metallic return
monopole, one of the terminals of
conductor between the two ends of
the rectifier is connected to earth
the monopolar transmission line.
ground. The other terminal, at a
Since one terminal of the
potential high above, or below,
converters is connected to earth,
ground, is connected to a
the return conductor need not be
transmission line. The earthed
insulated for the full transmission
terminal may or may not be
voltage which makes it less costly
connected to the corresponding
than the high-voltage conductor. initially commissioned as a
Use of a metallic return conductor monopole may be upgraded with
is decided based on economic, additional cables and operated as a
technical and environmental bipole
factors.

ADVANTAGES:
2.BIPOLAR: ¾ Under normal load, negligible
earth-current flows.
¾ Operates in mono polar
mode in fault conditions.
¾ For a given power rating
bipolar lines carry only half
the current of mono polar
lines.

In bipolar
transmission a pair of conductors is
used, each at a high potential with 3.HOMOPOLAR:
respect to ground, in opposite
polarity. Since these conductors
must be insulated for the full
voltage, transmission line cost is
higher than a monopole with a
return conductor.
A bipolar
system may also be installed with
Two of the
a metallic earth return conductor.
three circuit conductors are
Bipolar systems may carry as much
operated as a bi pole. The third
as 3000 MW at voltages of +/-533
conductor is used as a parallel
kV. Submarine cable installations
 monopole, equipped with and their applications in efficient
reversing valves (or parallel submarine cables mean that HVDC
valves connected in reverse cables are often used at national
polarity). The parallel monopole boundaries for the exchange of
periodically relieves current power. Offshore wind farms also
from one pole or the other, require undersea cables, and their
switching polarity over a span of turbines unsynchronized. In very
several minutes. long-distance connections between
just two points, the decreased line-
This allows
costs of HVDC also makes it the
heavier currents to be carried by
usual choice. Insulated gate bipolar
the bi pole conductors, and full use
transistor (IGBT) and gate turn off
of the installed third conductor for
thyristor (GTO) has made smaller
energy transmission. . The system
HVDC systems economical. These
can be arranged to circulate high
may be installed in existing AC
currents through the line
grids for their role in stabilizing
conductors even if load demand is
power flow without the additional
low.
short-circuit current that would be
produced by an additional AC

APPLICATIONS: transmission line. One

manufacturer calls this concept
"HVDC Light", and has extended
The controllability of
the use of HVDC down to blocks as
current-flow through HVDC
small at a few tens of megawatts
rectifiers and inverters, their
and lines as short as a few score
application in connecting
kilometers of overhead line.
unsynchronized networks,
ADVANTAGES: ¾ For smaller transmission
distances the losses in the
¾ Endpoint-to-endpoint long-
static inverters may be
haul bulk power transmission
bigger than in an AC power
without intermediate 'taps',
line.
in remote areas.
¾ Controlling power flow in a
¾ Reducing line cost since
multi terminal DC system
HVDC transmission requires
requires good communication
less conductor.
between all the terminals.
¾ Allowing power transmission
HVDC Installations in
between unsynchronized AC
the world today:
distribution systems.
¾ Reducing corona losses (due Since the first

to higher voltage peaks) for commercial installation in 1954 a

HVAC transmission lines of huge amount of HVDC transmission

similar power. systems have been installed

around the world. Below figure
DISADVANTAGES:
shows by region, the different
¾ The required static inverters
HVDC transmissions around the
are expensive and cannot be
world.
overloaded very much.
CONCLUSION: due to low charging current.
Compared to the FACTS technology

The increasing the long transmission lines can be

dependence of world on its power laid.

grid makes the robustness and

REFERENCES:
integrity of the power grid ever
1. E.W. Kimbark, Direct Current
more critical. The HVDC is able to
Transmission, Volume 1. New
influence the power flow in a
York: John Wiley & Sons.
transmission grid. As the number
2. K.R. Padiyar, HVDC
of such devices increases, a careful
Transmission - Technology
consideration of mutual influences
and System Interactions,
becomes necessary. Dc
New York: John Wiley &
transmission helps us to connect
Sons, 1990
two different unsynchronized lines
together for the efficient
transmission of power flow. Under
water sea cables can be laid easily
Elimination of Transformer Inrush Currents
by Controlled Switching

by

V.SOUJANYA M.SOUMYA
rd
ECE 3 year ECE 3rdyear
(06321A0492) (06321A0494)
Souji_vasala@yahoo.com mukka_chinna@yahoo.co.in
(9966343750) (9391357393)

Bhoj Reddy Engineering College for Women

Hyderabad
Abstract: on) charactTransformer inrush transformer windings from magnetic

currents are high- magnitude, harmonic- forces, and generally reduce power quality

rich currents generated when transformer on the system. The effects of these

cores are driven into saturation during transients are normally mitigated by de-

energization. These currents have sensitizing protective relays or over sizing

undesirable effects, including potential fuses. Closing resistors have been used to

damage or loss-of-life to the transformer, reduce the magnitude of the inrush

protective relay misoperation, and currents. Controlled closing, or

reduced power quality on the system. controlling the point on the power

Controlled transformer switching can frequency voltage wave where

potentially eliminate these energization occurs, has also been

transients if residual core and core flux employed to reduce these inrush transients

transients are taken into account in the Although reductions in inrush current

closing algorithm. This paper explores the magnitudes have been achieved with

theoretical considerations of core flux controlled closing, the present state of the

transients. Based on these studies art does not incorporate residual flux in the

algorithms were developed which allow control algorithms, which results in non-

controlled energization of most optimal energization [1].

transformers without inrush current.

This paper will show that the effects of

Keywords: Inrush current, controlled residual flux can be specifically included

switching, residual flux, transformer in determining an optimal closing instant.

switching. This optimal closing can theoretically

I. Introduction result in the complete elimination of inrush

transients in many transformer core and
Random power transformer energization
winding configurations. Part I of this
can create large flux asymmetries and
paper presents strategies for controlled
saturation of one or more winding cores of
energization of large power transformers
the transformer. This saturation results in
based on theoretical considerations. Part II
high magnitude currents that are rich in
discusses practical aspects of controlled
harmonic content and have a high direct
transformer energization, including the
current component. These currents can
limitations of typical circuit breakers.
cause false operation of protective relays
II. Inrush Transients
and fuses, mechanical damage to the
Power transformers are operated with the
peak core flux at the “knee” of the
transformer core's saturation characteristic.
A typical core saturation characteristic is
illustrated in Figure 1, where, as well
known, the sinusoidal core flux is the
integral of the applied voltage.
The curve shown is a flux/current curve,
and the slope at any point is proportional
to the winding inductance. With only a
modest flux increase beyond saturation, or
a symmetry shift of the flux, very high
magnitude current pulses will result as the
slope, and therefore the inductance, is very
small in that region of the curve (see
Figure 1b).
When a transformer is de-energized, a
permanent magnetization of the core
remains due to hysteresis of the magnetic
material. This “residual flux” is influenced
by the transformer core material
characteristics, core gap factor, winding
capacitance, circuit breaker current
chopping characteristics and other
capacitances connected to the transformer.
The core flux and therefore residual flux
can be measured by integration of the
winding voltage.
Figure1. The flux/current (saturatieristic
determines the magnitude of the
magnetizing and inrush current for a)
symmetrical and b) unsymmetrical
core fluxes. Note: a) and b) have different
scale factors)
When a transformer is energized the
instantaneous magnitude of core flux at the
instant of energization is the residual flux.
The amount of offset of the sinusoidal flux
generated by the applied voltage is
dependent upon the point of the voltage
wave where the transformer is energized.
This is illustrated in Figure 2. The peak
core flux √ can therefore reach a value of
2√ normal+√ residual.
For the most severe case shown in Figure
2, where energization was at a voltage
zero, the peak transient
core flux is more than two times higher
than the peak normal core flux. The core
has been driven far into saturation. This
asymmetrical saturation results in the
typical inrush current transient connected in parallel with an inductor that
characterized by a high harmonic content represents the magnetizing current [3].
and a direct current component. Such a model does not allow for residual
flux. Other methods using a current
Although closing resistors have been
generator to represent residual flux
employed to reduce these transients, the
function in a single-phase model but are
only way these transients can be
not applicable in three-phase transformer
eliminated is to prevent the core saturation.
models as they yield an effective short
This can be accomplished by controlling
circuit.
the instant of energization [2].
In order to accurately model the core, the
“type 96 hysteretical inductor” of the
III. Transformer Modeling
Electromagnetic Transient Program

In order to investigate core flux transient (EMTP) [3] was used. This model

phenomena in transformers with various follows a hysteresis characteristic to

core and winding configurations a represent the core. In order to gather the

theoretical model was required. necessary data to accurately model the

Transformer modeling, especially of transformer, the Bonneville Power

transient phenomena, is a complicated Administration (BPA) performed a field

proposition. A universal model good for test. Comparison of simulations and the

all frequencies and modeling all field test data verified the model

characteristics of the transformer is not performance. The model obviously has

available. In addition, the significant limitations, such as modeling the core

differences in parameters among various characteristic only at one frequency, but

transformers make a detailed knowledge of this restraint is considered acceptable for

the transformer parameters and this analysis.

characteristics a requirement. The

requirements for the model to study core IV. Controlled Switching of
flux transients primarily include a correct Single-Phase Transformers
core flux/current relationship and the In the case of controlled closing of
ability to model residual core flux. The capacitors, optimal energization point is at
most commonly used transformer core the instant when the source voltage is
model equal to the trapped charge voltage on the
utilizes a resistor, to represent losses, capacitor. For the case of controlled
closing of transformers, the “trapped the phases.
charge” has a parallel in the residual flux. In these other transformers, after one phase

So the basic principle to eliminate the has been energized, the flux in the other

core flux asymmetry, the “induced” flux cores or core legs is not a static residual

(integral of the applied voltage) at the instant flux, but a transient flux, in the following
of energization must equal the residual flux called “dynamic” core flux. Figure 4

[2]. There is of course no induced flux shows an example of a transformer with

before energization, but the source voltage three separate cores connected by a delta

has the prospect to create an induced flux. winding. First, assuming that the residual
If the source voltage is considered as a flux is zero in all three phases, then the

virtual flux source, then the optimal optimal instant for the first phase to close
instant to energize a transformer is when is when the prospective flux is equal to

the “prospective” flux is equal to the zero. This instant is at a voltage peak.
residual flux. This principle is shown in After the first phase closes, a voltage is

Figure 3. It provides the basic strategy for generated in each of the other two phases

controlled closing on single phase of the delta winding. These voltages are

transformers. each one half the magnitude and 180

degrees out of phase of the voltage of the
fully energized phase. The flux created in
the cores of the other two phases is
dynamic core flux.

V. Controlled Switching in
Multiphase Transformers with No
Residual Flux
Only transformers with single-phase cores
and only grounded windings may be Figure 4. A multiphase transformer with
considered as three single-phase
single- phase cores and a delta-connected
transformers, but most transformers on
power systems have interactions between winding demonstrating the interaction of
voltage and fluxes. The arrows show the energized phase will directly create
phase relationship between the core dynamic fluxes in the other two phases.
fluxes. These dynamic fluxes will have the same
The core fluxes in all three phases characteristics as those induced by the
therefore have the same magnitude and delta windings (see Figure 4) described
phase relationships to each other as the above.
winding voltages. The dynamic core VI. Residual Flux
fluxes are also 180 degrees out of phase
and at one-half the magnitude as the flux Residual core flux can assume values up to

in the fully energized phase. In these cases 85% of peak normal flux, although more

optimal energization can be achieved by typical magnitudes are in the range of 20

energizing the last two phases one-quarter to 70%[4]. It can be shown that the

cycle after the first phase, when the residual flux in cores of three-phase

prospective flux and the dynamic core flux transformers must inherently sum to zero,

in each phase is equal [1]. Figure 5 shows and typically forms a pattern with near

this situation. zero residual flux in one phase and plus

and minus some finite value in the other
two phases. This has been observed in the
literature and demonstrated in field tests
[2].

VII. Controlled Switching in

Three-Phase Transformers with
Residual Flux
First, for illustration, it is assumed that a
typical residual flux pattern is formed in a
Figure 5. Energization of a three-phase
transformer of the configuration shown in
transformer without residual flux.
Figure 4, and the phase with zero residual
Prospective and dynamic core fluxes for
(“A”) is energized at the optimal point on
each phase are shown.
wave (peak voltage and therefore zero
prospective flux). The resulting dynamic
The optimal energization for a transformer
core flux in the other phases will not be
with a three-phase core will be the same.
divided evenly. The dynamic fluxes in
In that situation the flux generated by the
Figure 6 start at their respective residual
flux levels and move around their
hysteresis loop in the same direction. One
phase (“C”) will reach the “knee” of the
saturation characteristic while the other
phase (“B”) is still in the linear portion.
As the slopes of the characteristics are
significantly different at this point, the
inductances of the two windings are
also significantly different. Therefore the
voltage on the windings is not divided
evenly, i.e. the winding with the largest
inductance will have the highest voltage.
This higher voltage will create a higher
flux level, increasing the B-phase flux
towards the magnitude of the C-phase flux.
The result is that the flux in B and C
phases rapidly equalizes and eliminates the
effect of their residual flux. This
phenomenon is referred to
score flux equalization.”
phase transformers, the flux in the main
core legs sum to zero [5]. This is true for
transformers with a three- legged core or a
delta winding. It is not the case for
transformers without a delta-connected
winding that are single phase or have five-
legged or shell-form cores. If one phase of
a transformer which is configured such
that fluxes sum to zero is energized such
that its core leg does not go into saturation,
the flux in that phase is equal to its
prospective flux at every instant. Since the
prospective fluxes and the core fluxes
must sum to zero, the induced dynamic
core fluxes must equal their prospective
fluxes two times per cycle [2]. This is
illustrated in Figure 7, where A-phase
with zero residual flux is closed at point
“A” and immediately induces dynamic
fluxes in phase B and C.

Figure 6. Flux-current core characteristic showing how the effective inductance of the B and C
phase windings depend upon the residual flux and the trajectory around the hysteresis loop.
After phase A
As already is energized,
mentioned, the dynamicflux
in most three- in the other two phases results in an inductance
difference causing rapid core flux equalization.
 therefore optimal for this residual flux
pattern. If the residual fluxes were slightly
higher on these two phases, point “A”
would be optimal for a simultaneous
closing of all three phases. This offers
some unique opportunities for lower
voltage systems, where independent-pole-
control circuit breakers are uncommon.
This is called the “simultaneous” closing
strategy.

As previously mentioned, after one phase

is energized, the residual flux in the other
phases is rapidly eliminated by “core flux
Depending upon the polarities of the
equalization.” This means that if one phase
residual flux in the two legs, the dynamic
is energized when the residual and
core flux and prospective fluxes will be
prospective core fluxes are equal, and that
equal either at the point marked “B” or
the closing of the last two phases is
“C” in Figure 7. These points offer the
delayed a few cycles, residual flux can be
opportunity to energize the other two
ignored on these two phases. This is
phases without saturation of the core.
referred to as the “delayed closing
This closing strategy is called “rapid
strategy.” This strategy is demonstrated in
closing.” The point marked “B” obviously
the test energization of a laboratory
is more tolerant to closing timing error
transformer in Figure 8.
than point “C”, since the slopes of the
prospective and dynamic fluxes are nearly
equal for a period of approximately a
millisecond, which is not the case at point
“C”.
Another interesting closing opportunity
can also be observed in Figure 7. At point
“A”, where the first phase is closed, the
dynamic and prospective fluxes of the
other two phases are nearly equal and
Simulation Results Showing inrush currents
 Future scope:

Employing controlled closing on one transients from the first closing to die out,
phase and the other two has little merit, as and for the other two phases to reach a
inrush is still produced by the other two new optimum state.
phases. Infact if all the three phases are Conclusions
energized at the same instant; inrush
In most three-phase transformers it is
current is guaranteed for at least one of the
possible to use residual flux
phases. The optimum method is to close
measurements and controlled closing to
the first phase at a desired closing angle,
eliminate transformer inrush transients.
then wait for n half cycles, where n is an
Three strategies have been proposed for
odd integer, and then close the other two
controlled energization of multi-phases
phases at another optimum time. The delay
transformers.
of n half cycles is allowed for the flux
 two phases after 2-3 cycles. It requires
knowledge of the residual flux in one
phase only, independent pole breaker
control, but does not require any
transformer parametric data.

Simultaneous Closing Strategy

This strategy closes all three phases

together at an optimum point for the
Figure 8. Laboratory test showing
residual flux pattern. It does not require
delayed closing strategy on a transformer
independent pole breaker control, but
with a three-legged core and a delta-
requires knowledge of the residual flux in
connected winding.
all three phases and that the residual flux
For all three strategies, closing each
magnitudes in two phases are high and
winding when the prospective and
follow the most traditional residual flux
dynamic core fluxes are equal results in an
pattern.
optimal energization, without core
Part II of this paper will further investigate
saturation or inrush transients.
the selection of the appropriate strategy
and discuss practical aspects such as
Rapid Closing Strategy This strategy
breaker closing errors.
closes one phase first and the remaining
two phases within a quarter cycle. It
requires knowledge of the residual flux in
all three phases, independent pole breaker
control, and a model of the transformers References
transient performance (no studies were [1] Moraw, G., et al, “Point-On-Wave
run to compare transient performance of Controlled Switching of High Voltage
different transformer designs to determine Circuit-Breakers,” CIGRE paper 13-02,
error from assuming a standard model). pp. 1-6, 28 August-3 September1988.

Delayed Closing Strategy [2] Brunke, J.H., “Elimination of Transient

This strategy closes one phase first and the Inrush Currents When Energizing
remaining Unloaded Power
Transformers,” Doctoral Dissertation No.
12791, ETH Zurich 1998.

[3] EMTP, “Electro-magnetic Transient

Program, Rule Book,” Bonneville Power
Administration, Revised, Portland,
Oregon, pp. 227-339, Sept. 1980.

[4] Colombo, E., Santagostino, G.,

“Results of the enquiries on actual
network conditions when switching
magnetizing and small inductive and on
transformer and shunt reactor saturation
characteristics,” Electra, No. 94, pp. 35-
53, May 1984.

[5] Holmgren, R., Jenkins, R.S.,

Riubrugent, J.,“Transformer Inrush
Current,” CIGRE paper 12-03, CIGRE
Paris, pp. 1-13, 1968.
 A paper presentation on
“HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM”

By
S.Md.Ishan Ali K.M.Nayeem Ali
06691A0222 06691A0258
III B.tech, EEE III B.Tech, EEE
ishanalishaik@gmail.com km.nayeem.ali@gmail.com
MITS,ANGALLU MITS, ANGALLU
ABSTRACT:
In mid eighties a decision was taken
to incorporate HVDC transmission schemes
in the power transmission system in India.
The limitations of use of high voltage AC
transmission of bulk power over long
distance invite the attention of transmission
of high voltage DC for long length of line.
In AC transmission systems the power
transfer is governed by voltage difference
as well as angular difference between
sending and receiving end where as in DC
systems transmitted power is governed only
by the magnitudes of terminal DC voltages
between the two ends. The controllability
of HVDC power is fast & stable. The
current flows from higher voltage to lower
voltage by proper setting of rectifier and
inverter. The scope of application of HVDC
system increases by bringing into the use
multi terminal system operation. With the
development of HVDC system, there is a
greater awareness regarding DC
transmission. Using HVDC to inter connect
two points in a power grid, in many cases it
is the best economical alternative and
further more it has more excellent
environmental benefits. The HVDC
technology is used to transmit electricity
over long distance by overhead
transmission lines or submarine cables.
With an HVDC system the power flow can
be controlled rapidly and accurately as to
both the power level in the direction. This
possibility is often used to improve the
efficiency and performance of the
connected AC networks.
The time has now come for a further major
advance in technology. The introduction of
new concepts will change whole approach to
building an HVDC station. Even though this
innovation may not be quite as significant as
when thyristor valves were introduced, the
new features will really improve the operating
characteristics of HVDC transmissions and
reduce the size and complexity of converter
stations.
The new generation of converter stations is
now likely to include some of the following
features:
• a new type of converter circuit, the
capacitor commutated converter
(CCC)
• actively tuned AC filters
• air insulated outdoor thyristor
valves
• Active DC filters.
Keywords:
converter circuit, capacitor commutated
Converter, actively tuned AC filter, outdoor
thyristor valve,
active DC filter.
Introduction to HVDC:
HVDC (High Voltage Direct
Current) transmission systems connect two
separate high voltage AC Systems via a DC
link. The basic principle of operation of an
HVDC system is based on the conversion of
AC to DC and vice-versa by means of
converter valves comprising power
thyristors, which are the heart of a converter
station.

HVDC technology:
The conceptual design of the classic
HVDC converter stations of today dates
back from the mid 1970's, when thyristor
valves were taking over in place of the
mercury arc valves. But there has been a
dramatic development in the performance
of HVDC equipment and systems.
(smoothing reactor) is always installed on
the DC side to reduce the ripple in the direct
current. In addition, a DC filter is also
normally needed to reduce the level of
harmonic currents in the DC overhead line.
The harmonics may otherwise cause
interference to telephone circuits in the
vicinity of the DC line. The power
transmitted over the HVDC transmission is
controlled by means of a control system. It
adjusts the triggering instants of the thyristor
valves to obtain the desired combination of
voltage and current in the DC system.

TYPES IN HVDC TRANSMISSION:-

There are three different categories of
HVDC transmissions:

1.Point-to-Point Transmission
2.Back-to-Back stations
3.Multi terminal systems

HVDC point-to-point transmission:

A HVDC converter station uses
thyristor valves to perform the conversion Monopolar and bipolar HVDC transmissions
from AC to DC and vice versa. The valves
are normally arranged as a 12-pulse
converter. The valves are connected to the Most HVDC transmissions are point-
AC system by means of converter to-point transmissions using overhead lines
transformers. or submarine cables or a combination of
The valves are normally placed in a building lines and cables. Many of the cable
and the converter transformers are located transmissions are monopolar with only one
just outside. The 12-pulse HVDC converter metallic conductor between the converter
produces current harmonics (11th, 13th, stations and using the ground as the return
23rd, 25th, 35th, 37th etc.) on the AC side. path for the current.
These harmonics are prevented from
entering into the connected AC network by
AC filters, i.e. resonant circuits comprising
capacitors, inductances (reactors) and
resistors.
The filters also produce a part of the
reactive power consumed by the converter.
The HVDC converter also gives rise to
voltage harmonics on the DC side (12th,
24th, 36th etc.). A large inductance

Most overhead line transmissions are
bipolar, i.e. they use two conductors of
opposite polarity (one positive and one
negative). A bipolar transmission is in fact
a double circuit transmission, since one
pole can continue to transmit power when
the other pole is out of service.
HVDC back-to-back station:
A HVDC back-to-back station is
normally used to create an asynchronous
interconnection between two AC networks.
There are several back-to-back stations in
operation in the world. In these installations
both the rectifier and the inverter are
located in the same station and are normally
used in order to create an asynchronous
interconnection between two AC networks,
which could have the same or different
frequencies.
A back-to-back station is normally
somewhat simpler than a converter station
for a transmission project. The direct
voltage level can be selected without
consideration to the optimum values for an
overhead line and a cable, and is therefore
normally quite low, 150 kV or lower. The
only major equipment on the DC-side is a
smoothing reactor. The control equipment
can also be simplified, as there is no need
for a telecommunication link between the
two converters.
HVDC multi-terminal system:
A multi-terminal HVDC
transmission is an HVDC system with more
than two converter stations.
A multi-terminal HVDC
transmission is more complex than an
ordinary point-to-point transmission. In
particular, the control system is more
elaborate and the telecommunication
requirements between the stations become
larger. The HVDC Light technology makes
multi terminal systems a lot easier since it
is no need to balance the currents like in
“conventional multi-terminal” HVDC.
HVDC Converters :-
The new generation of converter
stations is now likely to include some of the
following features:
 A new type of converter circuit, the
capacitor commutated converter
(CCC)
 Actively tuned AC filters
 Air insulated outdoor thyristor valves
 Active DC filters
.

1. CAPACITOR COMMUTATED
CONVERTERS
1.1 General
In a conventional HVDC converter the
consumption of reactive power is typically
around 0.5 p.u. of the active power. This
reactive power requirement is in most cases
fully compensated for locally by installation
of shunt AC filters in the converter station.
Requirements for permitted reactive power
unbalance, or AC voltage changes upon filter
switching, in many cases result in splitting of
the installed reactive power into several
filter/shunt banks.
Figure 1: Single line diagram of a monopolar
station with
CCC and ConTune® AC filter.
Consequently, many other main circuit
components, in addition to the filter
components, such as switching equipment,
CTs, etc, must be installed. The filters will
therefore take up considerable space in a
converter station.
1.2 De-coupling of filtering and reactive
power supply
The development of new, effective AC filters,
described in a separate section of this paper,
makes it possible to perform the filtering
function through a single filter bank with
small Mvar rating. The new AC filter thus
allows decoupling of the functions of the
filtering and the reactive power generation to a
large extent. In this situation, the traditional
way of generating the required reactive power
would be to install a number of shunt
capacitor banks. However, during the last few
years, another concept, the capacitor
commutated converter, abbreviated CCC, hich
provides a much more interesting solution, has
been studied and developed.
1.3 The CCC concept
The electrical diagram of a CCC is shown in
Fig. 2. This converter is characterized by the
use of commutation capacitors inserted in
series between the converter transformers
and the valve bridge. This circuit has been
proposed in several previous papers, see, for
example, Refs. and 2, as a method of
obtaining a self-commutated converter.
However, the ABB approach does not aim at
achieving a self-commutated converter:
instead, it provides reactive power
compensation proportional to the load of the
converter. The need of switchable shunt
capacitor banks for reactive power
compensation is thereby eliminated. Since
the AC filters are necessary only from the
point of view of filtering harmonics, the
shunt-connected reactive power generation
can be minimized. In the ABB solution the
size of the commutation capacitor is chosen
o that the full load reactive power
consumption of the converter is
compensated by the reactive generation of
the small high performance AC filter.
Fig. 3 compares the reactive power n direct current therefore results in a DC
conditions. voltage increase rather than the opposite,
which is the case for conventional inverters
with commutation margin control. The
dynamic stability of an inverter will thus be
dramatically improved with a CCC.

Figure 4: Remote single phase to ground

fault in the inverter AC network

Figure 3: Reactive power conditions for a

typical conventional converter and for a
CCC Conventional converter
1.4 Sturdily constructed and resistant to
disturbances
The commutation capacitors improve the
commutation failure performance of the
converter. The capacitors introduce a source
of commutation voltage in addition to the
AC bus voltage which, if proper control
Function’s are included, can be used to
minimize the risk of commutation failures.
Typically, a CCC can tolerate a sudden 15-
0% voltage drop without developing a
commutation failure.

1.5 Improved dynamic stability

The contribution to the commutation voltage
from the commutation capacitors results in
positive inverter impedance characteristics
for an inverter operating at minimum
commutation margin control. An increase I
Figure 5: Ud/Id characteristics. A key
The improved inverter performance as component in a
described above results in more economical CCC is the
solutions, particularly for HVDC schemes commutation
feeding weak systems and for HVDC capacitor. The
Schemes using very long DC cables. Fig. 6 steady state
shows the MAP (Maximum Available operating voltage
Power) curves for a conventional converter of the
and a CCC for SCR = 2. A scan be seen, the commutation
CCC is in a very stable situation while the capacitor is
conventional converter is close to the defined by the
stability limit. The diagrams also show that direct current.
the load rejection over voltage which occurs The capacitors
upon pole tripping or commutation failures must be
is reduced from 1.5 to 1.2 p.u. as a result o f protected against
the small size of the shunt-connected filters over voltages by
for the C CC. The small hunt filters will parallel ZnO varistors. The voltage stresses
also reduce the risk of low order harmonic on the capacitors, as well as the energy
resonances on the AC side. requirements made of the parallel varistors,
are relatively low compared to the installed
capacity, and consequently the commutation
capacitors can be of compact design.

Figs. 7 and 8 show a typical layout for a

commutation capacitor with its varistors,
and the voltage of the commutation
capacitor in normal operation.

Figure 6: Maximum power curve for

conventional and Capacitor Commutated
Converters, SCR = 2, g=17º.
1.6 The capacitor in the CCC concept
In principle, it would be possible to locate
the capacitors on the AC side of the
converter transformers, as proposed in Refs.
3 and 4.However, it was deemed that it
would not be possible to completely avoid
ferro-resonance problems and certain other
drawbacks using this concept. The location
of the capacitors between the converter
transformers and the valve bridge results in
full control of the capacitor currents and
complete elimination of the risk of ferro-
resonance.
Figure 8: Commutation capacitor voltage.
.
1.7 Effects on other equipment
Introduction of commutation capacitors
results in different stresses on the other
equipment compared to a conventional
HVDC converter. The main influence from
the capacitors is a considerable reduction of
valve short circuit currents. This is due to
the voltage drop across the commutation
capacitor varistors. On the other hand, a
somewhat higher peak voltage across the
valve, as well as higher extinction voltage
steps, will be obtained compared to
conventional HVDC. The voltage
contribution from the commutation
capacitors will support the commutation of
the direct current from one valve to another;
i.e., the overlap angle will be reduced
compared to a conventional HVDC
converter. The reduced overlap angle will
result in somewhat higher AC harmonic
currents and the reduced overlap will, in
combination with the higher extinction
voltage step, give somewhat increased
generation of harmonics on the DC side
compared to conventional HVDC. The
increased harmonic production of a CCC is
of the order of 20 % and can be coped with
by using high performance filters on both
the AC and DC sides.
Figure 9: Valve short circuit current.
With the location of the commutation
capacitors on the valve side of the converter
transformer, the rating of the converter
transformer can be reduced by reducing the
nominal phase-phase voltage on the valve
side; i.e., the reactive power flow through
the transformer is minimized.
1.8 Impact on station design
The elimination of switched reactive power
compensation equipment will simplify the
AC switchyard and minimize the number of
circuit-breakers needed, which will reduce
the area required for an HVDC station built
ith CCC.
1.9 CCC - a fully developed concept
The CCC concept has been thoroughly
studied in both digital simulation programs
and in the HVDC simulator over the last few
years. Design rules for the CCC have been
developed and verification of the CCC
concept in a high power test circuit will be
finalized at the beginning of 1996.
2. CONTINUOUSLY TUNED AC
FILTERS
2.1 General
HVDC converters produce current
harmonics on the AC side and voltage
harmonics on the DC side. For a 12-pulse
converter, AC-side harmonics of the order
12n±1 are created. A typical filter set-up
consists of 11/13 and HP24 filters.
To obtain good performance, low
impedance tuned filters often need to be
provided for the lowest characteristic
harmonics; i.e., the 11th and 13th.
Filters have two important characteristics:
impedance and bandwidth. Low impedance
is required to ensure that harmonic voltages
have a low magnitude. A certain bandwidth
is needed to limit the consequences of filter
detuning.
Detuning of conventional filters is caused by
network frequency excursions and
component variations, e.g. capacitance
changes due to temperature differences.
A filter in which tuning can be adjusted to
follow frequency variations and component
variations offer several advantages:
- the filter can be designed with a high
Q-factor to provide a low impedance
for the harmonics
- automatic tuning will ensure that all
risks of resonances and current
amplification phenomena are
eliminated, implying that the ratings of
the AC filter component scan be
reduced.
ABB has developed and field-tested a new
method to achieve continuous automatic
tuning of an AC filter. The concept is based control winding is around 1 kW per phase.
on orthogonal magnetizing of an iron core in
the filter reactor. The reactor inductance is
controlled by a direct current creating a field
perpendicular to the main axis of the
reactor..

The permeability of
magnetic materials can
be changed by
2.3 Operational experience
applying a transverse
A test installation of an 11th harmonic
DC magnetic field.
ConTune® filter was made in the Lindome
This permeability
station of the 300 MW Konti-Skan 2 HVDC
controlling field has to
transmission in 1993. The filter has the same
be oriented
generated reactive power, 11.6 MVAr at 132
perpendicular to the
kV, as the original filter. Fig. 12 shows the
main flux direction and
test installation.
has the effect of
lowering the
permeability by
”destroying” favourably oriented magnetic
domains. A transverse DC field is able to
reduce the permeability by several orders of
magnitude without affecting the linearity of
the magnetizing process. Because of the
linearity no additional harmonics are
produced.

The conventional filter reactor design has

been modified by inserting a core and a
control winding. A DC current in the control
windng affects the permeability of the core
and thus changes the inductance of the
reactor. No mechanically moving parts are
needed. Fig. 10 shows thebasic design of the
reactor.
2.2. Control of tuned AC filters
A simplified diagram of the filter control is
shown in Fig. 11. The phase angle between
the voltage and current of the harmonic is
used as an input signal to control tuning.
The regulator is a PI-regulator and a small
standard 6- pulse controlled rectifier is used
as amplifier to feed the control winding of
the reactor. The power needed to feed the
The filter was designed to accommodate
frequency variations and component
variations that represent the detuning (+2, -3
Hz).
A comparison of the performance of the
passive and active tuned filters shows that
the 11th harmonic distortion was reduced
from around 0.026% with the passive filter
to around 0.010% with the ConTune® filter
with its Q factor of around 200. The
converter was in both cases operating under
the same conditions.
It should be noted that the original AC
filters in Lindome have a high quality factor
for the 11th and 13th filter, Q=65, while a
typical value is 30-40. Hence, the distortion
with the passive filter was already very low.
The filter performance measured at the test
installation shows that the ConTune®
concept is an appropriate solution. The test
installation has been in operation now for
more than two years and operating
experience has been good. Commercial
installation of a ConTune® filter is already
in progress at the Celilo terminal of the
Pacific Intertie.
3. OUTDOOR HVDC VALVE
DESIGN
3.1 General
The outdoor air-insulated thyristor valve is a
new component, made possible by the
development of high power thyristors. It
gives increased flexibility in the station
layout; eliminates the need of a valve hall,
including its subsystems; reduces the
equipment size; and makes it easier to
upgrade existing stations. Future relocation
of an HVDC station will also be simpler
when outdoor HVDC valves are used.
The outdoor valve unit is built as a single
valve function; consequently, 12 units are
needed for a 12-pulse convertor. Inside the
outdoor valve unit, the electrical
configuration is of traditional design with
air-insulated thyristor modules and reactor
modules, and the ambient conditions for
these components being the same as for a
valve hall solution.
3.2 Elements of the outdoor valve
The basic elements of the outdoor valve are:
* Valve housing.
The encapsulation of the valve is made of
steel or aluminium. The insulation medium
inside the housing is air at atmospheric
pressure. The size of the valve housing has
been chosen to make transportation of a
complete and assembled valve possible on
roads and railways. The length of the valve
housing is a function of the DC voltage for
the valve.
* Active part with thyristor and reactor
modules.
The modules are of water-cooled design,
similar to the modules used for an indoor
installation.
* Platform with support insulators.
The platform for a single valve housing or a
number of valves is of the same design as
used for series capacitor banks.
* Communication channel.
An important new element needed for the
outdoor valve design is a communication
channel. It consists of a composite insulator
for DC application which is used for fibre
optics, cooling water and ventilation air
between the valve housing and earth.
* Valve base electronics.
The valve base electronics can be located
very close to a single valve or be common to
a number of valves. The valve control and
opto interface are included in the valve base
electronics.
* Valve cooling including air-cooled liquid
coolers and cooling control.
The most suitable solution as seen today for
the valve cooling is to have a cooling system
serving one pole, i.e., 12 valves. In most
cases the cooling system will be a closed
single-circuit system with a coolant
consisting of a mixture of water and glycol
for anti-freeze purposes.
3.3 Operational experience
A test valve in the Konti-Skan 1 HVDC link
has given operational experience of a valve
designed for 275 kV DC voltage since June
1992. The operation of the test installation
has been very successful, and has provided a
basis for further development. The ongoing
development is aiming at an outdoor valve
design for 500 kV DC voltage.
4. ACTIVE DC FILTERS
4.1 General
Demands regarding permitted interference
levels from DC lines have become
increasingly stringent in recent years. To
fulfill these requirements using passive
filters a number of large parallel branches
are necessary. A more attractive solution is
therefore to use an active DC filter in
combination with a small passive DC filter
branch.
4.2 Operating principles
The principle of the active filter is to inject a
current via the passive DC filter into the DC
circuit as shown in Fig. 13.
The current to be injected is formed from the
measured harmonics on the DC line. A
control system calculates the amplitude and
phase angle of a signal that is injected via a
power amplifier into the DC circuit to
eliminate the harmonics on the DC line. In
Fig. 14 the harmonic content on the DC line
is shown for a typical installation, both with
and without the active filter in operation. As
can be seen from the figure, the active filter
reduces the harmonic content considerably.
4.3 Operational experience
The first prototype was commissioned in
December 1991. Commercial installations
have been in operation since autumn 1993
and autumn 1994 for the Skagerrak and
Baltic Cable HVDC schemes, respectively.
Today active DC filters is a standard
solution for HVDC transmissions with
stringent DC filtering requirements.
5. NEW CONVERTER STATION
DESIGN
Through utilizing the features described in
this paper a major impact on the design of
converter stations is foreseen.
An example of a HVDC converter station
for a monopolar scheme incorporating the
features described in this paper is shown in
Fig.15.
As can be seen from the layout, four phases
of the ConTune® 11th, 13th and passive
high pass filters are included. The fourth
phase is added for redundancy reasons in
case of a filter outage and can be connected
to each of the three phases .
Advantages of HVDC over AC
Transmission:-
 Under sea cables (e.g. 250 km Baltic
Cable between Sweden and Germany
).
 Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk
power transmission without
intermediate 'taps', for example, in
remote areas.
 Increasing the capacity of an existing
power grid in situations where
additional wires are difficult or
expensive to install.
 Allowing power transmission
between unsynchronized AC
distribution systems.
 Reducing the profile of wiring and
pylons for a given power transmission
capacity.
 Connection of remote generating
plant to the distribution grid.
 Stabilizing a predominantly AC
power-grid, without increasing
maximum prospective short circuit
current.
Drawback of the HVDC
Transmission system:
The required static invertors are
expensive and cannot be overloaded very
much. At smaller transmission distances the
losses in the static inverters may be bigger
than in an AC power line, and the cost of the
inverters may not be offset by reductions in
line construction cost. In contrast to AC
systems, realizing multiterminal systems is
complex, as is expanding existing schemes to
multiterminal systems. Controlling power
flow in a multiterminal DC system requires
good communication between all the
terminals.
APPLICATION OF HVDC
TRANSMISSION IN INDIA:-
 Rihand - Delhi and Chandrapur -
Padghe were the first long distance
HVDC projects in India. The 1500
MW Rihand - Delhi transmission was
put into service in 1990. It transmits
power from the Rihand - Singrauli
thermal power complex with a
combined power generation of several
thousand MW, over a distance of 814
km to Dadri station, close to the
capital of India.
 The 1500 MW Chandrapur - Padghe
transmission was put into service in
1998. It transmits power from the
Chandrapur in the eastern part of
Maharashtra over a distance of 736
km to the Mumbai area.
 In 1983-84, when decision was being
taken to introduce HVDC in India,
Government of India supported a 100
kV, 100 MW experimental line
HVDC project - called National
HVDC project - with the sole
objective of developing indigenous
technology, entrusted its execution to
BHEL. This monopole project
involved conversion of one circuit of
existing double circuit 220 kV AC
lines between Lower Sileru (Andhra
Pradesh) and Barsoor (Madhya
Pradesh) to HVDC transmission on
the same tower.
 Consequently, in 1986, the
Department of Electronics (DOE),
Govt. of India, sponsored a project
under the national HVDC R &D
programme on "Research,
Development and Training in HVDC
Transmission Technology" at IIT
Kanpur.
CONCLUSIONS
Several new concepts which will result in a
new generation of HVDC converter stations
have been developed over the past few
years. Capacitor commutated converters,
actively tuned AC filters and outdoor
thyristor valves are three of the most
important new features. Active DC filters,
optical current transducers, fully computer-
based converter controls and deep hole
electrodes are other important elements.
These technological advances will result in
improved operating characteristics, reduced
complexity and smaller area requirements
for future HVDC converter stations.

REFERENCES

1. Reeve J, Baron JA and Hanley

GA, Oct 1968, “A Technical
Assessment of Artificial
Commutation of HVDC
Converters with Series
Capacitors”, IEEE Trans. on
PAS; Vol. PAS-87, No. 10, pp.
1830-1840.
2. Gole AM and Menzies RW,
“Analysis of Certain Aspects of
Forced Commutated HVDC
Inverters.”
3. Nyati S, Atmuri SR, Gordon D,
Koschnik V and Matur RM,
April 1988, “Comparison of
Voltage Control Devices at
HVDC Converter Stations.”
IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery; Vol. 3, No. 2,
4. Woodford DA, Zheng F, May
1995, “Series Compensation of
DC Links.”, CIGRE
Symposium, Power Electronics
in Electric Power Systems,
Tokyo.
 POWER SYSTEM AUTOMATION& CONTROL
BY

SUPERVISORY CONTROL
&
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

JNTU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PULIVENDULA
Author1: Author2:
Mr.CH.Veeraiah, Mr.V.Ramesh,
3rd EEE, 3rd EEE,
06191A0254, 06191A0246,
Email;veeraiah.joy254@gmail.com, Email;ur_ramesh4u4ever@rediffmail.co
Ph. No-9490459631. Ph. No-9393833784.
 ABSTRACT
The present day world is withering with energy crisis .At this situation there is an
immediate need is to utilize the generated power in a proper way .So, we need an Automation
System through which we can operate, control & manage the energy at the substation level.

The relentless growth in the Automation of various power system operations by interfacing the
hardware components & sophisticated software .one such is by SUPERVISORY CONTROL & DATA
ACQUISITION ( SCADA),has almost replaced the moribund & hectic jobs previously done manually
.Our paper mainly deals with power system automation & control by SCADA, what is SCADA,
its hardware & subsystems ,data flow through communication systems, advantages,
disadvantages, & how it is going to revolutionize the field of automation in power systems of
sub-stations under transmission

Introduction to SCADA:

Automation in various power system operations is possible by SCADA. In simple

terms we can say that just by seeing the one line diagram Of sub station on the screen we can
operate the circuit breaker, transformer’s Tap changing, position of isolators just by operating the
mouse provided at the server in Area Load Dispatch Center (ALDC) this is called as
Supervisory Control .In addition to this we can see the real time data of various power systems
like MW (active power) & MVAR (reactive power) etc, on the screen. This is called as Data
acquisition.

FUNCTIONS OF SCADA :
• DATA ACQUISITION.
• PROCESSING OF ACQUIRED DATA.
• LIMIT / STATUS MONITORING & ALARMING.
• NETWORK STATUS PROCESSOR.
• SEQUENCE OF EVENT RECORDING.
• INFORMATION STORAGE & RETRIEVAL.
• DATA EXCHANGE
• SUPERVISORY CONTROL
Main parts of SCADA:
1. SCADA hardware: Transducers, Remote Terminal Units(RTU),,Front End
Processors(FEP),Multiplexers, LAN, WAN, Modems, energy management system.
2. SCADA software: SCADA software is installed in the servers provided at ALDC, and
also consists of SCADA LOGGER, SCADA PHONE ,Mod Bus Simulator.

1.SCADA HARDWARE:
TRASDUCERS:
It takes analog I.e voltage or current signals from CT and PT and convert them DC milli Amps
Current Signal and fed to Analog Card. The Analog Card then converts to digital signal with the
help of Analog to Digital Converter GE Harris a company in USA is providing transducers for
the analog input points .Transducers provide the signal of voltage and currents to RTU inputs .A
2.5 sq.mm cable is used to connect the (CT’S, PT’S) and the transducers .Transducers are
connected at the secondaries of CT’s. Transducers consists of separate ports for R,Y,B phases
,input ,output ports separately. The output of transducers may be (0-10)mA,(4-20)mA,(0-
5)mA&(0-5)v,(0-10)v depending upon the type of transducers used .
REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS (RTU):
RTU’s are placed at remote places .It is small rugged computer and it provides intelligence in the
field .It allows the SCADA master to communicate with the field instruments. It’s open ended
architecture gives freedom to modules as required .All critical RTU’S are provided with two
communication channels and these channels are connected ,one to each FEP, for redundancy.
FUNCTIONS OF RTU:
1. To control process equipment at the remote site.
2. Aquire data from the equipment.
3. Transfer the data back to the central SCADA system.
4. RTU directly communicates with the (FEP) at area load dispatch centre.
FRONT END PROCESSOR (FEP):
The function on the FEP is to act as an interface between the computer system and the RTUS
located locally and at Remote substations .There are two FEP’S provided at each ALDC &state
load dispatch centres(SLDC)site. As the SLDC also function as local sub load dispatch centre
for its area .E ach FEP consists of dual LAN interface And remote channel controller (RCC)
modules. The RCC modules provide RS 232 interface ports for connecting to the RTU. FEP
transfers data to the controlling server. The FEP responds to the controlling server‘s demands for
performing the required function at RTU’S FEP are redundtly configured so as to communicate
via either LAN to the controlling server. FEP performs the function of communicating to the
RTU’S.FEP transfers data to the controlling server in a timely fashion FEP also responds to the
controlling servers demands for performing the Required functions at the RTU’S.

MULTIPLEXER&OPTICAL LINE TERMINATION EQUIPMENT(OLTE):

The information from various substations through fiber optic cable is given to OLTE
equipment. The OLTE converts the laser Rays into data and is given to the multiplexer. The
multiplexer in turn communicates with the RTU at substation centre. On the other end at the
control center the OLTE directly communicates with OLTE at the other substation. At the
control centre FEP, multiplexer and OLTE intercommunicate within them. If the communication
is nit possible by optical fibre cable then we can use the microwave type of transmission. For
these we use transmitters and receivers at both control centers and substation side. The following
block diagram will show the SCADA HARDWARE CONNECTIVITY WITH
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM .

The FEP is also connected to server (mainframe type of system at ALDC)which is loaded with
EMS data and SCADA software .this has the capability to convert the values provided by the
transducers into required power system units .Other end of the FEP is connected to LAN
through hub.
LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK):
Two LANs are provided For redundancy .Its redundant backbones consists of Ethernet
10Base-T switches. Each switch is capable in star topology .the use of switches provides
10MBITSper second between each pair of devices on the network. The servers, FEPs, Printers
.Loggers are connected on LAN. It serves as data highway connecting the SCADA hardware
systems .To this a broadcast interface for the exchange and propagation of dynamically changing
data which are needed at multiple nodes in the network .The system automatically reconfigure
itself to use the backup LAN when a failure is detected in the primary LAN. The following
diagram shows the LAN network at ALDC.
WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK):

Redundant routers are used to provide the data interface for data and message exchange between
site locations i;e.,subLDC to SLDC ,SLDC to RSCC. The communication protocol used for data
transfer is inter center communication protocol (ICCP).Functionally routers(prevents
accumulation of data) are high and modular routers ,with remotely downloadable flash memory
and supporting multiple network interface processor modules including 10BASE-T ether net and
V.35 WAN modules .The following diagram shows the WAN network
MODEM:
These are supplied to establish communication link s between the master stations and the
RTU’s. The MODEMs provided here are ABB NSK-5 type modems.
MODEMS meet the following requirements:
1. MODEMS communicate at data rates from 50 to 2400 bps.
2. Use frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation.
EMS data flow:
RSCC and SLDC energy manaqgement functions exchange data during the iterative
cycle of determining a current operating plan.This data consists of schedule data for generation
,interchanges and load shed.This process is known as EMS interoperability. the following block
diagram shows the data flow from various state load dispatch centers(SLDC) to REGIONAL
SYSTEM CONTROL CENTER(RSCC).
2.SCADA SOFTWARE:
SCADA LOGGER:
It is a utility that augments the data logging and report capability of SCADA systems that
support DDE&OPC interface. SCADA logger can be configured to maintain an unlimited
number of archives containing a unlimited number of analog, discrete or string tags. SCADA
loggers Excel interface enables the automatic generation of reports. SCADA loggers continuosly
prints the different faults occurring within the permissible area allotted to area load dispatch
centers .They don’t wait for any external command. It is an automated device.
SCADA PHONE:
It is a 32 bit windows based alarm dialer designed to interface with windows 95,98and
NT based SCADA system .Its function is to continuously poll a scada system for the status of
alarm bits and place telephone calls report alarms as the trigger .It allows to set up a customized
voice menu system and voice mail boxes to act as answering machines. SCADA phone
implements an audio signal analyzer that can distinguish between silence, voice, tone coming
from the telephone being called .Depending upon the sequence, duration, frequency of these
three signal states, scada phone can be configured to respond in different ways.
MODBUS SIMULATOR:
It is a utility designed to a aid SCADA system developers in testing scada applications utilizing
PLCs using either modbus ASCII.It act as a PLC in the sense that it responds to RTU
communication .Enquires and maintain a register database that allows the scada designer to enter
values for specific registers in order to test the scada applications. Modbus simulator
communicates with the scada system via null modem cable. It can be run on the same machine as
the scada software if enough ports are available.
ADVANTAGES OF SCADA FOR POWER SYSTEM AUTOMATION:
• VIEWING OF REAL TIME DATA
• SUPERVISORY CONTROL
• ALARMS FOR ANY ABNORMAL CONDITION IN THE SYSTEM
• PLANNING OF ELECTRICAL POWER POSITION IN THE STATE
• USER FRIENDLY REPORT GENERATION
• ENERGY MANAGEMENT
• TIME SYNCHRONISATION WITH GPS ENTIRE SOUTH
DISADVANTAGES:
• SKILLED PEOPLE ARE REQUIRED TO OPERATE THE SYSTEM
• INITIAL COST HIGH
 CONCLUSION
Though INDIA has been using SCADA very effectively the systems presently used are
obsolete compared to those used in developed countries like france, Europe, U.S.A. The existing
system lack supervisory control of circuit breakers, transformers, tap changing ,generator output
regulation etc. It also lacks network analysis function and interchange transaction schedule and
energy management system functions such as load forecasting, hydro thermal co-ordination,
disturbance recorder, sequence of events and other real time dispatch functions.

Thus we have laid down the first step in the process of modernizing the hardware
interfacing using multiple software programs & by proposing an unified load dispatch scheme
.Using some more software like these we connect about 91 RTUs ,handle approx ,2731 analog
points ,5242 status points ,9738 signals from all substations, generating stations in the state.
Provided the Scada Hard Ware and its Software you can see the one line diagram of the
substation on the screen of the main frame like this.
 A Paper Presentation

On

VAR Compensation

Submitted By

K. Bharathi A. Bhanu Tej

III EEE III EEE

1
ABSTRACT:
An evaluation of advanced VAR
compensators for improving Power System
voltage stability is presented.
evaluation addresses the significance of
reactive power compensation, the effects
of uncompensated reactive power on the
Power System and some of the recent
techniques, which can be efficiently used
to compensate the reactive power.
The evaluation also includes the
dynamic performance of two categories of
advanced VAR compensation and the way
in which these capacitor techniques assist
in obtaining a smooth way of the reactive
power compensation.
The two categories of the devices
discussed include power electronically
switched capacitors and Inverter based
systems without energy storage namely
Adaptive VAR Compensator (AVC) and
Distribution Static Compensator
(DSTATCOM) respectively.
We present a comparison of the
performances of advanced
compensators in a simple utility system,
their operation, and other considerations.
As concern for power quality
continues to increase, more applications
for VAR support and compensation
appear. The latest is wind farms connected
The to utility grids. The unpredictable nature
of wind power causes fluctuation in the
amount of power produced. The large
wind turbine generators must produce and
absorb VAR current. This variation in the
VAR current demand is a real issue for
utility companies that accept the power
from these farms. Both types of
compensation devices discussed in this
article are used in this application as well
Conclusions on relative advantages
and disadvantages of the two categories of
the devices are also presented.
INTRODUCTION:
Electrical machines work on the
principle of conversion of electromagnetic
energy. (Electric motors, transformers). A
part of input energy is consumed for
creating and maintaining the magnetic
field. This part of the input energy cannot
be converted into active energy and is
VAR returned to the electrical network on
removal of the magnetic field. This power
is known as “reactive” power Q.
2
 Real power is the electrical energy reactive power demand from the
that does real work such as providing light generating stations.
in bulbs and turning motor shafts to
Hence, there is a necessity to adapt
provide horsepower. Reactive power is a
the reactive power compensation.
mysterious component of electricity
Transmission and Distribution utilities
unique to an alternating current (ac)
have traditionally addressed voltage
system. Volt-amperes reactive (VAR) is
stability concerns by installing capacitor
the measure of amount of current that
banks to provide the necessary reactive
makes up the reactive component. The
power support to the system.
VAR component of an ac electric system
flows out of phase with the real The emergence of new advanced
component and typically lags the real VAR compensators utilizing power
power flow. Reactive power is energy, electronics with binary switched
which must be produced for maintenance capacitors and inverter based systems with
of the system and is not produced for end- or without energy storage provides the
use consumption. It’s a ‘wattless’ power. solutions to the voltage stability problems.

The demand for the reactive power
arises at various points of the power
systems such as inductive
transformers, transmission and distribution
lines etc. The supply of reactive power
from the generating stations imposes
additional burden on the entire system and
results into poor power factor, power
losses, additional KVA rating, reduced
effective capacity of the transmission
lines, poor voltage at the consumer ends
etc. Therefore it is totally uneconomical
and technically unsuitable to meet the total
In today’s utility power market, the
concern for the kVAR portion of the
loads, electrical system is growing. Deregulated
utility systems want the flow of kVARs
kept to a minimum to insure maximum
flow of real power (kWs) through
transmission and distribution circuits.
Surges of reactive power can result in
power quality disturbances in the utility
system. Customers who see power factor
penalty charges applied to their utility bills
pay a penalty for this concern.

3
VAR COMPENSATION transient Torque on high Inertia Motors. In

METHODS: addition they may lead the network into a

resonance condition.
Utilities and others commonly
Switching in more capacitors
compensate for VARs in electrical power
allows a path for reactive power to
circuits throughout the entire system, from
circulate without having to flow in the
the utility transmission grid down to motor
complete electrical system. Reducing
control centers in a typical industrial plant.
kVAR current flow in the system causes
Reactive power compensation, normally in
the utility voltage to rise. Adding more
the form of Capacitors, can bring the
power factor correction increases the
average power factor to the desired level.
utility voltage. Thus, utilities employ
In most cases, fixed capacitors are
transformer tap-changing devices in
arranged in banks of varying sizes to
substations along with capacitor banks to
provide VAR compensation. Generally
manage the nominal voltage value of the
these are switched on or off remotely in
power system.
response to changing load conditions.
However, mechanical switching of In an industrial plant, capacitor
capacitors is not fast enough to cope with banks are used for much the same purpose
rapid and frequent variations of reactive but on a much smaller scale. The capacitor
power. banks are referred to as power factor
correction caps. Most are fixed valve
The capacitor switching
banks; some are mechanically switched in
mechanism generates high Transient
steps using contactors. As the plant load
currents. The resulting poor power quality
changes over the course of a day, some
can and does play havoc with
switching of these cap banks may occur.
Microprocessor based manufacturing
processes and creates a multitude of Switching a capacitor bank causes
problems for Computer based large current surges and voltage transients
environments. Under certain conditions to occur as the capacitors are connected to
switching of fixed capacitance could give a circuit. Depending on where on a voltage
rise to self-excitation and/or damaging sine wave the switching occurs, large
4
transients can actually shutdown sensitive disturbing and causes some individuals to
devices connected to the power system. feel ill.
This problem can be much worse, and
Flicker continues to be an issue,
cover a wide area, when a utility switches
and, coupled with growing concern for
a very large capacitor bank on the
overall power quality, flicker standards
medium- or high-voltage system. Different
and enforcement are getting much greater
schemes and devices are employed in
attention.
some cases to limit this phenomenon, but
it remains a problem for sensitive load EVALUATION OF ADVANCED
customers. Loads that generate large
VAR COMPENSATORS:
amounts of VARs with rapid variation
require special solutions. The devices that 1) POWER-
can mitigate these issues are referred to as
ELECTRONICALLY-
dynamic or "fast VAR" systems.
SWITCHED CAPACITORS:
FLICKER……THE FAST VAR
In the past, very large dynamic
PROBLEM: loads such as arc furnaces in steel mills
applied large rotating machines, called
The fluctuations in VAR demand
synchronous condensers as a VAR
create a new problem called flicker for
compensator. These devices are simply
electrical devices that have rapidly
large synchronous motors running with no
changing load characteristics. Flicker is
mechanical load. Adjustment of the
simply defined as a perceptible change in
excitation field on these motors allowed
the intensity of an electric light source due
for VAR current to flow in the winding of
to fluctuation of the input voltage. Simple
the motor instead of the utility, thus
examples of flicker are seen in most
providing compensation. During the last
homes every time a large load, such as the
20 years greater use of electronic devices
air conditioning compressor turns on.
has made dynamic VAR compensation
However, people living near a rock quarry
more cost effective. Thyristor-switched
or sawmill could experience this several
capacitors on power electronic inverters
times a minute. Cycle flicker is very

5
are the solid-state equivalent of a connected to each phase in order to
synchronous condenser. maintain the selected operating mode. The
controller filters any harmonics present on
ADAPTIVE VAR the voltage or current reference waveforms
COMPENSATOR (AVC): to ensure that compensation is based on
the 60-hertz (Hz) or fundamental
One of the most practical ways to
components only. An appropriate amount
provide dynamic VAR compensation is to
of reactive power is then injected into the
use silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) to
system during the following cycle, so the
provide very fast turn-on and turn-off of
maximum response time is one cycle or
banks of capacitors. This approach is
16.6 milliseconds (ms) for a 60-Hz power
called an adaptive VAR compensator
system. For more complex applications
(AVC) system
such as arc welding, the response time can
The AVC is a solid state switched be decreased to a half cycle.
capacitor bank, which can successfully
The primary power elements of an
compensate, within one cycle, with
AVC are capacitors, de-tuning reactors,
variable increments of reactive power, for
and solid-state switches. (See figure 1)
any fast changes in reactive demand. At
the heart of the AVC is a microprocessor-
based controller that constantly monitors
the phase voltages and the line or load
currents, updating the switching pattern of
the capacitors as required on a cycle-per-
cycle basis. By measuring the peak
magnitude of the current’s inductive
component (obtained as an instantaneous Fig 1 AVC Simplified online diagram.
value at the zero crossing of the
Every capacitor is pre-charged to
corresponding phase-to-neutral voltage
the peak of the supply voltage and remains
waveform), the microprocessor-based
charged until a triggering signal is applied
controller determines the required
to the solid-state switch (SCR). The
capacitive compensation that must be
6
triggering signals are synchronized to set
the switches into conducting mode only
when the system voltage reaches its peak.
At this instant (which corresponds to the
natural zero crossing of the capacitor
current), the potential across the solid-state
switch is near zero. This technique
generates no harmonics, and the AVC
operation causes no switching transients,
eliminating the current and voltage
transients associated with switching
capacitor banks.
The sizes of the capacitor banks
(C1, C2, C3, and C4) are based on a
binary progression. C2 is twice the value
of C1, and C3 is twice the value of C2,
and so on. A three-stage system would
produce seven combinations, a four-stage
15, and five-stage 31 combinations. Figure
2 is a graphical representation of a four-
stage AVC device
Fig (2) Four Stage AVC device
A set of solid-state switches
(composed of one SCR and one diode
connected in anti-parallel) controls each
capacitor stage. The diode enables the
capacitors in each stage to remain charged
to the peak value of the supply voltage and
provides a path for the flow of the
negative half cycle of the capacitor
current. While energizing and when the
supply voltage crosses zero, the diodes
conduct power thereby charging the
capacitors to the peak value of the supply
voltage. At this instant, the AVC current
changes direction, and the diodes stop
conducting. All capacitors become pre-
charged and remain in that condition until
a control signal is sent to the SCRs to have
them enter conduct mode.
The AVC accomplishes reactive
compensation with the harmonic filtering
necessary for the existing operating
environment. When required, each stage of
the AVC is tuned appropriately using a
series reactor, away from any potentially
damaging resonant conditions.
Figure 3 shows how the
components discussed above are arranged
in the cabinet of a typical 480-V AVC
system. For very large applications
7
(typically greater than 10,000 kVAR) the making the AVC suitable for unbalanced
system would be constructed using power systems.
medium-voltage SCR switches and
Any harmonic present on the line
medium-voltage capacitors assembled on
voltage or current is filtered out from the
open racks as typically seen in a utility
respective signals used by the AVC so that
substation.
the determination of the required amount
of compensation is unaffected by
waveform distortion.

The capacitors in each phase are

charged to the negative peak of the supply
voltage and remain so until a triggering
signal is applied to the solid-state switches
(SCR's). The triggering signals are timed
so as to set the switches into conducting
Fig 3 Typical AVC system
mode only when the system voltage

OPERATION OF THE AVC: reaches its negative peak. At this point the
potential across the switch is essentially
The AVC monitors the voltage and zero and it coincides with the natural zero
current flowing through each phase and, crossing of the capacitor current.
using signals proportional to the phase
In this fashion no harmonics are
currents, when the voltage waveform
generated and no transients are created by
crosses zero (i.e. the peak magnitude of
the AVC operation. The switches are light
the reactive current), determines the
activated and optically isolated from the
amount of compensating capacitance that
electronic circuitry thereby eliminating the
must be connected to each phase to
effects of Electro Magnetic Fields,
maintain the desired operating mode.
allowing the AVC to be connected to
Independent phase sensing of the power lines at high voltages. The
reactive current allows capacitors of each switching circuit of each phase consists of
phase to be switched independently, several binary ratio capacitors, connected
8
in Y and in series with a SCR. compensate for the inductive load
Additionally, snubbing circuits and small connected to the respective phase.
series inductance provide transient
The AVC can selectively be
protection to the SCR's.
operated on a manual mode in which a
A microprocessor updates the local or remote operator determines the
switching pattern of the capacitors every required compensation level or it can be
cycle, to minimize the magnitude of the operated in automatic mode in which the
line reactive current. This output is a AVC determines, on a cycle by cycle
decision code, which determines the basis, the appropriate amount of
proper value of capacitors to be switched capacitance that must be switched on to
on. achieve the following:

Should a failure occur in the 1. Provide reactive compensation

switching circuit resulting from power line
transients or lightening surges, a failure
detection circuit will provide the best
possible compensation for the given status
of the switching circuit. The AVC has a
built-in feature, which identifies the nature
of the malfunction.
adjusted on a cycle basis.
2. Maintain a predetermined voltage level
on each phase, independently or on a
time schedule basis.
3. Maintain a predetermined power factor
on each phase.

The AVC is enabled only when an 2) INVERTER BASED

interlock circuit detects currents from both
SYSTEMS WITHOUT ENERGY
sides of the device. This feature prevents
STORAGE:
any over-voltage, self-excitation, or
resonant condition.
DISTRIBUTION STATIC
The AVC monitors the voltage and COMPENSATOR
current on each phase and independently (DSTATCOM):
determines the appropriate capacitance to
A power electronic inverter system
can be connected to a feeder supplying a
9
dynamic VAR load and provide The reactive power output of an inverter-
compensation in the same fashion as a based system is proportional to the bus
rotating synchronous condenser. This type voltage.
of device, which is commonly referred to
as Dynamic Static Compensator
COMPARISION:
(DSTATCOM), can be applied to very
Adjusting output voltage higher
complex dynamic loads such as arc
than the utility voltage causes VAR
furnaces. These loads need compensation
current to flow to the load and eliminates
for both reactive and capacitive load
that demand on the utility. Conversely,
Components. A DSTATCOM device
lowering the voltage causes the inverter to
provides compensation by adjusting of the
draw current from the utility and reduces
output voltage coming from a power
the utility voltage slightly. This reduces
inverter connected to a utility circuit feed
the potential for any sudden voltage rises
(figure 4).
(swells) that can be caused by some
unique dynamic load devices. The
DSTATCOM device has this advantage of
positive on negative VAR compensation,
plus, a faster response time. Its response
time is 2-4 ms as compared to 8-16 ms of
the AVC type device. The AVC device is
used for numerous power factor correction
applications as well as flicker mitigation.
The AVC system reacts in less than one
cycle to the high current surges of the
shredder as car bodies are inserted into the
mill. In addition the AVC provides power
factor correction to the total site load to
Fig 4 DSTATCOM reduce the possibility of poor power factor
penalties.

10
 The cost of low voltage inverter 4. The voltage, the reactive power
based systems without energy storage is flow or the power factor is
about the same as that of power maintained at a specified value for
electronically switched capacitor systems all reactive load variations
with continuous reactive power output
5. The optimum amount of
ratings equal to that of overload capability
compensation required is
of the inverter based systems.
determined and switched in or out
CONCLUSION: on a cycle-by-cycle basis.

The Advanced VAR compensation 6. The capacitors are on a binary ratio

techniques utilizing power electronically to provide optimum range of

switched capacitors or inverter based compensation

systems without energy storage can be

7. No additional transformer is
used effectively to improve the power
required for the AVC, unlike other
system voltage stability:
reactive power compensation

1. They provide the most effective devices.

initial reactive power support to

8. Resonance is inherently suppressed
allow more rapid initial voltage
within a cycle
recovery in a very short time frame
less than few seconds. 9. The AVC can be monitored and its
settings changed via local Personal
2. No harmonic distortion or
Computer (PC) or remotely via
transients are generated due to the
modem access.
AVC's fast and smart controller, in
spite of line frequency shifts. 10. Failure of key components is
automatically diagnosed and the
3. Each phase is compensated
controls are adjusted to still
independently, making suitable for
provide an optimum compensation
improving unbalanced conditions.
for the given status of the

11
 remaining components. In case of capability compared to inverter-based
failure, the AVC will fail-safe. systems with the same overload capability.

11. The AVC's construction is modular BIBLIOGRAPHY:

for ease of maintenance.
1. Electrical Power Systems – C.L
12. The AVC is self-starting and does Wadhwa

not require any special power 2. Energy and Power Management –

source. Brad Roberts

3. www.bnpmedia.com
13. Custom design allows for
integration with other automatic 4. www.sandc.com

warning/control Systems 5. www.ieee.com

6. www.power-technology.com
The performance evaluation
presented indicates that inverter-based 7. www.shomepower.com
systems provide the most effective initial 8. www.power-capacitors.com
reactive power support to allow more
rapid initial voltage recovery in the time
frame less than one second after a fault is
cleared. The slightly improved voltage
recovery times obtained in the sample
utility system used in this paper come with
an additional cost for the energy-storage
module, which may not be economically
justified. Compensators with power
electronically switched capacitors provide
more effective reactive power support for
voltage recovery in the time frame beyond
one second after the fault is cleared due to
the higher continuous reactive power

12
 A Paper presentation on…
WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION
(WITRICITY)

Presented by…

Hari Akula Anurag tripathi

III B. Tech, EEE. III B. Tech, EEE
Contact:9985525811 E-mail:anuragtripathi213@gmail.com
Contact:9885061990

JNTU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PULIVENDULA
ABSTRACT:
The aim of this paper is to introduce a new system of transmitting the power which is
called wireless electricity or witricity. Witricity is based upon coupled resonant objects
to transfer electrical energy between objects without wires. The system consists of a
Witricity transmitter (power source), and devices which act as receivers (electrical
load). It is based on the principle of resonant coupling and microwave energy transfers.
The action of an electrical transformer is the simplest instance of wireless energy transfer.
There are mainly two types of transfers i.e. short range and long range transmission. The
short range are of 2-3metres where as the long range are of few kilometers.

Wireless transmission is ideal in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer

is needed, but interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. The
tangle of cables and plugs needed to recharge today's electronic gadgets could soon be a
thing of the past. The concept exploits century-old physics and could work over distances
of many metres. Consumers desire a simple universal solution that frees them from the
hassles of plug-in chargers and adaptors. "Wireless power technology has the potential to
deliver on all of these needs." However, transferring the power is the important part of
the solution.

INTRODUCTION-

Witricity, standing for wireless electricity, is a term coined by MIT researchers, to

describe the ability to provide electricity to remote objects without wires. Using self-
resonant coils in a strongly coupled regime, efficient non-radiative power transfer over
distances of up to eight times the radius of the coils can be done.. Unlike the conduction-
based systems, Witricity uses resonant magnetic fields to reduce wastage of power.
Currently the project is looking for power transmissions in the range of 100 watts.

With wireless energy transfer, the efficiency is a more critical parameter and this creates
important differences from the wireless data transmission technologies. To avoid the
conflicts like recharging and carrying its appliances of electrical and electronic devices,
wireless power transmission is desirable. Wireless power transmission was originally
proposed to avoid long distance electrical distribution based mainly on copper cables.
This can be achieved by using microwave beams and the rectifying antenna, or rectenna,
which can receive electromagnetic radiation and convert it efficiently to DC electricity.

Researchers have developed several techniques for moving electricity over long distances
without wires. Some exist only as theories or prototypes, but others are already in use.
Magnetic resonance was found a promising means of electricity transfer because
magnetic fields travel freely through air yet have little effect on the environment or, at the
appropriate frequencies, on living beings and hence is a leading technology for
developing witricity.

HOW IT WORKS-

coil obstacle
Wireless light: Researchers used
magnetic resonance coupling to power a
60-watt light bulb. Tuned to the same
frequency, two 60-centimeter copper
coils can transmit electricity over a
distance of two meters, through the air
and around an obstacle.

The researchers built two resonant

copper coils and hung them from the
ceiling, about two meters apart.
When they plugged one coil into the
wall, alternating current flowed through it, Light bulb
Creating a magnetic field.
The second coil, tuned to the same frequency and hooked to a light bulb, resonated with
the magnetic field, generating an electric current that lit up the bulb--even with a thin
wall between the coils.

How wireless energy could work-

"Resonance", a phenomenon that causes an object to vibrate when energy of a certain

frequency is applied. Two resonant objects of the same frequency tend to couple very
strongly." Resonance can be seen in musical instruments for example. "When you play a
tune on one, then another instrument with the same acoustic resonance will pick up that
tune, it will visibly vibrate,"

Instead of using acoustic vibrations, system exploits the resonance of electromagnetic

waves. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, infrared and X-rays. Typically,
systems that use electromagnetic radiation, such as radio antennas, are not suitable for the
efficient transfer of energy because they scatter energy in all directions, wasting large
amounts of it into free space. To overcome this problem, the team investigated a special
class of "non-radiative" objects with so-called "long-lived resonances". When energy is
applied to these objects it remains bound to them, rather than escaping to space. "Tails"
of energy, which can be many metres long, flicker over the surface. If another resonant
object is brought with the same frequency close enough to these tails then it turns out that
the energy can tunnel from one object to another.

Hence, a simple copper antenna designed to have long-lived resonance could transfer
energy to a laptop with its own antenna resonating at the same frequency. The computer
would be truly wireless. Any energy not diverted into a gadget or appliance is simply
reabsorbed. The systems that are described would be able to transfer energy over three to
five metres. This would work in a room let's say but can be adapted to work in a factory.
It could also be scaled down to the microscopic or nanoscopic world.

Old technology-

Nineteenth-century physicist and engineer Nikola Tesla experimented with long-range

wireless energy transfer. Others have worked on highly directional mechanisms of energy
transfer such as lasers. However, these require an uninterrupted line of sight, and are
therefore not good for powering objects around the home. "There are a number of other
aspects that need to be addressed to ensure efficient conversion of power to a form useful
to input to devices."

HOW WIRELESS POWER COULD WORK

1. Power from mains to antenna, which is made of copper

2. Antenna resonates at a frequency of 6.4MHz, emitting electromagnetic waves
3. 'Tails' of energy from antenna 'tunnel' up to 5m (16.4ft)
4. Electricity picked up by laptop's antenna, which must also be resonating at 6.4MHz.
Energy used to re-charge device
5. Energy not transferred to laptop re-absorbed by source antenna.
People/other objects not affected as not resonating at 6.4MHz

Short range power transmission and reception –

Power supply for portable electronic devices is considered, which receives ambient radio
frequency radiation (typically in an urban environment) and converts it to DC electricity
that is stored in a battery for use by the portable device.

A Power transmission unit (PTU) is connected to the electrical utility, typically in a

domestic and office environment, and uses the electricity to generate a beam of
electromagnetic radiation. This beam can take the form of visible light, microwave
radiation, near infrared radiation or any appropriate frequency or frequencies, depending
on the technology chosen. The beam can be focused and shaped using a focusing
mechanism: for example, a parabola shape may be chosen to focus light waves at a
certain distance from the PTU.

A Power reception unit (PRU) receives power from one or several PTU's, and converts
the total power received to electricity, which is used to trickle charge a storage unit such
as a battery or transferred directly to the appliance for use, or both. If transferred to the
storage unit, the output of the storage unit can power the appliance. Similarly to the
focusing of the transmitted power, it is possible to concentrate the received power for
conversion, using receiving arrays, antennas, reflectors or similar means.

It is possible to construct power "relay units", consisting of PRU's powering PTU's,

whose function is to make the transmitted power available at further distances than would
normally be possible.

Long-distance Wireless Power-

Some plans for wireless power involve moving electricity over a span of miles. A few
proposals even involve sending power to the Earth from space. The Stationary High
Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP) unmanned plane could run off power beamed from the
Earth. The secret to the SHARP's long flight time was a large, ground-based microwave
transmitter. A large, disc-shaped rectifying antenna, or rectenna, near the system
changed the microwave energy from the transmitter into direct-current (DC) electricity.
Because of the microwaves' interaction with the rectenna, the system had a constant
power supply as long as it was in range of a functioning microwave array.

Rectifying antennae are central to many wireless power transmission theories. They are
usually made of an array of dipole antennae, which have positive and negative poles.
These antennae connect to semiconductor diodes. Here's what happens:

1. Microwaves, which are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, reach the dipole
antennae.
2. The antennae collect the microwave energy and transmit it to the diodes.
3. The diodes act like switches that are open or closed as well as turnstiles that let
electrons flow in only one direction. They direct the electrons to the rectenna's
circuitry.
4. The circuitry routes the electrons to the parts and systems that need them. .

TYPES OF WIRELESS TRANSMISSION-

Near field

1. Induction
2. Resonant induction

Far field

1. Radio and microwave transmission

2. Laser
3. Electrical conduction
Near field-
These are wireless transmission techniques over distances comparable to, or a few times
the diameter of the device(s).

Induction

Inductive coupling

The action of an electrical transformer is the simplest instance of wireless energy transfer.
The primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are not directly connected. The
transfer of energy takes place by electromagnetic coupling through a process known as
mutual induction. (An added benefit is the capability to step the primary voltage either up
or down.) The battery charger of an electric toothbrush is an example of how this
principle can be used. The main drawback to induction, however, is the short range. The
receiver must be very close to the transmitter or induction unit in order to inductively
couple with it.

Resonant induction
By designing electromagnetic resonators that
suffer minimal loss due to radiation and
absorption and have a near field with mid-range
extent (namely a few times the resonator size),
mid-range efficient wireless energy-transfer is
possible. The reasonment is that, if two such
resonant objects are brought in mid-range
proximity, their near fields (consisting of so-
called 'evanescent waves') couple (evanescent
wave coupling) and can allow the energy to
transfer from one object to the other within times
much shorter than all loss times, which were
designed to be long, and thus with the maximum
possible energy-transfer efficiency. Since the
resonant wavelength is much larger than the
resonators, the field can circumvent extraneous
objects in the vicinity and thus this mid-range
energy-transfer scheme does not require line-of-
sight. By utilizing in particular the magnetic field
to achieve the coupling, this method can be safe, According to the theory, one coil can
since magnetic fields interact weakly with living recharge any device that is in range, as
long as the coils have the same resonant
organisms. frequency.
 "Resonant inductive coupling" has key implications in solving the two main problems
associated with non-resonant inductive coupling and electromagnetic radiation, one of
which is caused by the other; distance and efficiency. Electromagnetic induction works
on the principle of a primary coil generating a predominantly magnetic field and a
secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced within its coils. This causes
the relatively short range due to the amount of power required to produce an
electromagnetic field. Over greater distances the non-resonant induction method is
inefficient and wastes much of the transmitted energy just to increase range. This is
where the resonance comes in and helps
efficiency dramatically by "tunneling" the
magnetic field to a receiver coil that resonates at
the same frequency. Unlike the multiple-layer
secondary of a non-resonant transformer, such
receiving coils are single layer solenoids with
closely spaced capacitor plates on each end,
which in combination allow the coil to be tuned
to the transmitter frequency thereby eliminating
the wide energy wasting "wave problem" and
allowing the energy used to focus in on a
A trumpet's size, shape and material specific frequency increasing the range.
composition determine its resonant
frequency. Some of these wireless resonant inductive
devices operate at low milliwatt power levels
and are battery powered. Others operate at higher kilowatt power levels. Current
implantable medical and road electrification device designs achieve more than 75%
transfer efficiency at an operating distance between the transmit and receive coils of less
than 10 cm.

Resonance and Wireless Power-

Household devices produce relatively small
magnetic fields. For this reason, chargers hold
devices at the distance necessary to induce a
current, which can only happen if the coils are
close together. A larger, stronger field could
induce current from farther away, but the process
would be extremely inefficient. Since a magnetic
field spreads in all directions, making a larger
one would waste a lot of energy.

The distance between the coils can be extended by adding resonance to the equation.

A good way to understand resonance is to think of it in terms of sound. An object's

physical structure -- like the size and shape of a trumpet -- determines the frequency at
which it naturally vibrates. This is its resonant frequency. It's easy to get objects to
vibrate at their resonant frequency and difficult to get them to vibrate at other
frequencies. This is why playing a trumpet can cause a nearby trumpet to begin to
vibrate. Both trumpets have the same resonant frequency.

Induction can take place a little differently if the electromagnetic fields around the coils
resonate at the same frequency. The theory uses a curved coil of wire as an inductor. A
capacitance plate, which can hold a charge, attaches to each end of the coil. As
electricity travels through this coil, the coil begins to resonate. Its resonant frequency is a
product of the inductance of the coil and the capacitance of the plates.

As with an electric toothbrush, this system relies on

two coils. Electricity, traveling along an
electromagnetic wave, can tunnel from one coil to the
other as long as they both have the same resonant
frequency. The effect is similar to the way one
vibrating trumpet can cause another to vibrate.

As long as both coils are out of range of one another,

nothing will happen, since the fields around the coils
aren't strong enough to affect much around them.
Similarly, if the two coils resonate at different
frequencies, nothing will happen. But if two
resonating coils with the same frequency get within a The MIT wireless power project
uses a curved coil and
few meters of each other, streams of energy move
capacitive plates.
from the transmitting coil to the receiving coil.
According to the theory, one coil can even send electricity to several receiving coils, as
long as they all resonate at the same frequency. The researchers have named this non-
radiative energy transfer since it involves stationary fields around the coils rather than
fields that spread in all directions. This kind of setup could power or recharge all the
devices in one room. Some modifications would be necessary to send power over long
distances, like the length of a building or a city.

Far field-

Means for long conductors of

electricity forming part of an electric
circuit and electrically connecting
said ionized beam to an electric
circuit.
These methods achieve longer ranges,
often multiple kilometre ranges,
where the distance is much greater
than the diameter of the device(s).
Radio and microwave-
Microwave power transmission

Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer
distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically
in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back
into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized.
Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from
orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving
orbit has been considered.

Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that for most space applications the
required aperture sizes are very large. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using
shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric
absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets.

For earthbound applications a large area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large
total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for
human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm2
distributed across a 10 km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level.
This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants.

High power-

Wireless Power Transmission (using microwaves) is well proven. Experiments in the tens
of kilowatts have been performed, achieving distances on the order of a kilometer.

Low power-

A new company, Powercast introduced wireless power transfer technology using RF

energy; this system is applicable for a number of devices with low power requirements.
This could include LEDs, computer peripherals, wireless sensors, and medical implants.
Currently, it achieves a maximum output of 6 volts for a little over one meter.

Laser-

With a laser beam centered on its panel of

photovoltaic cells, a lightweight model plane
makes the first flight of an aircraft powered by
a laser beam inside a building at NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center.

In the case of light, power can be transmitted

by converting electricity into a laser beam
that is then fired at a solar cell receiver.
This is generally known as "power beaming". Its drawbacks are:

1. Conversion to light, such as with a laser, is moderately inefficient (although

quantum cascade lasers improve this)
2. Conversion back into electricity is moderately inefficient, with photovoltaic cells
achieving 40%-50% efficiency.
3. Atmospheric absorption causes losses.
4. As with microwave beaming, this method requires a direct line of sight with the
target.

Electrical conduction-
Electrical energy can also be transmitted by means of electrical currents made to flow
through naturally existing conductors, specifically the earth, lakes and oceans, and
through the atmosphere — a natural medium that can be made conducting if the
breakdown voltage is exceeded and the gas becomes ionized. For example, when a high
voltage is applied across a neon tube the gas becomes ionized and a current passes
between the two internal electrodes. In a practical wireless energy transmission system
using this principle, a high-power ultraviolet beam might be used to form a vertical
ionized channel in the air directly above the transmitter-receiver stations. The same
concept is used in virtual lightning rods, the electrolaser electroshock weapon and has
been proposed for disabling vehicles.

The Tesla effect- A "world system" for "the transmission of

electrical energy without wires" that depends upon electrical
conductivity was proposed by Tesla. Through longitudinal
waves, an operator uses the Tesla effect in the wireless transfer
of energy to a receiving device. The Tesla effect is the
application of a type of electrical conduction (that is, the
movement of energy through space and matter; not just the
production of voltage across a conductor).

Tesla stated, “Instead of depending on induction at a distance to

light the tube [... the] ideal way of lighting a hall or room would
[...] be to produce such a condition in it that an illuminating
device could be moved and put anywhere, and that it is lighted, no matter where it is put
and without being electrically connected to anything. I have been able to produce such a
condition by creating in the room a powerful, rapidly alternating electrostatic field. For
this purpose I suspend a sheet of metal a distance from the ceiling on insulating cords and
connect it to one terminal of the induction coil, the other terminal being preferably
connected to the ground. An exhausted tube may then be carried in the hand anywhere
between the sheets or placed anywhere, even a certain distance beyond them; it remains
always luminous.”

The Tesla effect is a type of high field gradient between electrode plates for wireless
energy transfer.
PRESENT AREAS OF RESEARCH-

Magnetic fields are used

instead of electric fields to
transmit power, this is done
because humans are not
affected by magnetic fields
but are affected by electric
fields. We able to transmit
power wirelessly with an
efficiency of 95% IIRC.
There was also a "dream" of
providing wireless free energy
to everyone in the world by
tapping the outer atmosphere
charged by solar wind which
was the purpose of
Wardenclyffe Tower.

A wireless power system is a utopian thought for many of us, but Intel is currently
working on a solution that might revolutionalize the world in due time. This
demonstration showed the device broadcasting 60 watts of power within a 3-foot range,
featuring an efficiency level of 75%. This is made possible thanks to the same magnetic
induction principle as all the other systems, but somehow Intel's engineers managed to
squeeze out the most performance. To kiss goodbye to tangled power adapters for a
plethora of gadgets is one dream. The present invention generally relates to a system for
wirelessly transmitting electrical utility power to electrical and electronic appliances over
short ranges, typically in a domestic and office environment. In particular, the electricity
can be either stored in a battery for use by the appliance, or used directly to power the
appliance, or both.

ADVANTAGES-

• Wireless electric energy transfer for experimentally powering electric automobiles

and buses is a higher power application (>10kW) of resonant inductive energy
transfer.

• The use of wireless transfer has been investigated for recharging electric
automobiles in parking spots and garages as well.

• Any low-power device, such as a cell phone, iPod, or laptop, could recharge
automatically simply by coming within range of a wireless power source,
eliminating the need for multiple cables—and perhaps, eventually, for batteries.
 • With the advent of wireless communication protocols such as Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth, consumers are realizing that life without physical cables is easier, more
flexible and often less costly.

• As the population continues to grow the demand for electricity could out space
the ability to produce it, eventually wireless power may become a necessity rather
than just an interesting idea.

DRAWBACKS-

• The wireless transmission of energy is common in much of the world. Radio

waves are energy, and people use them to send and receive cell phone, TV, radio
and Wi-Fi signals every day. The radio waves spread in all directions until they
reach antennae that are tuned to the right frequency. This method for transferring
electrical power would be both inefficient and dangerous.
• The main drawback to induction, however, is the short range. The receiver must
be very close to the transmitter or induction unit in order to inductively couple
with it.
• Many people would resist the idea of being constantly bathed in microwaves from
space, even if the risk were relatively low.

APPLICATIONS-

1. Researchers have outlined a relatively simple system that could deliver power to
devices such as laptop computers or MP3 players without wires. The concept exploits
century-old physics and could work over distances of many metres, the researchers said.

2. A UK company called Splashpower has also designed wireless recharging pads onto
which gadget lovers can directly place their phones and MP3 players to recharge them.
The pads use electromagnetic induction to charge devices, the same process used to
charge electric toothbrushes.

3. Resonant inductive wireless energy transfer was used successfully in implantable

medical devices including such devices as pacemakers and artificial hearts. While the
early systems used a resonant receiver coil later systems implemented resonant
transmitter coils as well.

4. Today resonant inductive energy transfer is regularly used for providing electric power
in many commercially available medical implantable devices.

.
5.some of the applications with the diagram are shown below:

A toothbrush's daily exposure to water

makes a traditional plug-in charger
potentially dangerous. Ordinary electrical
connections could also allow water to seep
into the toothbrush, damaging its
components. Because of this, most
toothbrushes recharge through inductive
coupling.

Most electric toothbrushes recharge

through inductive coupling.

How a transformer works, and its how an electric

toothbrush recharges. It takes three basic steps:

1. Current from the wall outlet flows through a

coil inside the charger, creating a magnetic
field. In a transformer, this coil is called the
primary winding.
2. When you place your toothbrush in the
charger, the magnetic field induces a current
in another coil, or secondary winding,
An electric toothbrush's base and which connects to the battery.
handle contain coils that allow the
battery to recharge.
3. This current recharges the battery.
You can use the same principle to recharge
several devices at once. For example, the
Splashpower recharging mat and Edison
Electric's Powerdesk both use coils to create a
magnetic field. Electronic devices use
corresponding built-in or plug-in receivers to
recharge while resting on the mat. These
receivers contain compatible coils and the
circuitry necessary to deliver electricity to
devices' batteries.

Eliminating the power cord would make today’s

ubiquitous portable electronics truly wireless.

A Splashpower mat uses induction to

recharge multiple devices simultaneously.

CONCLUSION-
From these researches and discoveries it can be said that wireless power transmission is
going to be a major field of interest for scientists and for people. The facts that the power
can be transmitted from space to earth will revolutionize the field of satellites. Since the
uses of wireless power transmission are many, from easy installation, neatness, easy
maintenance to multi-equipment working are amazing, the area for researchers on this
field seems very interesting.

Rather concentrating on the false beliefs, the concentration should be put on advantages
of witricity for further increasing the efficiency of wireless power transmission with more
safety measures. It is a rocking technology provided the researches continue to move in
same speeding direction.

REFERENCES:
Magazine of Technology Review
Based on researches by MIT scientists

WEBSITES:
How Wireless Power Works.htm
BBC NEWS Technology Physics promises wireless power.htm
Wireless energy transfer-Wikipedia encyclopedia
 “REAL TIME CONTROL POWER
SYSTEMS”
SYSTEMS ”
Submitted by –
Mr. Y.PAVAN KUMAR REDDY
(email: Pavan_6580@yahoo.co.in)
&
Mr. M.SIVA RAMI REDDY
(Contact no: 9010797848)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, KADAPA

REAL – TIME CONTROL AND PROTECTION OF THE

NEPTUNE POWER SYSTEM
ABSTRACT:
The NEPTUNE power delivery system faces several challenges in serving the needs of the
oceanographic community. Two major challenges, operating the system under normal
conditions and protecting it against faults, require the development of new approaches
unfamiliar to power engineers. In particular, the power management system must cope with
several modes of potential system instability, and the protection system must operate in a
deliberately weak system. Furthermore, it is likely that communications will be disrupted in
the event of a fault. The approach taken to address these challenges is described.

I. Introduction
In the past, power limitations have restricted long term oceanographic studies to using only
low power instrumentation. NEPTUNE seeks to relax the power constraint by extending the
capabilities of the conventional terrestrial power delivery system grid into the Pacific Ocean
[1, 2]. Terrestrial power systems are based on interconnected ac networks with parallel loads,
while underwater telecommunications are dc point-to-point series systems. The proposed
NEPTUNE power system is different from both. It is a highly interconnected dc system with
parallel loads. It will consist of a 3000 km cabled sub sea network with two shore landings
that will supply power at approximately forty-six locations, See Fig. 1.
Each of these forty-six nodes will provide a point of interconnection for scientific equipment,
supplying both power and communications.
In order to maximize the deliverable power, the system will operate at -10 kV with
respect to the ocean. The voltage supplied to the science load will be 400V and
48V via power converters. Power is supplied to the system from two-planned shore stations,
one in Oregon and the other in British Columbia. The system will use a single conductor
telecommunications cable, referred to as the backbone cable that requires seawater return
system.
In order to supply power to the entire system, it is planned to energize nodes sequentially
from shore. Once power is applied to the first off-shore node through the backbone cable, the
main power converter start-up circuits are supplied through diodes (Fig. 2). The purpose of
these diodes is to allow power to be supplied to the start-up circuits from either end of the
backbone cable. This is necessary since the networked topology of the NEPTUNE system
makes it impossible to specify in advance which side will be energized first. After
approximately 10 seconds the start-up circuits causes one of the main power converters in the
node to begin operation.
As soon as the main power converter is operating, the communications system begins its own
start-up period. The communications start-up has duration of between one and two minutes at
each node. With the establishment of communications, the backbone breaker is closed and
the next node can be energized. Once power and communications have been supplied to a
node, external load can be supplied.
The backbone breaker is actually a complex system of several switches. When closing, a pre-
insertion resistor will be used to limit the current through the breaker.
This serves two purposes. First, it limits the volt-drop on the preceding cable that would be
caused due to charging the capacitance of the next section. Second, it allows for the
protection system to detect a cable fault before full power is applied. The full closing
sequence will occupy only a few milliseconds.
By repeating this sequence, the NEPTUNE system can be completely interconnected. Since
NEPTUNE is a network, it will be able to operate with multiple nodes and/or cables out of
service. This feature of the power system will allow for reliable delivery of power.
It should be noted that during a normal start-up sequence, the backbone circuit breaker is not
closed until communications is established with the shore-based power
management system. Since the proposed communication system takes a minute or so to
execute a cold start, the process of starting NEPTUNE may occupy several tens of minutes.

Fig. 2. Internal node arrangement

Should the communication system at a particular node fail, the power system controller in the
node will (after some time) close the breaker without being so instructed
from shore. It will enter what we are calling a “safe mode.” Some of the protection system is
operating, and as much as possible of the power system is energized. During the time that
nodes are being energized, a power management system ensures that the system is not being
placed in an unstable condition. Stability must also be
monitored during routine operation. Our approach is described next
II. Power Management
Power flow, or load flow, calculations are the primary tool for calculation of the steady-state
operating conditions of a power system. The power flow problem is non-linear, which
increases the complexity of calculation. Several well known numerical methods are available
for solution of the problem. The method adopted in this paper is the Newton-Raphson (N-R)
method that has been widely used for conventional alternating current power systems.
When the load on the power system is increased, there comes a point at which the load flow
problem ceases to have a solution, the calculation will not converge. This is
easily illustrated by considering a situation in which there is a constant voltage source
supplying a load through a transmission line (Fig. 3). Figure 3 shows a condition where a
constant voltage source delivers power to a constant power load. As the value of the constant
power load is set at higher levels, more current must flow across the line, lowering the
received voltage.
Power flow for terrestrial alternating current power systems has been extensively studied and
is well understood. Power flow for direct current systems is an area where relatively little
works has been done, for this reason it will be addressed in this paper.
It should be noted that relative to the conventional power flow algorithms, the NEPTUNE
power flow has the following advantages:
1) As it is a dc system, there are no reactive powers
2) As it is a dc system, the inductance of all lines can
be considered zero at stead y state.
3) DC systems have no voltage angles to calculate.
Together these factors indicate that all that needs to be solved for is the voltage at each bus,
based on real power injections into the system. The node voltage Vi at iteration N+1 is given
by equation:

-----------(1)

where:
In the above equation, the mismatch bus at i is given by

(2) Where:
PLi=the injection of power into bus i.
n=Number of nodes
In the initial iteration, VN where N is assumed to be 1 for the initial iteration, all buses are
assumed to have 1 per unit voltage, which corresponds to 10,000 VDC. This is used as the
basis to calculate the new voltages, VN+1, at each of the nodes in the system. These new
values are then designated as VN and the process repeats. Convergence is achieved when the
mismatch f(VN) is reduced to within a prespecified tolerance. To ensure accuracy of the
calculations, the stopping point for the iterative scheme was set by the sum of the (absolute
value of) differences of voltages at all buses, instead of just one reference bus, from one
iteration to the next. Using the difference of voltages at all buses
tends to increase the number of iterations required for convergence, this however is not a
major concern since the NEPTUNE system is small and the computation times
short.

Fig. 3. Transmission line model

The voltage at the receiving end of the line, for a given source voltage and load power, is
given by
 : -------(3)
Where:
VR= Voltage at the receiving end
J(V-1) = Jacobian of the power flow equations.
VS= Voltage at the sending end
PLoad= Power of the load
RLine= Resistance of the line

In Fig. 4, the voltage is plotted as a function of the load power. As with the power flow
calculations, the P-Vcurve is well known for ac system but is seldom applied to dc systems.
Fig. 4. P-V curve

Extensive simulations have shown that voltage collapse is not a major concern, in the initial
design, for the NEPTUNE power system because the shore station converters are incapable
of delivering sufficient power. (At present it is proposed that the shore stations be rated at
100kW each.) In the present design, the total load capability of the sub-sea converters is
around 920 kW, assuming operation of both converters in a node, far larger than the
capability of the delivery system. Because the rated shore station output power may be
increased at some future time, voltage collapse is being studied now to determine what
the\non-constrained system limits are.
Voltage collapse may also become an important issue when the power system is operated in
other than fully networked topologies. For example, when the system is operating without the
Oregon shore station, the maximum power capability of the system (limited by voltage
collapse considerations) is 1.93 kW at each node. This figure is within the capability of the
Victoria shore station, the limiting factor is the voltage collapse limit. Monitoring the power
system to ensure that the operating constraints are met is the task of the proposed Power
Monitoring and Control System (PMACS). The software functions of PMACS are shown in
Fig. 5.
.
Fig. 5. Power Monitoring And Control System (PMACS
A. Monitoring and Emergency Control:
PMACS has Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) capabilities. (The SCADA
system is a common remote monitoring and control system for electric power systems.)
Remote control capabilities are needed so that the shore station can initiate necessary
switching actions such as remedial actions to alleviate an overload or abnormal voltage
condition

Fig 6.Allowable
voltage band
B. Security Assessment:
PMACS will have a security assessment module. Security is a measure of the power system’s
ability to withstand a contingency, such as a short circuit or the loss of a shore station. Figure
7 shows how the PMACS security assessment module categorizes situations. Normal
conditions can be divided into two categories: secure and insecure. In both of these cases the
system is operating with no operating limits violated and all load being supplied. The
difference between the two categories is how they compare with respect to a pre-selected list
of contingencies. (The contingency list has not yet been selected.)

Fig 7.security assement.

C. Restoration
Even though the NEPTUNE power system will be equipped with a fast-acting protection
system, shutdown of much of the network’s science load may be unavoidable in the event of
a fault. This is because the shore stations voltage will automatically (and rapidly) drop in
order to achieve current limiting. Consequently, many of the dc-dc
Converters will stop operating. Since it is not planned to have a large amount of energy
storage as part of the sub-sea system, widespread outages of science loads will unavoidably
result. Therefore, after the system has finished responding to a fault (i.e., the protection
system has operated to isolate the fault), some parts of the system that are not faulted will
have to be brought back on-line. In the worst case, the entire system will require re-start.
III. Protection:
A utility power system typically delivers power to its customers with a high level of
reliability. This level of reliability has not been achieved through a lack of power system
faults. Instead, it is achieved through redundancy of parts and an attitude of “if it can go
wrong, it will.” This attitude has led to the use of N-0, N-1, and N-2 reliability criteria. These
criteria refer to the number of power system components that are lost before a loss of load is
experienced. N-1 and N-2 are generally accepted for the interconnected transmission
systems. Distribution systems, due to their radial nature, tend to be reliable only for N-0, i.e.
no component failures! We would like to build NEPTUNE to meet N-1 reliability criteria that
is to be able to serve load even if some part of it is out of service.
The goal of the proposed protection system is to disconnect a faulted cable section or a
component, without affecting the remainder of the system. From the beginning, it has been
clear that the NEPTUNE power system will be different from a conventional power system in
many ways. The major problem from the aspect of protection has been the issue of a “weak
system”. When a fault occurs on the NEPTUNE power system, the voltage rapidly collapses
across a large portion of the system. Node power converters cease to function, with the result
that there is no longer a source of power for the protection relays at those nodes. In a
terrestrial system, each major substation contains banks of lead acid batteries that act as a
source of stored energy for the protection relays. In NEPTUNE, it is not feasible to include
large banks of lead acid batteries. While alternatives are being evaluated, it is presently
thought that it will not be possible to accommodate sufficient energy storage to allow for
many of the conventional protection relaying schemes.
In this there are 2 protection schemes they are
1.Backbone protection
In order to protect the backbone cable against shunt faults, a redundant relaying approach is
proposed. The two redundant methods are differential current and distance relaying.
Differential current relaying works on the principle of that the total current entering one end
of a cable should equal the total current leaving from the other end. If there is no load
connected between the two ends, this condition is violated only when there is a fault

. 2.node protection
Protection against faults within a node is easier than it is for the backbone cable. The reason
for this is the physical proximity of components. Differential protection is feasible using no
more complex a communication system than a meter or so of wire. For example, even though
the typical NEPTUNE node has 3 wires associated with its backbone circuit (incoming 10
kV, outgoing 10 kV and a ground), the current in these 3 can be added in a device called a dc
current comparator, and even a small discrepancy can be detected.
Concluding Remarks:
This paper represents the continuation of work that has been in progress for over a year. A
major contribution made by this paper is the outline given for both the power management
and protection components of the NEPTUNE power system.
Analysis has shown what the limits of voltage stability of NEPTUNE are and PMACS has
been designed to work within these limits. In addition to the normal operation, provisions
have been made for PMACS to control the system during emergency conditions and to
restore lost sections of the system after faults have occurred.
A protection system has been proposed that will operate quickly in order to isolate faults in
the minimum possible time in order to minimize unnecessary loss of load. There is still a
great deal of work that remains to be done before the ideas presented here can be
implemented in an operating system. Examples are: What will be the voltage limits for
emergency control? What faults will be on the security assessment list for contingencies?
What will be the exact protection relay settings? What amount of energy storage is required
in a node to ensure continuous operation of the protection system?
These questions, and several others, will be the center of the research that will lead to the
final design of a power system that is capable of supporting the NEPTUNE system.
REFERENCES:
[1] B. Howe, H. Kirkham, and V. Vorperian, “Power System Considerations for Undersea
Observatories,” IEEE J. Oceans Eng., Vol. 27, No. 2, April 2002, pp. 267-274.
[2] B. Howe, H. Kirkham, V. Vorperian, and P. Bowerman, “The Design of the NEPTUNE
Power System,” Proc. Oceans, 2001, MTS/IEEE Conference and Exhibition, Vol. 3 , 2001,
pp. 1374 –1380.
[3] A. R. Maffei, A. D. Chave, G. Massion, S. N. White, J. Bailey, S. Lerner, A. Bradley, D.
Yoerger, H. Frazier, and R. Buddenberg, “NEPTUNE Gigabit Ethernet Submarine Cable
System,” Proc. Oceans 2001,
[4] C. C. Liu, S. J. Lee, and S. S. Venkata, “An Expert System Operational Aid for
Restoration and Loss Reduction of Distribution Systems,” IEEE Trans.Power Systems, May
1988, pp. 619-626.
[5] K. T. Vu, C. C. Liu, C. W. Taylor, and K. M. Jimma, “Voltage Instability: Mechanisms
and Control Strategies,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Volume 83,
Issue 11, Nov. 1995, pp. 1442 –1455.
 A PAPER PRESENTATION ON

UNWIRED CHARGING
TRULY WIRELESS WORLD

(AUTONOMOUS)

Presented By

P. VYSHNAVI V. NARMADA
III-B-Tech, ECE III-B-Tech, ECE
JNTU COLLEGE OF Engg, JNTU COLLEGE OF Engg
Anantapur, Anantapur
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh
E-mail: vyshnavi.gupta@gmail.com E-mail: narmada.jntu@gmail.com
 2

range of power by the technique used in

ABSTRACT: this concept called “power casting”. This
Yes, now we can forget wires technology uses radio frequency waves
even for charging. My mobile have been for carrying power.
switched off, my Laptop computer have The efficient mid-range power can be
no charging …….no such questions! transmitted to any device which uses that
Can we imagine the life without range of power by the technique used in
electrical wires? from now, answer to this concept called “eCoupling”. This
this question is yes. The methods technology uses electro magnetic
proposed in the present paper though coupling for carrying power.
utilizes contrasting technologies for wire Now a days there is a Rapid
less transmission of power namely development of autonomous electronics
‘power cast technology’ and ‘eCoupled like Laptops, Cell-phones, House-hold
technology’ are presented in the name of robots and all the above devices
“unwired charging”, Which will typically rely on chemical energy
facilitate to Transfer power without storage(Battery) .As they are becoming
using wires. daily needs to present generation,
The efficient low-range power can be Wireless energy transfer would be useful
transmitted to any device which uses that for many applications as above and they

need low-range and mid-range energy.
This is the main reason to prepare this
concept.
INTRODUCTION:
In our day-to-day life we use laptop
computers, cell phones, digital cameras,
voice recorder, portable printer,
MP3players all plays a significant role.
But the major limitation is that they have
to be charged regularly which is possible
only by connecting the device to the
But this dream of wire less charging
might be possible very soon, by means
of technology explained below. Unless
this concept is not implemented we can’t
really call the world as really wire free
world. This is because although wireless
mantra is a old concept over the world
we still need electric wires and chemical
batteries for purpose of charging and
transmitting power.
TECHNOLOGY:
Power casting technology:
The Basic Idea:
If we walk a few meters from
where we are standing now we will
probably be cutting across at least a
dozen radio waves zipping invisibly
across our room that is how common
they are…. So common that we barely
3
supply through electrical Wires. More
often it looks like snakes ……cables,
cables…..and more cables… as shown
spare time to even think about them
seriously!
Radio frequencies are foundational for
most devices we use today right from
TVs and radios to mobile phones. But
we ever think of how powerful the radio
frequencies are?
The simple example that makes radio
frequency identification (RFID) superior
to barcodes is that they can store more
data, they can be read and written to,
they can be re-used etc., but what makes
all this possible? How is RFID chip able
to survive on its own, woven into some
product or person, isolated from the rest
of civilization? It is because the chip is
able to charge itself through the radio
waves transmitted by the transceiver
when reading or writing. Basically this is

a simple example of the energy carrying
property of radio waves

Then why cannot RF (Radio
Frequency) be used to power devices?
If we have a Base station that
draws power from a power line and
keeps transmitting it as radio waves and
all our mobile devices have receivers
that can receive these radio waves and
convert them into DC current, that’s
pretty much a wire less powering
system. That is one base station can
charge quite number of devices-provided
they all have the receivers built into
them this is precisely how the power cast
system works
TECHNOLOGY BEHIND THE
POWER:
The mess of wires, those power strips
overloaded with transformers and
maddening gadget connectors half a
4
nanometer from perfection may all soon
be a thing of the past.
The power cast wireless power platform
consists of a transmitter called ‘power
caster’ and a receiver called ‘power
harvester’. The ‘power caster’ can
double the effective range, compared to
normal RF transmitters and a power
harvester can harvest up to 70% of the
theoretical maximum power with in the
range and convert it into dc current for
the device to use. The power harvester is
a chip about half the size of an ordinary
battery used for charging and must be
accompanied by a small antenna whose
size varies according to the frequency of
transmitted power. It can fit quite
comfortably into the battery
compartment of most devices, and many
devices could use the case itself as the
antenna. Of course small tweaks in the
circuitry of the device will be needed to
connect the power harvester to it.
The power harvester is available in
various models for multiple frequency
ranges, voltage requirements sizes and
so on. The design can fully customized
according to the requirements. Any
device fitted with a power harvester gets
charged automatically whenever it is
 5

with in the range of power caster and Radio waves are in fact energy. They
any number of ‘power harvesting are already used to send and receive cell
devices’ can be placed within the range phone, television, radio, and ‘Wi-Fi’
of single power caster. This does not signals every day. Those waves spread
give rise to problems like cancellation out in all directions until they reach an
and interference because power caster antenna that is tuned to the appropriate
neither causes nor is affected by such frequency. Power cast's wireless power
problems. In-fact, the power harvesters platform uses a "Power caster"
actually outwit noises by making use of transmitter circuit running on
them. conventional current to broadcast a low-
power radio signal at a predetermined
POTENTIAL POWER
frequency. The smaller "Power
HARVESTERS:
harvester" receiver circuit which can be
embedded in any low-power device then
All the devices cannot be powered
uses that energy to recharge or can even
using power cast system only devices
replace the device's battery.
that work on AA, AAA batteries or cell
batteries can make use of this wire less
The Power cast solution is able to
power system. Power cast is designed to
maximize power transfer by using a
power devices with very low power.
much broader area of the RF spectrum,
Sensor networks, hearing aids, headsets
the 900-MHz band. While not
etc., are ideally suited for this
necessarily a replacement for a
technology basically any device which
conventional charger, the technology
requires small battery (to be recharged)
will be able to "trickle charge" a variety
are requires very little power for direct
of electronics over a period of time so
powering (such as Light Emitting Diode
that their energy is never fully depleted.
LED) is suitable for taking advantage of
power cast technology. Power cast As with a traditional AM/FM radio,
technology is designed to provide milli the closer one is to the tower
watts of power to devices with in an transmitting the signal, the better the
effective range of the transmitter. reception. Power cast's wireless platform
operates using a similar principle. The
 6

wireless power platform can harvest a regime of operation. If one can operate
few milli watts of energy within a meter in that regime in a given system, the
of the source, in this case the transmitter. energy transfer is expected to be very
That is enough energy to charge a single efficient. Midrange power transfer
depleted cell phone battery about half implemented in this way can be nearly
way overnight. The solution will also be omni directional and efficient,
ideal for devices with small batteries irrespective of the geometry of the
such as watches, hearing aids, wireless surrounding space, with low interference
keyboards and mice, and game and losses into environmental objects.
controllers, all of which could be The above considerations apply
continuously charged. But there are irrespective of the physical nature of the
limits to the charging capabilities the resonances.
Power cast platform. Larger devices
Magnetic resonances are
will not be able to make use of this
particularly suitable for everyday
‘power cast’ technology solution simply
applications because most of the
because they require too much power. In
common materials do not interact with
fact, the size limit for now seems to be at
Magnetic Fields, so interactions with
the cell phone level for effective
Environmental objects are suppressed
charging.
even further. We were able to identify
eCoupled technology: the strongly coupled regime in the
system of two coupled magnetic
The Basic Idea: resonances by exploring Non-radiative

The basic concept behind this is (near-field) magnetic resonant induction

Magnetic Resonance. Two resonant at Megahertz frequencies.

objects of the same resonant frequency

tend to exchange energy efficiently,
while dissipating relatively little energy
in extraneous off-resonant objects. In
systems of coupled resonances, there is
often a general “Strongly Coupled”
 7

Experimental Design:
Our experimental scheme
consists of two Self-resonant coils. One
coil (source coil) is coupled inductively
to an oscillating circuit; the other (device Efficiency of the System:

coil) is coupled inductively to a resistive

The efficiency of the system is
load. Self-resonant coils rely on the
nothing but the ratio of output power to
interplay between distributed inductance
input power. The output power is
and distributed capacitance to achieve
nothing but the device power rating and
resonance.
input power is sum of the power
The coils are made of an
dissipated by source, power loss due to
electrically conducting wire of total
decay and output power.
length ‘l’ and cross-sectional radius ‘a’,
Efficiency=Pw / (Ps+Pd+Pw)
wound into a helix of ‘n’ turns, radius
The experiment done in 7th June,
‘r’, and height ‘h’. There is no exact
2007 by the Massachusetts Institute of
solution for a finite helix in the
Technology, Cambridge gives the result
literature, and even in the case of
that in order to get 60W approximate
infinitely long coils, the solutions rely on
power is the output useful power with
assumptions that are inadequate for this
40% efficiency. They resonated the
system. So here the method implemented
circuit at ≈9.9 MHz so that they
is simple Quasi-static model to find the
developed the power is transmitted up to
parameters. Those are in Electro
8 times greater than the radius of the coil
Magnetic equations.
used.

ADVANTAGES OF ABOVE
TECHNOLOGIES:
• The need for batteries and
numerous redundant adaptors
which consists of toxic
 8

substances like nickel, cadmium, technology is air gap should be

mercury are reduced.
reduces the electronic waste.
• There is no need for alkaline
batteries which are
recharged regularly.
• Complexity and risk of electric
shorts reduces as we are not
using any electrical wires.
• Unaffected by the day night
cycle, weather or seasons.
• This is an eco friendly and the
system poses no health hazards
what so ever as the power limits.
This low.
• As eCoupled technology is based
on magnetic resonance it could
to be be easily effected by presence of
Ferro magnetic materials in its
path.
• In eCoupled technology as the
device is close to the charging
source it is able to provide more
power than while charging using
RF.
• Inductive method gives higher
power at shorter distances but

• It is a boon for the devices which power cast system though gives

use low-range and mid-range low range power it transmits

power even at longer distances.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ABOVE • In eCoupled technology the

TECHNOLOGIES: resonance condition should be

• Power cast technology is suitable satisfied, if any medium error is

for only low range power, while there possibility of power

eCoupled technology is suitable transfer is affected, while as

for both low-range and mid- power cast system uses radio

range powers waves it is independent of

medium around it.
• Power cast technology is
• In power cast technology any
effective even though the
number of power harvesting
distance between transmitter and
devices can be placed with in the
receiver is high but major
range of single power caster. It
limitation of eCoupled
is not possible in case of
eCoupled technology
 9

CONCLUSION:

From the above discussion we can

conclude that no technology can be
perfectly ideal by making use of best
ideas in the technologies and
working in conjunction with them
we can achieve wireless power
transmission very sooner. This
reduces the risk of using electrical
cables and redundant adaptors. Each
of the above system has its own pros
and cons and one needs to decide
based on one’s needs.

This is the Christmas tree which is

lighted based on power transmission
by radio frequency waves using
power cast technology. It can be
placed anywhere in the range of
transmitter.
 1

SESSION: POWER SYSTEM

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

IN
DISTRIBUTED POWER SUPPLY
SYSTEMS

SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

GOOTY, AP

PRESENTED BY:

E.RAMESH GOWD O.KIRAN KUMAR REDDY

III/IV YEAR III/IV YEAR
BRANCH: EEE BRANCH: EEE
MOBILE: 9948493068 MOBILE: 9247305543
EMAIL:ramesh.skd@gmail.com EMAIL:kiran_0912@yahoo.com
 2

INDEX

Abstract

Introduction

Integrated battery charger/discharger
• Normal mode
• Backup mode
• Charging mode

Control of battery charging/discharging

Design considerations

Experimental results

Conclusion

References

Abstract:
Distributed power supply systems can
give an accurate solution for meeting the
requirements like redundancy, modularity,
battery backup for the next generation of
power-supply systems. The total harmonic
distortion and poor power factor make the
necessary to include the power factor
correction in the input stage itself. This thesis
gives a novel approach of an integrated
battery charger / discharger which do the
power-factor correction and battery galvanic
isolation in a single stage topology. Placing the
battery in the primary side we can avoid the
battery galvanic isolation integration in each
one of the dc / dc on-board converters when
this integrated battery charger / discharger is
used as a part of the distributed power-supply
system.
The Electro Magnetic Interference
(EMI) filter and the fly back converter do the
power factor correction. The filter capacitor
prevents the ripple current and increases the
efficiency and power factor of the integrated
battery charger / discharger. The fly back
converter is operating in chopper principle.
Whenever the high switching frequency
technique is applied to the input voltage the
harmonic distortion happened is reduced.
Thus, the power factor will have the
improvement.
Here power simulation software (P-SIM) is
used for simulation. The circuits are drawn by
using Simulation of Computer Aided Design
(Sim-CAD).
3
I .INTRODUCTION
In olden days for improving the power
factor in distributed power supply systems, the
power density increase method is used. The
increase of power density makes the necessary of
high-frequency conversion and elaborates
mounting techniques for meeting the
requirements of modularity, redundancy, and
battery backing. They should need in the next
stage of power supply.
In recently, the high frequency
switching techniques are used to improve the
power factor correction. There are two types of
switching techniques used. One is two-stage
scheme and other is single stage scheme. In two
stage scheme, the ac / dc converter with power
factor correction is connected to the line, and
again a dc / dc converter is needed to regulate the
dc output from the first converter. So it has large
control circuits, high cost, and low efficiency due
to twice processing of input power. So we are
going for single stage topology. In single stage
topology the main disadvantage in distributed
power systems is that they need galvanic
isolation in each one of the dc-dc on-board
converters. By placing a battery in the primary
side we can solve this problem but the power-
factor correction is not incorporated.
This paper presents an integrated
battery charger / discharger which do the power
factor correction and battery galvanic isolation in
a simple structure. By placing a battery in the
primary side we can eliminate the galvanic
isolation in each dc-dc on-board converters. The
power factor correction and power conversion is
done by this topology in single stage. When the
 4

high switching frequency technique is applied, .

the harmonics are reduced. This will give good
power factor correction and improve the
efficiency also.

ii. INTEGRATED BATTERY

CHARGER/DISCHARGER
The integrated battery charger /
discharger is used as a pre regulator with power
factor correction capacity with the battery
integrated into the primary side. The converter in
Fig.1 an Integrated Battery Charger / Discharger
its normal mode of operation is capable of
carrying out the battery charging. The function
I. NORMAL MODE OF OPERATION
of energy backup is carried out by winding L2
When the main power input Vin is
and an extra switch (Q2). The switch Q3 selects
functioning properly, the MOSFET Q1 and Q3
the operation mode and protects battery from
turned on and the transistor Q2 is turned off. [1]
higher charging current levels specified by the
This is called as normal mode of operation. In
battery manufacturer. The block diagram of
this mode the equivalent circuit is a
integrated battery charger / discharger is shown
discontinuous-conduction-mode fly back
in Fig.1. This proposed topology is used as a
converter. The block diagram of normal mode is
front-end converter in distributed power supply
given in the fig.2.
systems. The principle of operation of this
topology is based on the fly back converter.
The converter has 3 modes of operations,
I. Normal mode of operation
II. Backup mode of operation
III. Charging mode of operation

Fig.2 Normal Mode

The current in the secondary side is
given by,
Itfr = D1Ts1 V2 (t) / L3
Where,
D1 = Duty cycle of Q1
Ts1 = Switching period of Q1
L3 = Magnetizing inductance
V2 (t) = Secondary voltage
 5

If the secondary voltage is

Vtfr = Vg (t) / n1
Where,
n1 = Number of turns in the main primary
Vg (t) = Average input voltage
Itfr = Vg (t) D1Ts1 / n1L3
Where,
Itfr = Peak current in the secondary
Fig.3 Backup Mode
L3 = Magnetic inductance of secondary
the average input current of the
The block diagram of the backup mode is
converter is
given in the fig.3 the battery voltage Vat is
T

(I ) =
s 1

g
1
∫ ig (t )dt chosen in such a way that it should be lower than
T S 1 0 the normal input voltage Vin. Whereas the output
Ig = D1Itfr/2n1 voltage VO may be higher or lower than VIN or
from equations Itfr and Ig we have Vbat because the converter can either step up to
Ig = Vg(t)D1Ts1 / 2n1 L3 step down the input voltage in all modes.
Ig = Vg(t) / Re In this case, MOSFET Q2 current will be
Then the effective resistance will be, much higher than the MOSFET Q1 current,
Re = 2n1L3 / D1Ts1 because the voltage Vbat is much lower than the
Now, if the input voltage is main input voltage Vac. Therefore the selection
Vg(t) = Vtfr sin wt of MOSFET Q2 is more critical than the
Then the low-frequency component of MOSFET Q1 concerning its internal resistance.
the input current is given by
Ig(t) = Vtfr sin wt / Re III. CHARGING MODE OF
Therefore, the average input current, or OPERATION
the low-frequency component, of the converter is When the main power input is
directly proportional to the input voltage. functioning properly and the battery is
discharged, the converter could be operated as a
II. BACKUP MODE OF OPERATION battery charger. During this operation mode
If there is any failure in the main supply power factor correction is preserved.
(Vin) is detected, the MOSFET Q1 is turned off
and the MOSFET Q2 governs the backup energy
transfer with pulse width modulated pattern,
while the transistor Q3 continues “ON”. This is
called as back up mode.
 6

duty cycle of the transistor Q3 will be regulated.

By considering the operation frequency of Q3, it
should be power bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
.The primary and battery-charging currents for
different load conditions will be considered. In
these conditions the battery charging current
needs to be kept an adequate level, so that it does
not exceed the peak current established by the
battery manufacturer. When the converter is
Fig.4. Charging Mode
operating in backup mode, the battery discharge
The block diagram of the charging
can be controlled through the Q2 duty cycle.
mode is given in the Fig. 4 In this mode, the
transistor Q3 is turned off. Due to the position
and polarity of the battery, the effective voltage
iv. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
seen by the primary (n1-n2) is
During the converter operation, when a
Vin = Vtfrsin wt - Vbat
primary winding is working other winding
Since the polities of L1 and L2 are
should be idle and vice versa. If a magnetic field
opposite, then the magnetizing inductance in this
crosses over an idle winding, then an extra
mode of operation is
leakage inductance will appear which will cause
Lm = n1-n2 / n1 * L1
an increase in switching loss. So these winding
Where,
sequences could be n1-n3-n2 or n2-n3-n1.
n1 = Number of turns in main primary;
During charging mode of operation the
n2 = Number of turns in backup primary;
body diode Dq2 of MOSFET Q2 is used to carry
L1= Magnetizing inductance in main primary;
the current. But it must not carry the current
Lm = Magnetic inductance
when the converter is operating in normal mode.
The primary current, which is the
So the backup converter (Vbat, L2, and Q2)
battery-charging current, flows through the body
should be disappearing from the equivalent
diode Dq2 of the MOSFET Q2. Therefore, it is
circuit. In order to achieve that, the following
not necessary to turn on Q2 in this mode of
condition should be satisfied.
operation.
n2 / n1 < Vbat / Vtfr
A small value of capacitor should be
iii. CONTROL OF BATTERY
used for normal mode and a large value of
CHARGING/DISCHARGING
capacitor should be used for charging mode.
The primary current of this converter
depends on the load. The battery-charging
current can be controlled through the duty cycle
of MOSFET Q3. Depending on the converter
load and the charging time of the battery, the
 7

v. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS INPUT VOLTAGE (NORMAL MODE)

In order to verify the circuit
performance of the proposed topology the
following specifications are applied.[1]
VIN = 230 V
Fin = 50 Hz
Vbat = 24 V
Lf = 1.98 mH INPUT CURRENT (NORMAL MODE)
Cf = 200 nF By drawing the three mode circuits in
VCfd =6V Simulation Computer Aided Design (Sim –
fs1, fs2, fs3 = 100 KHz CAD) and simulating the circuits in Power
L1 = 158.93 µH Simulation (P – Sim) using the specification
L2 = 2.589 µH values. From the values, the output voltage, is

L3 = 9.961 µH same in all three modes of operation (Vo = 17

Lm = 1 mH V). The input voltage (Vin) and current (Iin) are

C = 10 F in phase for normal and charging modes. So the

R = 10 Ω harmonics happened is reduced and the power

n1 & n2 = 100 factor correction is obtained. The efficiency also

n3 =8 increased. The output current is high in backup

Vcfd =4V mode when compare to normal mode due to the

current flow through the MOSFET Q2 is higher
Ron =1Ω
than the MOSFET Q1. (Io = 0.9 A) The
Vcfd1 = 0.6 V
harmonic distortion is happened in the input
Vdq = 0.5 V
current waveforms are seen in the waveforms.
We can apply the same circuit for different load
conditions. Thus the power factor correction was
obtained in distributed power supply systems.
The Total Harmonic Distortion
reduction and efficiency can be improved
through the use of an active-clamp circuit. The
same principle of operation could be extended to
the buck-boost-derived topologies, such as the
Sepic, Cuk, and Zeta converters operating as
integrated battery chargers/dischargers.
 8

VI.CONCLUSION
Thus the power-factor correction, VII. REFERENCES
galvanic isolation, and efficient charging / 1. Carlos Aguilar, Francisco Canales,
discharging schemes are done by the integrated JaimeArau, Javier Sebastian, & Javier Uceda,
battery charger / discharger circuit. From the Oct.97. “An Integrated Battery
output waveforms, the integrated battery charger Charger/Discharger with power factor
/ discharger has the power-factor correction correction,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electronics Vol.44,
capacity in distributed power supply systems. No.5, pp. 597-602.
This circuit has the minimum no of components, 2. K.Ma and Y.Lee, July/Aug. 1992, “A novel
uninterruptible dc-dc converter for UPS
applications,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicant.,
vol.28, pp. 808-815.
3. K.Ma and Y.Lee, 1994 “An integrated fly
back converter for DC uninterruptible power
supply,” in proc. IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Conf., pp.661-667.
INPUT VOLTAGE (CHARGING MODE) 4. P.S. Bimbhra, “POWER ELECTRONICS”,
Khanna Publishers.
5. Muhammad H. Rashid, “POWER
ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS, DEVICES AND
APPLICATIONS”, Prentice-Hall of India
Private Limited.
6. M.D. SINGH & K.B. KHANCHANDANI,
INPUT CURRENT (CHARGING MODE) “POWER ELECTRONICS”, Tata McGraw-Hill
so the cost is too reduced. By placing the battery Publishing Company Limited.
in the primary side it overcomes the need of 7. Website: www.powerdesigner.com
galvanic isolation integration in each one of the
dc/dc on board converters, when this topology is
used as a part of distributed power supply
systems.
The power factor correction is done by
the fly back converter by the high switching
frequency. (nearly 100 KHz) Since the
harmonics distortion happened is reduced. The
efficiency and power factor will improve. Thus
the power factor correction done by the
integrated battery charger / discharger in
distributed power supply systems.
 1

A Solution to Remote Detection of Illegal

Electricity Usage via Power Line
Communications

Presented by
Boonapalli.Ravithej Neeruganti.Venugopal
3/4 b-tech.
thej.boonapalli5136@gamil.com

Sri Krishandevaraya University

College of Engineering and technology- Anantapur.

 2

ABSTRACT
Power line communication
(PLC) presents an interesting and
economical solution for automatic meter
reading (AMR). If an AMR system via
PLC is set in a power delivery system, a
detection system for illegal electricity
usage may be easily added in the
existing PLC network. In the detection
system, the second digitally energy meter
chip is used and the value of energy is
stored. The recorded energy is compared
with the value at the main kilowatthour
meter. In the case of the difference
between two recorded energy data, an
error signal is generated and
transmitted via PLC network. The
detector and control system is proposed.
The architecture of the system and their
critical components are given. The
measurement results obtained from
turkey’s power lines are given. This
paper describes a prototype of the
detector system for illegal electricity
usage using the power lines. The target
of this study is to discover new and
possible solutions for the lack of
literature concerning this problem.

Index terms – Automatic meter reading (AMR), detector, illegal electricity usage, power
line communication, power line communications (PLC) modem.

INTRODUCTION
The automatic meter reading (AMR)
system has become a necessity for most
energy suppliers as deregulation, free
customer choice and open market
competition occur in the energy supply
sector. Power line communications has
many new service possibilities on the
data transferring via power lines without
use extra cables. AMR is a very
important application in these
possibilities due to every user connected
each other via power lines. If an AMR
system may be established in a power
network, every user connected each
other via modems using power lines.
AMR is a technique to facilite remote
readings energy consumption. Another
important problem may be described as
illegal electricity usage for energy
suppliers. There is no study in the field
to determine the illegal usage in the
literature. In order to portray the
dimensions of this problem, the
following explanations are very
interesting.
Illegal electricity may be a serious
problem in many countries. In our
country 30%-40% of total electricity
consumption is illegal; adding that
prevention of its illegal use is of great
importance in overcoming this problem.
Increasing electricity production and
building complexes is not sufficient to
3
meet demand, because of the illegal
image of electricity. This illegal
electricity causes loss of million dollars
to electricity board. using electricity
illegally may indirectly affect the
economic state of a country negatively.
On the other hand, the planning of
national energy may be difficulty in the
case of unrecorded usage.
This illegal usage of electricity
problem can be attempted to be resolved
by special skills of humans, such as the
police, special security, etc. These
methods could not give the optimum
solutions due to their impartialities,
Meter reading has been applied humans
and some electronic solutions such as
optical reading Methods, creditable
utilization of electrical energy, etc.
There does not exist a study about
electronic detection of illegal usage of
electricity. This may be related to
technological innovations so far. Today,
we have many chips which can be used
for digital energy metering and PLC
modems. At this point of technological
development, the problem of illegal
usage of electricity must be solved
electronically, without any human
control. The main aim of this paper is to
start a discussion on this problem and
find solutions similar to this which has
occurred.

DETECTION OF ILLEGAL ELECTRICITY USAGE
METHODS OF ILLEGAL ELECTRICITY USAGE
In this study, the methods of illegal
electricity usage are first determined. In
illegal usage, a subscriber illegally uses
electricity in followings ways.

Using the mechanical objects: A
subscriber can use some
mechanical objects to prevent the
revolution of a meter, so that disk
speed is reduced and the
recorded energy is also reduced.

Using a fixed magnet: A
subscriber can use a fixed
magnet to change the
electromagnetic field of the
current coils. As is well known,
the recorded energy is
proportional to electromagnetic
field.
DETECTION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
The proposed control system for
the detection of illegal electricity usage
is shown in Fig. 1. PLC signaling is only
valid over the low voltage-220 VAC
4

Using the external phase before
meter terminals: This method
gives subscribers free energy
without any record.

Switch the energy cables at the
meter connector box: In this
way, the current does not pass
through the current coil of the
meter, so the meter does not
record the energy consumption.
Although all of the methods explained
above may be valid for electromechnical
meters, only the last two methods are
valid for digital meters. Therefore, this
problem should be solved by electronics
and control techniques.
power lines. The system should applied
to every low-voltage distribution
network.
 5

Subscriber 1 Subscriber 2

kWh kWh

PLC PLC
1A 2A

PLC energy PLC energy

1B meter 1B meter
220 VAC
Distribution
Transformer

PLC energy
NB meter
Host PLC
Unit
kWh

To Central Station PLC Subscriber N

NA

Fig .1 schematically illustration of detection system of illegal electricity usage.

The system given in Fig. 1
belongs only one distribution
transformer network and should be
repeated for every distribution network.
Although the proposed system can be
used uniquely, it is better to use it with
automatic meter reading system. If the
AMR will be used in any network, the
host PLC unit and a PLC modem for
every subscriber should be contained in
this system. In Fig.1, the host PLC unit
and the other PLC modems are named
PLC1A, …., PLCNA and used for
AMR. These units provide
communication with each other and send
the recorded data in kilowatt hour meter
to PLC unit. In order to detect illegal
usage of electrical energy a PLC modem
and an energy meter chip for every
subscriber are added to an AMR system.
As given in Fig. 1 PLC1B,…., PLCNB
and energy meter chips belong to the
detector. The detector PLCs and energy
meters must be placed at the connection
point between distribution main lines
and subscriber’s line. Since this
connection point is usually in the or at
the ground, it is not suitable for anyone
to access, such that its control is easy.
The main procedure of the proposed
system can be summarized as follows.
PLC signaling must be in
CENELEC standards. In Europe
CENELEC has formed the standard EN-
50 065-1, in which frequency bands,
signaling levels, and procedures are
specific 3-95 kHz are restricted for use
by electricity suppliers, a 95-148.5 kHz
are restricted to consumer use. The
signal level for the band 95-148.5 kHz is
limited as follows. For general use the
signaling level is limited to 116dB µV

(Class 116 equipment), and for particular
applications, e.g., industrial areas, the
signaling level is limited to 134 dB µV
(Class 134 equipment). The recorded
data in kilowatt hour meters for every
subscriber are sent to host PLC modem
via PLC modems which placed in
subscriber’s locations. On the other
hand, energy meter chips are located at
the connection points and read the
energy in kilowatt hours and also send
data to host PLC unit. This proposed
detector system has two recorded energy
data in host PLC unit, one which comes
from the AMR-PLC, and the other
which comes from the PLC modem at
the connection points. These two
recorded data area compared in the host
PLC; if there is any difference between
Main power line
220 VAC Connector box for k subscriber
PLC Modem
k1 address
Power line of
k subscriber k subscriber
PLC
Modem
k. address
Main
PLC
modem
Fig . 2 illegal detector system for one subscriber
6
two readings, an error signal is
generated. This means that there is an
illegal usage in the network. After that
the subscriber address and error signal
combined and sent to the central control
unit. If it is requested, a contactor may
be included to the system at subscriber
locations to turn off the energy
automatically, as in the case of illegal
usage.
The main elements of the PLC
modem are ST7537HS1 and the 707VX-
T1002 the ADE7755 is an accurate
electrical energy measurement IC
intended for use in single phase
distribution systems, produced by
Analog Device. The main circuits of one
detector system are carried out in the
conditions of the laboratory.
Energy meter
chip
exist
kWh
meter
Host PLC unit
microprocessor logic
To information center
 7

The tests of the proposed
detector system are carried out in the
laboratory. Because the AMR system
has not established a power grid in many
places yet, the detector system is
checked using the model of the overall
system. The system model and
simulation of the detection system of
illegal electricity usage is shown in
Fig.2. In the laboratory, a host PLC
modem, an energy meter chips and PLC
modem, an electromechanical kilowatt
hour meter and its PLC modem, and an
optical reflecting sensor system are
loaded at the same phase of the power
grid. The energy value at the
electromechanical kilowatthour meter is
converted to digital data using by optical
reflector sensor. Disk speed of the
kilowatthour meter is counted and
obtained data is sent to PLC modem as
energy value of the kilowatthour meter.
At the system model, an illegal load may
be connected to the power line before
the kilowatthour meter via an S switch.
While only a legal load is in the system,
two meters are accorded each other to
compensate for any error readings. The
host PLC units read two recorded data
coming from metering PLC units. If the
S switch is closed, the illegal load is
connected to the system, and therefore
two recorded energy values are different
from each other. The host PLC unit is
generated when it received two different
records from the same subscriber. This is
the detection of the illegal usage for
interested users. In these tests, the carrier
frequency is selected at 132khz, which is
permitted in the CENELEC frequency
band. In real applications, the AMR
system may be designed in all
CENELEC bands. The data rate between
the host and other PLC modems is
2400b/s. Data signaling between PLC
modems has a protocol which includes a
header, address, energy value data, error
detection bits, and other serial
communication bits such as parity and
stop bits. The protocol may also be
changed according to the properties of
the required system and national power
grid architecture.

Energy meter PLC KWhmeter

chip modem modem

power line

S disk
Legal
load

Host PLC modem Illegal load

PLC modem optical reflector system
Fig . 3 system simulation and modeling of the detection system of illegal
electricity usage for electromechanical kilowatthour meters.

Fig3 shows the detection system
for an electromechanical kilowatthour
meter system. In the digital energy meter
system, the recorded energy may be
received in the digital in the digital form
directly using the port of the meter.
Therefore, there is no need for an optical
reflector system in digital meters.
OVERVIEW OF THE PROPOSED DIRECTOR SYSTEM
The proposed detector system is the
equipment and procedure for controlling
more remote stations from a master
control station. It includes PLC modems,
energy meters, control logics, and the
system software. The PLC modems are
host and target modems for two-way
communications to and from the host
station and the remotely controlled
targets. The energy meters include
metering chips and some circuit
elements; the control and logic units
compare and generate the error signal in
the illegal usage. The system software
has two parts: assembler program for the
micro controller and the operating
software for the management of the
overall system. Operated software may
be downloaded from a PC and should be
placed in the main center of the system.
An AMR system including an illegal
detector performs the following
functions.

Every user has two PLC
modems; one is for AMR and the
other is used to send the data
from second energy meter chip to
host PLC modem.
8
The results of the tests show that this
system may solve this problem
economically because the budget of the
proposed system is approximately U.S.
$20-25 per subscriber. It is very
economical and is a reliable solution
when it is compared with the economic
loss caused by illegal usage.

An energy meter must be
installed in the connection box
between a home line and main
power lines.

The host PLC unit must be
placed in the distribution
transformer and the configuration
of the addressing format of PLC
signaling must be designed
carefully.

The host PLC modem and its
controller must include two
addresses per every user: one is
the AMR and the other for the
energy meter. These two
addresses must be selected
sequentially.

Operating software must be
designed for the information of
every subscriber in every sub
power network: subscriber
identification number, billing
address, etc.

The system has two values of the
energy consumption for every
user, so if there is a difference
between them, an error signal is
generated for the illegal user.
 9

The proposed equipment is the each distribution transformer

only one distributed in the power may be connected to only one
network. So this system should main center station via phone
be repeated for all distributed lines, fiber-optics cables, or RF
power networks. All host units in links.

Fig 4: Effects of distance of the source receiver Fig 5: Bit error probability with frequency
on the loss for various frequency load combinations and load impedance for 1000 meter line.

Fig 6: Effects of line length (m) on

the bit error probability.

Some works are carried out for
the proposed system in the project
supported Turkish government. PLC
modems and second energy meter
are realized in the conditions of the
laboratory. Signal measurements for
remote and indoor home applications
are done. Obtained results are
hopeful in order to achieve the
detection illegality in the real system.
Some results of the measurements
are shown in Fig.4-6. The relations
between frequency, length, and bit-
order probability are given in these
figures.
 10

CONCLUSIONS

A detector system to determine nonexistent AMR system in our

illegal electricity usage via power
line communications is designed and
proposed. The proposed system is
examined in laboratory conditions.
Obtained results from this study
show that if the AMR and detector
system are used together, illegal
usage of electricity may be detected.
The proposed system has not been
tried in real power lines due to
country. In the near future, combined
AMR and detector systems will be
tried in our country as explained
above. One of the main aims of this
study is to start new discussions and
propose solutions in this field,
because illegal usage is a serious
problem in our country. and may
also be in other parts of the world.

REFERENCES

IEEE Trans. power delivery, vol.16,2001

IEEE Trans. power delivery, vol.17,2002
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IEEE Trans. power delivery, vol.13,1998
PRESENTED BY:

A.SAGARIKA K.N.NAGA NANDINI

111 EEE 111 EEE

SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA

ENGG.COLLEGE ENGG. COLLEGE

GOOTY, ANANTAPUR. GOOTY, ANANTAPUR.

Email: sagarika_avancha@yahoo.co.in Email: nandu_2582000@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT:

Distributed systems traditionally have been protected with silicon-carbide distribution

 Note that for an effectively grounded neutral system, the
arrester with a maximum
:
equipment(figure6)
Figure

and
REFERENCES
SIMULTANEOU
SIMULTANEOUS AC-
AC-DC
POWETRANSMISSION
POWETRANSMISSION
By
G.R.BHARGAVI
III B.TECH-EEE
Roll no:06691A0209
Email:bharu10_1989@yahoo.com
Ph no:9704207226
MADANAPALLE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
Abstract
The advantage of parallel ac-dc power
transmission for the improvement of transient
and dynamic stability and damp out
oscillations have been established. Present
paper proposes a simultaneous ac-dc power
flow scheme through the same transmission
line to get the advantages of parallel ac-dc
transmission to improve stability and damping
Introduction .
HVDC transmission lines in parallel with EHV
ac lines are recommended to improve transient
and dynamic stability as well as to damp out
oscillations in power system. Long EHV ac
lines can not be loaded to its thermal limit to
keep sufficient margin against transient
instability. But for optimum use of
transmission lines here is a need to load EHV
ac lines close to their thermal limits by using
flexible ac transmission system (FACTS)
components .Very fast control of SCRs in
FACTS devices like state VAR system (SVS),
controlled series capacitor (CSC), static phase
shiftier (SPS) and controlled braking resistors
oscillations as well as to control the voltage
profile of the line by controlling the total
reactive power flow. Only the basic idea is
proposed along with the feasibility study using
elementary laboratory model. The main object
is to emphasize the possibility of simultaneous
ac-dc transmission with its inherent advantage
of power flow control.
improves stability and damps out oscillations
in power system.
EHV ac line may be loaded to a very high
value if the conductors are allowed to carry
superimposed dc current along with ac current.
The added de power flow does not cause any
transient instability.
This paper presents a simple scheme of
simultaneous EHV ac-dc power flow through
the same transmission line with an object to
achieve the advantages of parallel ac-dc
transmission. Simultaneous ac-dc
transmission may also claim advantages in
some specific applications LV (low voltage)
and MV (Medium voltage) system.
SIMULTANEOUS AC-DC TRANSMISSION:
The circuit diagram in Figure1 shows the basic
scheme for simultaneous ac-dc transmission.
The dc power is obtained through the rectifier
bridge and injected to the neutral point of the
zigzag connected secondary of sending end
transformer, and again it is reconverted to ac
by the inverter bridge at the receiving end.
The inverter bridge is again connected to the
neutral of zigzag connected winding of the
receiving end transformer. Star connected
primary windings in place of delta-connected
windings for the transformers may also be used
for higher supply voltage. The single circuit
transmission line carriers both 3 –phase ac and
dc power. It is to be noted that a part of the
total ac power at the sending end is converted
into dc by the tertiary winding of the
transformer connected to rectified bridge. The
same dc power is reconverted to ac at the
received end by the tertiary winding of the
receiving end transformer connected to the
inverter bridge. Each conductor of the line
carries one third of the total de current along
with ac current Ia .The return path of the dc
current is through the ground. Zigzag
connected winding is used at both ends to
avoid saturation of transformer due to dc
current flow. A high value of reactor. X d is
used to reduce harmonics in dc current.
In the absence of zero sequence and third
harmonics or its multiple harmonic voltages,
under normal operating conditions, the ac
current flow will be restricted between the
zigzag connected windings and the three
conductors of the transmission line. Even the
presence of these components of voltages may
only be able to produce negligible current
through the ground due to high of Xd.
Assuming the usual constant current control of
rectifier and constant extinction angle control
of inverter, the equivalent circuit of the scheme
under normal steady state operating condition
is shown in Fig.2.
.
The dotted line in the figure shows the path of
ac return current only. The ground carries the
full dc current Id only and each conductor of
the line carries Id/3 along with the ac current
per phase.
Neglecting the resistive drops in the line
conductors and transformer winding due to dc
Es = AER + BIR
(1)
Is = CER + DIR
(2)
Ps+ jQS = (- ES E*R)/B* + (D*/B*) Es2
(3)
PR+ jQR = (ES* ER)/B* - (A*/B*)ER2
(4)
Neglecting ac resistive drop in the line and
transformer, the dc current and dc power may
be expressed as :
Id = (Vdrcosα - Vdicosγ)/(Rer+(R/3) – Rci)
Pdi = Vdi x Id ; Pdr = Vdr x Id
Where R is the line resistance per conductor,
Rcr and Rci commutating resistances, α andγ,
firing and extinction angles of rectifier and
current, expressions for ac voltage and current,
and for active and reactive powers may be
written in terms of A,B,C,D parameters of the
lines as: :
inverter respectively and Vdr and Vdi are the
maximum dc voltages of rectifier and inverter
side respectively. Values of Vdr and Vdi are
1.35 times line to line tertiary winding ac
voltages of respective sides.
Reactive powers required by the converters
are:
Qdi = Pdi tanθI (5)
Qdr = Pdr tanθr (6)
CosθI = (cosγ + cos (γ + µi) )/2
(7)
Cosθr = (cosα + cos (αγ + µr) )/2
(8)
Where µI and µr are commutation angles of
inverter and rectifier respectively and total
active and reactive powers at the two ends are
Pst = Ps + Pdr and Prt = PR + Pdi (9)
Qst = Qs + Qdr and Qrt = QR + Qdi
(10)
Total transmission line loss is:
PL = (Ps + Pdr) – (PR + Pdi)
(11)
Ia being the rms ac current per conductor at
any point of the line, the total rms current per
conductor becomes:
I = sqrt (Ia2 + (Id/3)2) and PL ≅ 3I2R
(12)
If the rated conductor current corresponding to
its allowable temperature rise is Ith and
Ia = X * Ith; X being less than unity, the dc
current becomes:
Id = 3 x (sqrt (1-x2) ) Ith
(13)
The total current I in any conductor is
asymmetrical but two natural zero-crossings in
each cycle in current wave are obtained for
(Id/3Ia) <1.414.
The instantaneous value of each conductor
voltage with respect to ground become s the dc
voltage Vd with a superimposed sinusoid ally
varying ac voltages having rms value Eph and
the peak value being :
Emax = V + 1.414 Eph
Electric field produced by any conductor
voltage possesses a dc component
superimposed with sinusoid ally varying ac
component. But the instantaneous electric field
polarity changes its sign twice in cycle if
(Vd/Eph) < 1.414.Therefore, higher creep age
distance requirement for insulator discs used
for HVDC lines are not required.
Each conductor is to be insulated for Emaz but
the line to line voltage has no dc component
and ELL(maz) = 2.45 Eph, Therefore, conductor to
conductor separation distance is determined
only by rated ac voltage of the line.
Assuming Vd/Eph = k
Pdc/’Pac ≅ (Vd * Id)/(3 * Eph * Ia * cosθ) = (k *
sqrt(1-x2))/(x * cosθ ) (15)
Total power
Pt = Pdc + Pac = (1 + [k * sqrt (1-x2)]/(x * cosθ))
* Pac (16)
Detailed analysis of short current ad design of
protective scheme, filter and instrumentation
network required for the proposed scheme is
beyond the scope of present work, but
preliminary qualitative analysis presented
below suggests that commonly used techniques
in HVDC/ac system may be adopted for this
purposes.
In case of fault in the transmission system, gate
signals to all the SCRs are blocked that to the
bypass SCR s are released to protect rectifier
and inverter bridges. CBs are then tripped at
both ends to isolate the complete system. As
mentioned earlier, if (Id3Ia) <1.414, CBs
connected at the two ends of transmission line
interrupt current at natural current zeroes and
no special dc CB is required. To ensure proper
operation of transmission line CBs tripping
signals to these CBs may only be given after
sensing the zero crossing of current by zero
crossing detectors. Else CB’s connected to the
delta side of transformers (not shown in
figure1) may be used to isolate the fault.
Saturation of transformer core, if any, due to
asymmetric fault current reduces line side
current but increases primary current of
transformer. Delta side CBs, designed to clear
transformers terminals faults and winding
faults, clear these faults easily.
Proper values of ac and de filters as used in
HVDC system may be connected to the delta
side and zigzag neutral respectively to filter
our higher harmonics from de and ac supplies.
However, filters may be omitted for low values
of Vd and Id.
At neutral terminals of zigzag winding de
current and voltages may be measured by
adopting common methods used in HVDC
system. Conventional cvts as used in EHV ac
lines are used to measure ac component of
transmission line voltage. Superimposed dc
voltage in the transmission line does not affect
the working of evts. Linear couplers with high
air-gap core may be employed for
measurement of ac component of line current
as dc component of line current is not able to
saturate high air-gap cores.
Electric signal processing circuits may be used
to generate composite line voltage and current
waveforms from the signals obtained for dc
and ac components of voltage and current.
Those signals are used for protections and
control purposes.
Experimental verification .
The feasibility of the basic scheme of
simultaneous ac-dc transmission was verified
in the laboratory. Transformer having a rating
of 2 kVA, 400/230/110V was used at each end.
A supply of 3-phase, 400V, 50Hz was given at
the sending end and a 3-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz,1
HP induction motor in addition to a 3-phgase,
400V, 0.7 KW resistive load was connected at
the receiving end. A 10 A, 110 Vdc reactor
(Xd) was used at each end with the 230V
zigzag connected neutral. Two identical SCR
bridges were used for rectifier and inverter.
The dc voltages of rectifier and inverter
bridges were adjusted between 145 V to135 V
to vary dc current between 0 to 3A.
The same experiment was repeated by
replacing the rectifier at the sending and and
the inverter at receiving end by 24V battery
and a 5A, 25 rheostat respectively, between Xd
The power transmission with and without de
component was found to be satisfactory in all
the cases.
To check the saturation of zigzag connected
transformer for high value of Id, ac loads were
disconnected and dc current was increased to
Proposed applications.
1.Long EHV ac lines can not be loaded to
their thermal limit to keep sufficient margin
against transient instability and to keep voltage
regulation within allowable limit, the
simultaneous power flow does not imposed
any extra burden on stability of the system,
rather it improves the stability. The resistive
drop due to dc current being very small in
comparison to impedance drop due to ac
current, thee is also no appreciable change in
voltage regulation due to superimposed dc
current.
2. Therefore one possible application of
simultaneous ac-dc transmission is to load the
line close to its thermal limit by transmitting
additional dc power. Figure3 shows the
variation of Pt/Pac for changing values of k
and x at unity power factor. However, it is to
be noted that additional conductor insulation is
to be provided due to insertion of dc.
3. Necessity of additional dc power
transmission will be experienced maximum
during peak load period which is characterized
with lower than rate voltage. If dc power is
injected during the peak loading period only
with V d being in the range of 5% to 10% of E
pb, the same transmission line without having
any enhanced insulation level may be allowed
to be used.
and ground.
1.2 times the rated current for a short time with
the input transformer kept energized from
400V ac. But no changes in exciting current
and terminal voltage of transformer were
noticed verifying no saturation even with high
value of I d.
For a value of x=0.7 and V d =0.05 E ph or 0.10
E ph, 5.1% or 10.2% more power may be
transmitted.
4.By adding a few more discs in insulator
strings of each phase conductor d with
appropriate modifications in cross-arms of
towers insulation level between phase to
ground may be increased to a high value,
which permits proportional increase in Emax,
Therefore higher value of Vd may be used to
increase dc and total power flow through the
line. This modification in the exiting ac lines
is justified due to high cost of a separate
HVDC line.
5. With the very fast electronic control of
firing angle (α ) and extinction angle (γ ) of the
converters, the fast control of dc power may
also be used to improve dynamic stability and
damping out oscillations in the system similar
to that of the ac-dc parallel transmission lines.
6. Control of α and γ also controls the rectifier
and inverter VAR requirement and therefore,
may be used to control the voltage profile of
the transmission line during low load condition
and works as inductive shunt compensation. It
may also be considered that the capacitive
VAR of the transmission line is supplying the
whole or part of the inductive VAR
requirement of the converter system. In pure
HVDC system capacitance of transmission line
cannot be utilized to compensate inductive
VAR.
7. The independent and fast control of active
and reactive power associated with dc,
superimposed with the normal ac active and
reactive power may be considered to be
working as another component of FACTS.
8. Simultaneous ac-dc power transmission may
find its application in some special cases of
LV and MV distribution system.
When 3-phase power in addition to dc power
is supplied to a location very near to a furnace
or to a work place having very high ambient
temperature, rectification of 3-phase supply is
not possible at that location using
semiconductor rectifier. In such place
simultaneous ac-dc transmission is
advantageous.
In air craft 3-phase loads are generally fed
with higher frequency supply of about 400Hz
and separate line is used for dc loads. Skin
effect restricts the optimum use of distribution
wires at high frequency. Simultaneous ac-dc
power transmission reduces both volume and
weight of distributors.
9. Another possible application is the
transmission of dc power generated by PV
solar cells directly to remote dc loads through
3-phase ac line. In all cases of separate dc
supply filter networks are not required.
References:
1. Padiyar.’HVDC Power Transmission System.’ Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1993.
2. I W Kimbark.’Direct Current Transmission Vol-I.’Wiley, New York, 1971.
3. Comtrol Of Active And Reactive Power Flow In IEEE Magazin.
Conclusions.
A simple scheme of simultaneous EHV ac-dc
power transmission through the same
transmission line has been presented.
Expressions of active and reactive powers
associated with ac and dc, conductor voltage
level and total power have been obtained for
steady state normal operating condition. The
possible applications of the proposed scheme
may be listed as: loading a line close to its
thermal limit, improvement of transient and
dynamic stability and damping of oscillations.
In LV and MV distribution system the
proposed scheme may be applied in a
workplace having high ambient temperature or
fed with high frequency supply or with PV
solar cells. Only the basic scheme has been
presented with qualitative assessment for its
implementation. Details of practical adaptation
are beyond the scope of the present work.
 LAKKIREDDY
BALIREDDY COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING
MYLAVARAM

V.Harish
B.Karthik

EMAIL : 1 : harishlbrce@gmail.com
2: karthikstrikz@gmail.com

Phone :9290535676
9849557052.
ABSTRACT :
This paper provides an overview on the
aspects of the powerformer . VOLTAGE
COLLAPSE issues have, in recent years
begun to pose an undesirable threat to
the operational security of power
systems. Recent collapses, including the
1996 collapse of the western U.S. grid,
have highlighted the importance of
avoiding generator limiting in order to
limit potential voltage instability. The
particular importance of the stator
current limitation and its contribution to
the collapse of a system has also been
highlighted. The focus of this paper is a
new type of generator, the Powerformer ,
which connects directly to the high
voltage bus, and therefore, controls this
high side bus’s voltage directly. The
step-up transformer imposes great
drawbacks on the power plant as a
whole, starting from reduction in
efficiency, high maintenance costs, and
more space, less availability and not to
forget the increased environmental
impact of the plant. It also highlights the
use of overexcitation limiters and its
classification. The simulation models,
the advantages in various aspects, the
tabular comparisions with conventional
generator are been discussed regarding
powerformer.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Today’s high-voltage generators are
constructed in such a way that limits
their output voltage to a maximum of 30
kV. The power grid with voltages up to
800 kV, can not be directly supplied by
those generators, a reason why large
power plants nowadays are using power
step-up transformers in order to
transform their generated voltage to a
higher voltage level suitable for the
interface with the transmission grid. The
step-up transformer imposes great
drawbacks on the power plant as a
whole, starting from reduction in
efficiency, high maintenance costs, more
space, less availability and the increased
environmental impact of the plant.
During the last century, a number of
attempts were made at developing a
high-voltage generator that could be
connected directly to the power grid, i.e.
without going via the step-up
transformer. However, although grid
voltages can reach 800 kV or more,
generators are presently constructed for
voltages up to only 30 kV, as stated
above. ABB has developed in close co-
operation with Vattenfall (the Swedish
state-owned power utility) a new high-
voltage generator with innovative
features that enables it to be connected
directly to the transmission grid; its
output voltage can reach levels up to 400
kV. With the new technology, future
transformer-less power plants can be
constructed leading to a new concept of
energy systems. The new machine has
been named Powerformer; its benefits
such as higher efficiency, better
availability, lower maintenance costs
and reduced environmental impact are
straightforward consequences of
transformer-less power plants.

2. POWERFORMER CONCEPT:
Powerformer, although a new machine,
is a 3-phase AC generator with a rotor of
conventional design. The difference,
compared with conventional generator,
lies in the stator windings. In
Powerformer stator winding consists of
high-voltage cables instead of today’s
windings with a square cross-section. By
using high-voltage cables as generator
stator winding, it is possible to highly
increase the generated voltage. The
decisive difference between this design
and present-day technology is that
Powerformer allows direct connection to
the high-voltage grid. This is illustrated
in Figure (1).
Figure (1):
1. Generator.
2. Generator circuit breaker.
3. Surge arrester.
4. Step-up transformer
5. Line circuit breaker
(a). When the same plant when the new
technology is used.
(b). This design implies the omission of
the generator circuit-breaker, the high
current bus-bar and the step-up power
transformer from the power plant,
because Powerformer comprises the
functions of both generator and step-up
transformer as realized from Figure (1).
As a consequence there is an increase up
to 1.5% in total electric power efficiency
compared with today’s best designs,
without using superconductive materials.
Reactive power output and overload
capability are also improved. There are
also major changes in design,
construction, manufacturing and
production of the total plant. These give
a total reduction in size and weight,
thereby giving less environmental
impact. Other advantages achieved by
the utilization of Powerformer will be
discussed shortly in more details.
The technological bases of the new
machine gives a promising future
possibility for both hydro and thermo
power plants as will as for other
electrical equipment.
3. STATOR CORE DESIGN
Powerformer windings
The magnetic circuit of Powerformer
makes certain demands on the winding.
The winding consists of a power cable
with solid insulation and two
semiconducting layers, one surrounds
the conductor and the other outside the
insulation, the semiconducting layers
serves as an equi-potential surface that
forces the electric field to be uniform
around the circumference. The insulation
material is cross-linked polyethylene
(XLPE) used in high-voltage power
cables. On the other hand the circular
geometry of powerformer windings
provides an evenly distributed electric
field. This means that the insulation
material will be uniformly stressed and
utilized in an optimum way. Secondly,
powerformer cable is designed for an
electric field stress of 10 kV/mm, as
compared to the 3 kV/mm, that today’s
generatorwindings.
4. ADVANTAGES OF
POWERFORMER:
Powerformer concept results in major
changes in the design, manufacturing
and construction of a complete power
plant along with its operation, these
changes can a improve the economy of
the whole power plant. The ability of
Powerformer to replace the generator
and step-up power transformer used in
today’s power plants, and produce a
generated high voltage level, that
enables the direct connection to the
transmission power grid (see Figure (1))
has many benefits to the power plant as a
whole.
4.1 Efficiency:
In general, a power plant with
Powerformer has 0.5-1.5 % higher
efficiency than a conventional power
plant (Powerformer plants have 0.5-1.5
% less active losses than conventional
plants). For a 120 MW plant, the figure
is about 1.5%. This means that a plant
with Powerformer will produce 1.8 MW
more power than a conventional plant.
This extra power, obviously, improves
the economy of the whole plant.
4.2 Reactive Power Capability:
The generation of reactive power is
needed to compensate for the reactive
power losses in the transmission
networks. With Powerformer the
reactive power losses in the step-up
transformer is eliminated. With more
reactive power capability, Powerformer
will become competitive alternative to
traditional Reactive Power
Compensators (RPC), because
Powerformer, unlike traditional RPCs
can be overloaded over rather long
period of time, due to its robust design.
This feature is desired during
disturbances in high voltage
transmission networks. For example
neither the copper windings nor the
laminated core in Powerformer are
affected by any rapid temperatures, this
considerably reduces the risk of damage
to the generator insulation.
4.3 Maintenance and Availability:
Powerformer-based plants are simpler to
operate with substantially smaller
number of
components than their conventional
counterparts, a realistic situation for a
hydro-electric power station is provided.
1. Generator hall
2. Generator
3. Bus-bars system
4. Tunnel system
5. Transformer bay
For example Powerformer technology
eliminates the step-up transformer, the
handling of oils, generator circuit
breaker and part of the bus-bar system.
Fewer components mean fewer sources
of potential faults and thus considerably
lower maintenance and maintenance
costs. With Powerformer, the availability
of the power plant will be improved,
because again fewer components mean
fewer faults and more availability.
Powerformer operates with high voltage
and low current, the heat developed in its
stator windings will, therefore, be lower
than in conventional generator stator
windings having the same ratings. The
stator of Powerformer will thus operate
at lower temperature so that the
materials making it are less stressed,
which leads to fewer faults and higher
availability. By comparing statistical
availability figures for conventional
power plants with the expected
availability of a plant based on
Powerformer, assuming a nominal
operation period of 7000 hours per
annum, it has been found that a plant
with Powerformer will have 1.0 %
higher availability, this equals 70 hours
of operation during which a
Powerformer based-plant will keep on
producing power and income while a
conventional plant is out of operation
(unavailable).
4.4 Environmental Impact:
A Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a
tool to provide an overall picture of the
environmental impact from a product or
a system through out its lifetime from
raw material extraction, production, use,
recycling, and finally to disposal. LCA
has been performed on two systems both
connected to a 130 kV power grid, a 150
MVA Powerformer versus a
conventional 136 MVA generator,
breaker and transformer system.
A lifetime of 30 years was assumed, the
environmental impact is expressed in
Environmental Load Unit (ELU), a high
impact on the environment gives large
ELU number. The results are shown in
Figure (6), which shows that the
Powerformer system has lower
environmental impact than a traditional
system during all of its life time phases,
this is mainly because Powerformer has
less energy losses.
Results from a comparative LCA study
on Powerformer system and a
conventional generator system.
Powerformer is clean and safe; a
conventional step-up transformer
contains several tones of oil. The
handling of the oil-based insulation and
cooling systems with the associated fire
and leakage risks are avoided, giving a
cleaner and safe power plant.
Powerformer fully insulated winding
minimizes the risk of partial discharge,
hence, less risk of ozone production and
more environmentally friendly power
plants. Finally, much of the material
used in Powerformer can be easily
recycled after the decommission of the
machine, a matter that has been
considered with concern in the design of
Powerformer and in the material used.
5. SIMULATION ANALYSIS:
In this paper, the results of studies using
the PSS/E dynamic simulation package
from the Power Technologies
Incorporated (PTI) Company are
presented. While load flow-based
techniques are the most commonly used
voltage stability analysis tools, a case
has been put forward, with some
justification, that the results of these
load-flow based methods may be
somewhat pessimistic. This is because
these methods do not consider the time
dependant aspects of control actions,
such as transformer tap changers and
generator overexcitation limiters, nor do
they account for the restoration of
voltage dependent loads following a
system contingency. It is also important
to note that while the maximum power
transfer capability of the system is
normally assumed to coincide with a
zero determinant of the load flow
Jacobian matrix, it is also important to
note that the nonconvergence of the load
flow solution can sometimes be due to a
numerical phenomenon of the solution
technique being used. Sauer and Pai
highlight this situation by pointing out
that there have been many cases cited
where Guass-Sidel routines converge
when Newton-Raphson routines do not.
Dynamic simulation is therefore often
used as the benchmark for verifying the
results obtained from the power-flow-
based techniques.
6. OVEREXCITATION LIMITERS: its ability to maintain a higher stator
current overload capability and the
The purpose of overexcitation limiters is impact of the resultant higher limit level
to ensure that the generator windings are is therefore of particular interest and
not damaged due to heating caused by should be suitably modeled.
excessive current flows. Overexcitation
limiters can be installed to limit the
currents in both the rotor and stator
windings. The interaction between rotor
and stator limiters is extremely
important in the context of system
stability and it has been pointed out that
rotor limited generator, subject to Comparison between conventional and
decreasing voltages can become stator- powerformer armature overload
limited. It has also been pointed out that capability curves:
armature current limiter affects the
power system in a more drastic manner
than does a rotor current limiter.
Delaying stator current limitation will
therefore be extremely beneficial. While
it is common to have a rotor
overexcitation limiter installed, in a
majority of cases, the limiting function
on the stator windings is performed by
an overcurrent relay. The overcurrent 7. TABULAR COMPARISIONS:
relay instantaneously disconnects the
generator from the grid if the stator
current becomes excessive. Clearly the
case where the relay operates will be
more extreme than that of the limiter as
it removes the machine completely from
service. Although the majority of
generators are protected by overcurrent
relays, there are a number of cases where
a current limiter, rather than a relay
protects the stator current .The
overexcitation limiters are used to
protect the stator currents at numerous
nuclear power plants in Sweden. With
this in mind and remembering that the
topic of this paper is the Powerformer,

The above tabular comparisons clearly
show the superiority of Powerformer
based-plans over conventional plants.
8. CONCLUSION:
The power transformer (a high voltage
generator), has been studied through out
this paper; the new concept provides the
possibility to directly connect a rotating
machine to the high-voltage power grid
without going via a step-up transformer.
Powerformer is a high-voltage generator;
the limitation in its rated voltage is set
solely by the AC power cable and the
cable accessories (terminations and
joints) used in its stator winding. This
means that Powerformer of voltage
ratings up to 400 kV can be realized,
although has not been proved yet. Most
important is that the over load capability
of the powerformer can have more
beneficial impact on efficiency of power
plant.
9. REFERENCES:
[1] C.W. Taylor, “Improving grid
behavior,” IEEE Spectr., vol. 36, pp. 40–
5, 1999.
[2] F. G. A. Sjogren, S. G. Johansson,
and J. E. Daalder, “Behavior of
generator current limiters near the point
of voltage collapse,” in Proc. Stockholm
Power Tech Int. Symp. Elect. Power
Eng., vol. 6, New York, NY, USA,
1995.
[3] M. Leijon, L. Gertmar, H. Frank, T.
Karlsson, B. Johansson, K. Isaksson,U.
wollstrom, and J. Martinsson, “Breaking
conventions in electrical power plants,”
in Proc. Int. Conf. Large High Voltage
Elect. Syst CIGRE, Paris, France, 1998.
[4] M. Leijon, “Powerformer™ -a
radically new rotating machine,” ABB
Rev., pp. 21–6, 1998.
 1

CAPACITOR PLACEMENT FOR LOSS REDUCTION IN

RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

M.SARANYA, K.SRI VANI,

IIIyr EEE, IIIyr EEE.
E-mail:saranya_239@yahoo.co.in E-mail:srivanikarrepu@gmail.com

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES

Abstract properties of radial distribution system is used. A program

Distribution system forms an important part of the is written in MATLAB to identify the bus locations to place
electrical power system connecting high voltage capacitors for maximum loss saving as well as to calculate
transmission lines to low voltage consumers through the optimal capacitor size.
feeders, distributors and service mains. It has been
established that 70% of the total losses are occurring in the TABLE I
distribution system. Because of the lower voltage and hence TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LOSSES
higher current, the power (I2R) loss is high in distribution
system[1]. Eventually, this will lead to voltage instability of
the system and it is undesirable. Therefore, reduction of
reactive power is required to compensate the losses.

The objective of this paper is to conduct studies on

reduction of losses in radial distribution system by placing
capacitors. The I2R loss can be separated into two parts
based on the active and reactive components of line
currents. This paper presents a two-stage method of
minimizing the loss associated with the reactive component
of line current by placing capacitors. The method in the first
stage determines a sequence of nodes to be compensated by
capacitors for maximum loss reduction. The size of the
optimal capacitors at the compensated nodes is determined
in second stage by optimizing the loss equation with respect
to capacitor currents. Unlike other methods voltage
constraints are included in this method .The proposed
method have been implemented in MATLAB and is capable
of performing on a radial distribution system of any number A model distribution system is required for this project
of buses and laterals. which is able to represent the real distribution system so that
once the approach for loss reduction is successfully applied
onto the test model; it can be applied to a practical system.
Index terms: The IEEE 34-bus Test System is used as the test model in
Capacitor placement, kW/KVAR ratio,reactive
this project.
Power,voltage profile,loss reduction, radial distribution
A two-stage methodology was applied for
system.
determination of location and size of capacitors. In the first
stage a singly located capacitor algorithm[4] is used for
I. INTRODUCTION identification of a sequence of nodes to be compensated.
With this locations, in the second stage optimal capacitors
In India the transmission and distribution (T&D) losses sizes are determined using multiple capacitor placement
are approximately 14% of the total generated capacity. This algorithm. At the same time, this method was compared
is high as compared to most of the developed countries i.e. with an existing method[5]. Kilo-watt per Kilo-volt-amps-
Japan and (4.0%) and United States (7.0%) as in Table I. reactive ratio (kW/KVAR) is used to see the efficiency of
The target level is 5%. Basically there are two main types the method. The greater the ratio means that more saving
of losses, namely real power and reactive power losses. (kW) can be obtained by the same amount of capacitor size
These losses will affect the overall efficiency of the system. (KVAR) or same amount of saving (kW) for less amount of
Hence, identification of the losses is essential in the process capacitor size (KVAR). Greater ratio is desired as this shows
of reducing these losses. For this purpose a load flow that the method is more efficient.
method proposed in [3], which is very simple and uses the
 2
Assume that a single-source radial distribution system
with n branches and a capacitor is to be placed at bus m and
α be a set of branches connected between the source and
capacitor bus. As referred to Fig. 1, assume that a capacitor
is placed at bus 23, the set of α consists of branches
1,2,3,4,5,16,17,18,19,20,21 and 22. The capacitor draws a
reactive current Ic, and for a radial network it changes only
the reactive component of current of branch set α. The
current of other branches ( ∉ =α) are unaffected by the
new
capacitor. Thus the new reactive current I ri of the ith
Fig. 1. Single Line Equivalent of IEEE 34-bus Test System branch is given by
new
I ri = Iri + DiIc (4)
In the conclusion, the results prove that the proposed where Di = 1; if branch i ∈ α
method has the upper hand as compared to the existing = 0; otherwise
approach as it is more efficient as proved by the kW / kVAR
ratio. Some approximate economic considerations are used The loss PLrcom associated with the reactive component of
at each iteration to decide whether the inclusion of the new branch currents in the compensated currents in the
capacitor is economical or not. This proposed method can compensated system (when the capacitor is connected) can
be applied and implemented in any radial distribution be written as
n
system.
PLrcom = ∑ ( I ri +Di I c ) 2 Ri (5)
i =1
II. ALGORITHMS The loss saving S is the difference between equation 3
and 5 and is given by
Algorithms determine the optimal size and location of
capacitor that should be placed in the system where S = PLr − PLrcom
maximum loss saving occurs. There are equations involves n (6)
in formulation of the algorithm. Two algorithms are = −∑ (2 Di I ri I c + Di I c2 ) Ri
presented: Single and multiple capacitors placement. i =1
Algorithm for single capacitor placing is by inserting a The capacitor current Ic that provides the maximum loss
capacitor into the system one-by-one. A predefined number saving can be obtained from
of capacitors are inserted in to the system simultaneously
∂S n
for the algorithm for multiple capacitor placement. = −2∑ ( Di I ri + Di I c ) Ri = 0 (7)
∂I c i =1
A. Loss Reduction by Single Capacitor Placement [4] Thus the capacitor current for the maximum loss saving is
n
Before the introduction of algorithm for single capacitor
placement, there are essential formulas to be introduced and
∑D I i ri Ri ∑α I Rri i
Ic = − i =1
=− i∈
(8)
discussed.
The total I2R loss (PLt) in a distribution system having n
n

∑ Di Ri ∑α R
i∈
i

number of branches is given by: i =1

n The corresponding capacitor size is
PLt = ∑ I i2 Ri (1) Qc = Vm Ic (9)
i =1
And the loss associated with the active (Ia) and reactive (Ir) Vm is the voltage magnitude of the capacitor bus m.
components of branch currents can be written as The above process can be repeated for all busses to get the
n highest possible loss saving for a singly located capacitor.
PLa = ∑ I ai2 Ri (2) When the candidate bus is identified and compensated, the
i =1 above technique can also be used to identify the next and
n subsequent bus to be compensated for loss reduction. This
PLr = ∑ I ri2 Ri (3) will provide only the locations where the capacitors are to be
i =1 placed . The size obtained from eqn.9 is a local optimal
Here Iai, Iri are active component and reactive component of value and may not be used when more than one capacitor is
branch currents and are obtained using the load flow. For a placed in the system. If the system is previously
given configuration of a single-source radial network, the compensated that can be incorporated in the system data
PLa loss cannot be minimized, as all active power must be itself. The size of optimal capacitors for multiple locations is
supplied by the source. However the PLr loss can be to be determined simultaneously and the procedure of
minimized by supplying part of the reactive power demand finding the optimal sizes is given in next section.
locally .
 3
B. Algorithm for Single Capacitor Placement n k
PLrcom = ∑ ( I ri + ∑ Dij I cj ) 2 Ri (11)
Step 1: Conduct load flow analysis for the original system . i =1 j =1
Step 2: Calculate the capacitor currents (Ic) and loss saving The loss saving S can be obtained by difference between
(S) using equations 6 & 8, from i=2 for all buses equation 3 and 11:
except source bus.
Step 3: Identify the maximum saving and the (12)
corresponding capacitor current and calculate
capacitor size using equation 9.
Step 4: Check whether Qc is positive or negative. Qc Thus, for maximum loss saving:
positive means we need to inject reactive power at ∂S
the bus. Qc negative means we need to remove that =0
much of reactive power, and is possible when that ∂I c1
bus is already compensated. If positive go to step 6. ∂S
Otherwise go to step 5. =0
Step 5: Check whether that node is already compensated or ∂I c 2
not. If not, obtain the next maximum saving, .....
capacitor current and capacitor size and go to step
4. Otherwise go to step 6. .....
Step 6: Modify the reactive load on the network and
∂S
conduct the load flow again. =0
Step 7: Check whether the saving obtain is more than 1kW. ∂I ck
If the saving is significant, go to step 2. Otherwise, After some algebraic manipulations:
go to step 8. [A][IC]=-[B] (13)
Step 8: Check whether voltage constraints are satisfied are where A is a k x k matrix and B is a k-dimensional vector:
not. If not go to step other wise go to step9. i.e. the
bus voltages exceed specified limits with this A jj = ∑ Ri (14)
i∈αj
capacitor placement. So revert the compensated
system to original and identify the next maximum
saving and corresponding capacitor location and
A jm = ∑R i
i∈(α j ∩α m )
(15)

size.
Step 9: This node is a candidate node where capacitor is B j = ∑ I ri Ri (16)
placed . Repeat the procedure until the loss is i∈αj

significant(0.5KW).
C. Loss Reduction for Multiple Capacitor Placement [3]
The concept of loss minimization by singly located
capacitor can be extended for multiple capacitors.
Let k be number of capacitors placed and αj is a set of
branches from the source bus to the jth capacitor bus.
Assume that 3 capacitors are placed in the system as Figure
1 at busses 10,21 and 26, the branch set α and the matrix D
(n x k) can be written as:
α1 (bus 10) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9];
α2 (bus 21) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20];
α3(bus 26) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5,16, 17, 18, 19,20,21,22,23,24, 25];
111111111000000000000000000000000
T 
D = 111110000000000111100000000000000
 E. Economic Considerations
 
111110000000000111111111100000000
where Di = 1; if branch i ∈ α
= 0; otherwise
Almost similar as single capacitor, the new reactive
component branch current is:
new
[I ri ]= [Iri] + [D][Ic] (10)
com
The loss PLr can be derived as:
Finally, the capacitor current for maximum loss saving with
the corresponding capacitors size can be computed by:
[IC]=-[A]-1[B] (17)
[Qc]=[Vc][Ic] (18)
D. Algorithm for Multiple Capacitors Placement
Step1: Determine the bus locations and number of capacitors
to be compensated using single capacitor placement
program.
Step 2: Obtain matrix A (equation 14 and 15) and B
(equation 16).
Step 3: Obtain inverse of matrix A.
Step 4: Calculate Capacitor Current (Ic) by equation (17).
Step 5: Form matrix D. Obtain loss saving .
Step 6: Calculate Capacitor Size (Qc) by equation (18).
For each capacitor placement, the loss reduction by
the newly placed capacitor is calculated and the total loss
reduction by all the capacitors up to that iteration is also
determined. This power saving is converted into RM. The
capacitor placement is identified as economical or not by
considering the cost incurred in installation of the
capacitors. Here the effect of capacitors placement on real
and reactive power loss only is considered. The effect of

capacitors on voltage profile and system capacity rise is
neglected.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Load flow analysis is the first step in determining the
losses of the system. Then, algorithms for single and
multiple capacitors can be applied to sort for the bus
locations and optimal capacitor sizes that results the
maximum loss saving. The results for multiple capacitor
placement would be compared with an existing approach.
A. Load Flow Analysis
Load flow analysis is performed to calculate the real
and reactive power loss on the IEEE 34-bus system. The
other main parameters interested are the bus voltage (in kV
and p.u.) and line current (kA). The voltage profile is
important for two considerations. To check the voltages are
within the accepted values after compensation and to
observe the effect of capacitor placement on bus voltages.
Line currents are needed to calculate the losses and in
single capacitor and multiple capacitor placement
algorithms. The equation (2) and (3) are used to calculate
the real and reactive power losses.
4
indicates that bus 21 was initially over compensated because
the optimization problem was solved to find the size of a
singly located capacitor. By continuing the same procedure
until the power loss saving is less than 0.5 kW, it was found
that at buses 26,21,5,21 with 230.95, -230.939,455.41 and
-150 KVAR respectively will further reduce the loss by
1.367,0.77,0.96 and 0.32 kW respectively. The total results
are shown in Table II.
C. Multiple Capacitor Placement
The idea of placing multiple capacitors to reduce the
losses is to place a predefined number of capacitors at one
time (simultaneously) in the system. The number of
capacitors and bus locations at which capacitors will be
placed are based on the results obtained in single capacitor
program.
Therefore, Four capacitors will be placed at bus 21,
10,26 and 5. A program is written in “MATLAB” to
calculate the optimal capacitor sizes and the corresponding
loss saving when all these buses are compensated. This
approach yields a total loss saving of 57.34 kW by placing
capacitors of size 2517 KVAR. These results are given in
Table III.

The real and reactive loss for the 34-bus system is

221.72 kW and 65.1 KVAR respectively. The real loss can TABLE III
be further decomposed into loss due to active and reactive RESULTS OF MULTIPLE CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
component of branch current. The losses associated with the
active and reactive components of branch current are Location Capacitor Total
Iteration
determined as 162.709 kW and 59.01 kW respectively. (Bus Size Saving
No
No.) (KVAR) (kW)
B. Single Capacitor Placement 1 21 669.50
2 10 541.88
57.34
A program is written in “C” to calculate the loss saving, 3 26 426.78
capacitor size and location for maximum loss saving . For 4 5 878.86
the first iteration, the maximum estimated loss saving is
45.18 kW by placing a capacitor of 1750 KVAR size at bus When the original system is compensated with
21. above capacitors, the load flow results indicated that the loss
due to Ir is reduced from 59.01 kW to 1.83 kW. Thus a
TABLE II
RESULTS OF SINGLE CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
saving of 57.18 kW has been achieved which is nearly same
as estimated by the proposed method. The load flow results
Capacitor Total of compensated system also indicates that PLa the loss
Iteration Location associated with active component of branch current is
Size Saving
No. Bus No. reduced from 162.7 kW to 157.9 kW. Thus an extra saving
(KVAR) (kW)
1 21 1750.169 45.18
of 4.8 kW can also be achieved by capacitor placement.
These results are shown in Table IV.
2 10 686.85 7.27
3 21 -217.97 0.68 TABLE IV - LOAD FLOW RESULTS
4 26 230.95 1.36
5 21 -230.93 0.77 Before Compensation
Loss due to Loss due to Total Real
6 5 455.41 0.96
Active Branch Reactive Branch Power Loss
Current (kW) Current (kW) (kW)
When the above procedure was repeated, after placing
162.71 59.01 221.72
1750 KVAR of capacitor at bus 21 , a further loss saving of
7.277 kW is obtained by placing a capacitor of 686.854 After Compensation
Loss due to Loss due to Total Real
KVAR at bus 10. When bus 10 is also compensated, it was Active Branch Reactive Branch Power Loss
found that 217.979KVAR of capacitor must be removed Current (kW) Current (kW) (kW)
from bus 21 to get a further loss saving of 0.688 kW. This 158.95 13.81 172.76

Another advantage of placing shunt capacitors is that
the improvement in voltage profile of the network. This
is because the current flowing in the line is decreased due
to flow of less reactive component branch current, the
voltage drop (IR) will decrease and hence improvement
in voltage profile. Figure IV shows voltage profile of the
system before and after compensation.
1
For fourth capacitor placement the saving is
negative means the cost of capacitor installation is more
than that of saving provided by that capacitor placement.
The cost data adopted for the study is as follows. Cost of
capacitor is 11.25 RM/KVAR and Cost per unit power
loss is 500 RM/kW.
E. Comparisons

Results obtained from the proposed method are

compared with an existing method by M Chis, M.M.A
Salama and S. Jayaram [5] (heuristic search strategies).
Kilo-watt per Kilo-volt-amps-reactive ratio (kW/kVAR)
is used to indicate the efficiency of the method. The
greater the ratio means that more saving (kW) can be
obtained by the same amount of capacitor size (kVAR) or
same amount of saving (kW) for less amount of capacitor
size (kVAR). Greater ratio is desired as this shows that
the method is more efficient. The comparison
performance is given in Table VI.

TABLE VI - COMPARISON PERFORMANCE

# PM – Proposed Method # OM –Other Method
Bus No Capacitor Size Saving(kW) %KW/KVAR
FIGURE IV PM OM PM OM PM OM PM OM
EFFECT OF COMPENSATION ON VOLTAGE 21 26 669 1400 29.44 41.07
PROFILE 10 11 542 750 14.51 10.64
26 17 427 300 12.23 1.17
Total 1638 2450 56.2 52.7 3.43 2.15
D. Economic Considerations

When only first three buses (21, 10 & 26) are

Table VI show that the proposed method is more
compensated, it was found that a total of 1638
efficient than the existing method. The proposed method
KVAR of capacitor(669 at bus 21, 541.88 at bus 10
can save 56.2 kW with total 1638 KVAR of capacitors
and 426.78 KVAR at bus 26) would save 56.18
where the existing method only saves 52.7 kW with 2450
kW(including reduction in PLa ). When all four buses
kVAR. Notice that the proposed method can save more
(21,10,26 &5) are considered, it was found that a
loss (kW) with smaller size of capacitor (kVAR). Since
total of 2517 KVAR of capacitors provide a loss
usually the cost of capacitors is in costs/kVAR, thus it is
saving of 61.32 kW i.e. an additional 878.86 KVAR
cheaper by adopting the proposed method. The existing
of capacitor provides an extra saving of only 5.14
method has a higher kW/kVAR ratio of 3.663 as
kW. Thus for this system compensation at 3 buses is
compared to 2.158 of the existing method. These show
cost effective than compensation at 4 buses. The
that the proposed method is more efficient when
economic consideration results are given in Table V.
compared to the existing method.

TABLE V - ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Capacitors Total Difference Loss Difference of
No of Bus Savings
size capacity of capacity Saving saving
Capacitors No. In RM
KVAR KVAR KVAR kW kW
1 21 669 669 29.44 7188
2 21 669 1121.8 541.8 43.95 14.5 1158
10 541.8
21 669
3 10 541.8 1548.58 426.78 56.17 12.23 1313
26 426.78
21 669
4 10 541.8 2427.44 878.86 61.32 5.14 -7314
26 426.78
5 878.86
 2

Reduction”, IEE Proceedings - Generation,

IV. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE Transmission and Distribution, vol. 146, pg 501-
505.
Optimal capacitor sizes and locations are determined
for maximum loss reduction by successful implementation [5] Chis. M., Salama M.M.A, Jayaram. S., May 1997,
of algorithms using two-stage methodology. The programs “Capacitor Placement in Distribution Systems
for calculating the capacitor sizes and identifying the bus Using Heuristic Search Strategies, IEE Proceedings
locations for maximum loss are written in MATLAB.The – Generation, Transmission and Distribution, vol
proposed algorithm is tested on IEEE 34-bus test system. 144, No. 3.
The result shows that the loss due to reactive branch currents
is reduced by about 95% by proposed method. The
economic aspects of placing capacitors are briefly discussed
and shown. The effect of capacitors placement on voltage
profile of the system is also shown.

The validity of the results of proposed method has been

verified by comparing them with other existing method.
Proposed method has the upper hand as it is more efficient
as indicated by the kW / kVAR ratio. This method can be
applied to any radial distribution system with any number of
busses and laterals. The voltage constraints (which are
generally neglected by many authors) are also incorporated
in this method so that over compensation does not occur.
This gives more realistic results. The load is modeled as a
constant power model in this method.

As recommendations for the future work, the algorithm

can be implemented and applied into a real practical system
instead of IEEE test system. This can monitor the practical
impact of the algorithm in the real network. At the same
time, the cost-benefit of practical implementation can be
analyzed. Practical implementation of capacitor placement
technique requires further detailed cost-benefit analysis
which in turn depends on the cost of switched capacitor
bank and energy saving. Here for simplification capacitor
cost is assumed that it is linearly varying with size .

This method is limited to radial distribution systems.

Therefore can be extended to weakly meshed distribution
systems. The distribution network harmonic behavior
regarding eventual resonance phenomena is to be
investigated. one more area to investigate is to extend the
method for varying load conditions.

V. REFERENCES
[1] T.J.Miller, “Reactive power control”.

[2] V.C. Veera Reddy and Jamilah Karim, June 2004,

“Multiple Shunt Capacitor Placement to Minimize
Losses in Distribution System”, M.sc. Thesis,
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia, pg 10-
12, 52-57.

[3] V.C. Veera Reddy and M.Padma lalitha, “Loss

Reduction in Distribution Network by Capacitor
Placement” M.Tech Thesis,S.V.U,India.

[4] Haque M.H., September 1999, “Capacitor

Placement in Radial Distribution Systems for Loss
2
 POSTERS
P01 WIRELESS POWER GENARATION USING S.P.S AND RECTENNA

P02 NANOTECHNOLOGY

P03 PRODUCTION OF DIESEL WASTE FROM PLASTIC WASTE

P04 THERMAL POWER STATION

P05 SCADA

P06 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

P07 ROBOTS, E-NOSE THROUGH ARTIFICIAL I

P08 ENERGY SOURCES