SURVEY OF MUSIC LITERATURE MUS-130

- Biography and great composer approach: Informative, concise biographies

of important composers, including anecdotes that are easily retainable.
- Listening: Music appreciation. Various listening assignments every week.
- Analysis: Certain amount of analysis and discussion of various styles, forms
and period traits. Discussion of listenings.
- Development of styles: Understanding the differences between styles and
what makes them different. Features of genres, of eras and links between
periods.
- Genre: Chronological organization through vocal and instrumental form,
highlighting of the stylistic differences, program music, small forms etc.

Readings:

The Enjoyment of Music

Unit 1 – The Elements of Music (p.1-32)

Unit 2 – Musical Instruments (p. 33-63).

Brief overview of instrument categories, ensembles and orchestra.
Identification of important terms (such as instrument groups, ensemble and
orchestral groups and styles)

LESSON 1

Sound: Pitch, Dynamics, Tone Color

Sound
• Begins with a vibration of an object (ex. table pounded, string plucked etc).
• Vibrations are transmitted to our ears by a medium, usually air.
• Eardrums start vibrating transmitting impulses or signals to the brain.
• In the brain, the impulses are selected, organized and interpreted.

Music – Art based on the organization of sounds in time. We distinguish music from
other sounds by recognizing the four main properties of musical sounds:
• Pitch
• Dynamics
• Tone color
• Duration

1) PITCH
The relative highness or lowness that we hear in a sound. (ex. women and men sing or
talk in different pitches).
• The pitch of a sound is determined by the frequency of its vibrations. The
faster the vibrations,, the higher the pitch and vice versa. Vibration frequency
is measured in cycles per second. (ex. the highest frequency piano tone is
4,186 c/sec and the lowest its 27 c/sec).
• The smaller the vibrating object, the higher the pitch.
• TONE – a pitch in music that has a definite pitch (specific frequency and
equal, regular vibrations).
• INTERVAL – the “distance in pitch between any two tones”.
• PITCHES – They are a total of seven, with five more added (the black notes).
• RANGE – The distance between the lowest and highest tones that a voice or
instrument can produce. Average range of unattained voice is between 1 and 2
octaves. Piano range is over 7 octaves.
• Most music is based on definite pitches, but indefinite pitches such as those
made by a bass drum or cymbals are important also.

2) DYNAMICS

Degrees of loudness and softness.

• Loudness related to the amplitude of the vibration that produces the sound.
• Performer can emphasize a tone by playing it more loudly (this is called an
accent).
• A lot of times dynamics changes are written in the music score. Composers
have traditionally used Italian words and abbreviations to indicate dynamics.

• Most common dynamics terms:

1. pianissimo ( pp) = very soft
2. piano (p) = soft
3. mezzo piano (mp) = moderately soft
4. mezzo forte (mf) = moderately loud
5. forte (f ) = loud
6. fortissimo (ff ) = very loud

• Gradual dynamics symbols:

1. decrescendo = gradually softer

2. crescendo = gradually louder

• Soft and loud tones are relevant to the instrument or voice.

3. TONE COLOR

The quality that distinguishes the various instruments. It is also described as “bright”,
“dark”, “brilliant”, “mellow”, “rich”.
 • Changes in tone color create variety and contrast.
• The same melody played by different instruments is different in creative
expression.
• Contrast in tone color may also be used to highlight a new melody.
• Sense of continuity: when the same instruments play a melody every time, it is
easier for one to recognize its return.
• Unlimited variety of tone colors is available (many different instrument
combinations).

BASIC TERMS

• sound
• pitch
• tone
• interval
• octave
• pitch range
• dynamics
• accent
• tone color

LESSON 2

Melody – Rhythm – Harmony

1) MELODY

It is the element in music that makes the most direct appeal to the listener. There are
millions of melodies throughout the world but they all share the concept of melody as
a musical line.
• MELODY – Coherent succession of single pitches that are in relation to each
other.
• Consists of pitches and intervals (see Lesson 1).
• CHARACTERISTICS – Range, shape and the way it moves.
1) Range (see Lesson 1).
2) Shape – It is determined by the direction a melody takes as it turns upward
or downward or remains static.
3) Conjuct and disjunct movement – The size of the intervals with which a
melody moves (small intervals, leaps etc).
• THE STRUCTURE OF MELODY – Just like a sentence, a melody can be
divided into smaller unites that are also called phrases.
 • PHRASE – A unit of meaning within a larger structure.
• CADENCE – The resting place where a musical phrase ends. It is the
equivalent of a comma or period in a sentence. Cadence may be inconclusive
or final.
• If a melody is set to words, music and text coincide in general.
• The melody is very essential to both composers and listeners. It is a basic
element of communication between the two.

2) RHYTHM

The element that organizes movement in time. Rhythm refers to the length or duration
of individual notes.
• Rhythm Aspects:
1) BEAT – The basic unit used to measure time in music. A regular,
recurrent pulsation that divides music into equal units of time.
Sometimes the beat is very powerful (ex. marching band) and other
times very smooth.
Accented beats – strong.
2) METER – The organization of beats into regular groups. There are
several types of meter, which are based on the number of beats in a
measure.
3) MEASURE – A group containing a fixed number of beats.

• TYPES OF METER
1. Duple meter – When a measure has 2 beats (we count 1-2, 1-2 etc)
2. Triple meter – When a measure has 3 beats (we count 1-2-3). Waltzes
3. Quadruple meter (or common time) – When a measure contains 4
beats.
4. Quintuple, sextuple , septuple meter – More complex meters, also
called “compound” meters because they can be divided into groups of
the above three meters.

• UPBEAT – The first beat of the meter is stronger than the rest and is called
upbeat.
• OFFBEAT – a weak beat of the meter (usually any beat but the first one of
the meter).
• ACCENT – The emphasis given on a specific note.
• SYNCOPATION – When an accented note comes where we normally would
note expect one. This is a deliberate upsetting of the normal pattern of
accentuation. The accent is shifted to an offbeat note. Very characteristic of
jazz and African-American music.
• TEMPO – The speed of the beat (slow or fast). It is the basic pace of the
music. Associations rotted in the way we feel and act.
Tempo Indications (usually given at the beginning of a musical piece):
1. Largo very slow
2. Grave very slow, solemn
3. Adagio slow
4. Andante moderately slow, a walking pace
 5. Moderato moderate
6. Allegretto moderately fast
7. Allegro fast
8. Vivace lively
9. Presto very fast
10. Prestissimo as fast as possible

• As with dynamics (see Lesson 1), tempos are only approximate. The markings
are a guide.
• GRADUAL CHANGES IN TEMPO:
1. Accelerando – gradual quickening
2. Ritardando - gradual slowing down
• Use of Metronome for the tempi (around 1816).

3) HARMONY

The movement and relationship of intervals and chords.

• CHORD – A combination of three or more tones sounded at once.
• CHORD PROGRESSION – A specific series of chords in a melody.
• Melody and chords are composed simultaneously most of the times.
• Chords have meaning only in relation to other chords. Each chord leads into
the next.
• Harmony implies movement and progression.
• TRIAD – The most common chord in Western music. It is a combination of
three tones. Can be built by combining every other note.
• CONSONANCE – A stable and restful combination of tones.
• DISSONANCE – A tense and unstable combination of tones. A dissonance
can only find resolution when it goes to a consonance.

ORGANIZATION OF HARMONY

Certain tones have greater importance than others.

• TONIC – The first tone of the scale. Serves as a home base around which the
others revolve and to which they ultimately gravitate.
• TONALITY – The principle of organization around a central tone (the tonic).

MUSIC NOTATION

The system of writing music so that specific pitches and rhythms can be
communicated.

• NOTATING PITCH – Notes on a staff

o NOTE – Music symbol
o STAFF – Set of five horizontal lines, in or on which the notes are
positioned.
o CLEF – Symbol placed at the beginning of the staff to show the pitch
of each line and space. Two most common clefs are the treble clef,
used for higher ranges and the bass clef, used for low ranges.
 o GRAND STAFF – 2 staffs, a combination of the treble and bass
staves.

MUSICAL TEXTURE

Another property of music –It refers to the various possibilities, different layers of
sound put together and how they are related to each other.

There are three basic musical textures:

• MONOPHONIC TEXTURE – A single melody without accompaniment. It
only literally has one sound.
• POLYPHONIC TEXTURE – Simultaneous performance of 2 ore more
melodic lines. It means having many sounds. Multi-dimensional.
• COUNTERPOINT – The technique of combining several melodic lines into
a meaningful whole.
• IMITATION – Usually occurs in polyphonic music when a melodic idea is
presented by one voice or instrument and then restated immediately by another
voice or instrument.
• HOMOPHONIC TEXTURE – One main melody accompanied by chords.
The attention is focused on the melody. Higher voice usually sings or plays the
main melody and the lower voices or instruments accompany with the chords.

MUSICAL FORM

Form in general is associated with shape, structure, organization and coherence. In

music, form is the organization of musical elements in time.

Essential techniques of form are:

• REPETITION – In a musical work, there is repetition of melodies or sections
to bind a composition together and to make the listener remember the key
points of the piece.
• CONTRAST – Variations in mood, motion etc. Opposition of loud and soft,
fast and slow, strings and woodwinds etc. Contrast helps in the development
of musical ideas.
• VARIATION – A musical idea can be further developed by variation. Some
of its features will be retained while others are changed.
• IMPROVISATION – Performers’ interference in a musical composition
(primarily in jazz music).

TYPES OF MUSICAL FORM

Composers use certain forms or patterns to organize their musical ideas. There are
two basic types of musical form:
• THREE-PART (TERNARY) FORM – It is a three-part form, also known as
A-B-A. The first section (A) is called a statement, in which the main features
of the piece are presented, the second section (B) is the contrast, which varies
and can be of any kind, and the third section (A) is called return, because the
initial ideas are re-occurring.
• TWO-PART (BINARY) FORM – When a composition is divided into two
large sections, A – B. Differences between A and B can be of any kind. The
large section can also be divided into subsections.

Both two-part and three-part forms can be found in short pieces such as dances and
songs.

THE MAIN FEATURES OF FORM

• THEME – A melodic idea used as the fundamental element in the

construction of a music work.
• THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT – The expansion of the theme, elaboration
of a musical idea. Very important technique in musical composition. Important
feature of thematic development:
o Motif – Small fragment of a theme that forms a melodic-rhythmic unit.
o Movement – A complete, comparatively independent division of a
large-scale work).
 The Strings

Violin
The violin is by far the most common orchestral instrument. It is also the
smallest out of all the strings and has the highest pitch. This is usually the
first choice of musicians who want to learn a string instrument (unless they
have viola, cello, or bass friends).

Viola
The viola is slightly larger than the violin and has a deeper pitch in
comparision. It is also in the "middle register" of the string family.
Although not as popular as the violin, it is still a vital part of the orchestra.

Cello
The cello is still bigger than the violin and viola. It has a beautiful, mellow
sound. The cello must rest on the floor because it is too big to be held like
the violin or viola.

Bass
The bass is the biggest instrument in the string section. It also plays the
widest assortment of music from classical to broadway to jazz. Although it
appears the same size as the cello in the picture, it actually about 1 1/2 to 2
times taller.
 The Winds

Flute
The flute really isn't a woodwind anymore,
and is normally made of metal now. It
produces very bright and joyful notes.

Piccolo
The piccolo is the smaller relative of the flute. It is exactly the
same in all respects -- notes and fingerings -- but is a lot smaller
than the flute and it has a higher pitch.

Clarinet
The clarinet is a single reed instrument. It
plays a wide range of music from classical to
jazz. It also has a very wide range of notes
that can be played.

Oboe
The oboe looks very similiar to the clarinet except for the fact that
it has a double reed. The oboe is widely used in classical
compositions.

Saxophone
The saxophone is a single reed instrument.
Depending on the player it can sound
mellow or strong. It does everything from
pop to big band to jazz but also has its place
in classical music.
Bassoon
The bassoon is a double reed instrument. Because of its size, it
plays very low notes and is often the backbone of the orchestra.

The Brass

French Horn
The French Horn is often played with the right hand
inside the bell. It is also said to be the most difficult
instrument to play.

Trumpet
The trumpet plays high brassy
notes. An optional mute can
make the trumpet sound
completely different. Many
great jazz players have been
trumpet players.

Tuba
The tuba is the lowest instrument in the whole brass
section. The tuba is used a lot in marches and other
compositions where it is important to have a strong
beat.
 Trombone
The trombone has the the
greatest note range out of all
the brass because of its slide.
The 'bone is an essential part
of any big band group.

The Percussion

Cymbals
Everyone pretty much knows what
the cymbals do. You hit them
together and they produce a
crashing sound.

Snare Drum
The snare drum is primarily used for rolls in a
classical setting or for adding accents to music.
 Timpani
The timpanis are also commonly
used in rolls. They can, however,
be tuned to a certain note and have
a deeper sound.

Bass Drum
The bass drum is mainly used to keep a pulse in
music. They are extensively used in marches.
 MEDIEVAL INSTRUMENTS

The Dulcimer
In English-speaking countries, dulcimer (or dowcemere, dulcimor, dulcimur,
doucemelle, doulcemelle, dolcimela, or dolcema, all from dulce melos, Greek for
sweet sound) was the name given to the type of psaltery or box zither which had a
trapizoidal soundbox and which was played by striking the strings with hammers. In
areas around Germany, the term was Hackbrett (or hackbrad, hackbrade, hakkebrett,
or hakkebord) meaning chopping board or chopping block.
Dulcimers often had one or two bridges over which the strings crossed
providing the opportunity for more pitches because the performer could strike a sound
on each side of the bridge. In 15th century images, dulcimers had single courses of six
to nine strings and were played on the lap or on a table. The hammers seem to be held
between the index and middle fingers. A century later, the multiple bridges were more
common, with between eight and twelve double courses. A neck strap could be used
for portability. Soundboards were commonly decorated.
While images portray the dulcimer held by angels and individuals of the upper
classes, Gehard de Jode portrayed it in 1600 along with the hurdy-gurdy and bagpipe.
In 1609 a dulcimer was recorded along with a violin in a ship's log in Jamestown,
Virginia.
 The Gamba
(bass viol da gamba)

The viol family may have originated by applying a bow to a pre-existing plucked
string instrument. It may have developed in Spain during the late fifteenth century
(the tenor viol has the shape, size, and tuning of the Spanish vihuela). Only about the
year 1600 did its outward appearance become standardized. Of the common sizes of
the gamba family, the bass was the largest, and the treble viol was the smallest.

http://www.s-hamilton.k12.ia.us/antiqua/harp2.wav

The Harp

The harp is one of the most ancient types of

stringed instruments. It was important in pre-
Christian cultures and still survives today in
many forms all over the world. Harps use
open strings exclusively, thus the range of
each is determined by the number of strings.
In the Middle Ages strings were made from
twisted animal gut (usually from sheep),
although horse hair and even silk were used
as well.
 http://www.s-
hamilton.k12.ia.us/antiqua/lute.wav

The Lute
During the Renaissance the lute held
the highest respect of all musical
instruments. The repertoire for this
courtly instrument is vast. Delicacy,
expressiveness and nuance of
performance were made possible when
the use of a plectrum to pluck the
strings was replaced by use of the
fingers. The lute was an ideal
accompaniment for voice and other
soft instruments, and the most eloquent
of all solo instruments. In paintings
and other art works the lute is often
associated with Apollo, angels, or
Orpheus, and it is often mentioned at
climactic points in tragedies.

On the other hand, the lute also played a prominent role in comedy. The heroines of
Dekker's The Honest Whore and Marston's The Dutch Courtesan are "professional"
lutenists. Shakespeare describes Katharina's ill-fated lute lesson in The Taming of the
Shrew: I did but tell her she mistook her frets, and bowed her hand to teach her
fingering;When with a most impatient, devilish spirit, 'Frets, call you these?' quoth
she, 'I'll fume with them.' And with that word she struck me on the head, And through
the instrument my pate made way, And there I stood amazed for a while, As on a
pillory, looking through the lute; While she did call me rascal fiddlerAnd twangling
Jack, with twenty such vile terms, As had she studied to misuse me so.

Although the greatest repertoire for the lute is from England, the best makers were Germans
who lived in Italy. The delicacy and expressiveness of Renaissance lute music is mirrored in
the light construction of the instrument. Its belly is made of pine, often only one-sixteenth
inch thick, with a carved sound-hole or rose in the middle. Some lute bodies will allow light
to pass through. Wooden bars glued underneath the belly strengthen it and add to the
resonance. The pear shaped back is constructed from several ribs, shaped and bent over a
mold, and then glued together edge to edge. These ribs may be made of sycamore, cedar,
yew, or cypress, and often are no more than one-thirty-second of an inch in thickness.
Stringing is light since the body is not able to withstand twelve or more strings at high
tension. Plucking is done with the soft part of the fingers and thumb, not the nails. The best
lute players use little motion of either hand.
 The Psaltery

The psaltery (psalterion, saltere, sauterie, Psalterium, Psalter, salterio) is an ancient

intstrument seen in many forms. Early versions were simply a wooden board with gut strings
stretched between pegs. The strings were plucked with fingers or by plectra (the name might
have derived from the Greek psallein meaning plucked with fingers). Later instruments
included the hollow box or soundboard with soundholes and metal strings. The player
performed with the instrument on the lap or on a table, or in front of the chest held with a
strap around his neck if movement was needed.

The name of psaltery entered Christian literature in the 3rd century B.C. translation of the
Old Testament called the Septuagint where, in the Psalms, nebel was translated psalterion.
Thus, Nebuchadnezzar's idolatrous ensemble included the Aramic psantria. Notice, also, that
the book of Psalms has also become known as the Psalter (or psalterium), from the hymns
sung with this harp.

Southern Europe, influenced by Moorish Spain, prefered the trapezoidal psaltry with three or
four strings to a note. Northern psalteries tended to be triangular or wing-shaped and single
or double-strung. Like most other instruments of the time, the psaltery had no specific
repertory, but was used to play whatever music the occasion demanded. It was referred to
frequently in lists of musicians and instruments and in the art of the time. The psaltery was
widely used until about 1500, but could not cope well with the chromaticism of the
Renaissance, so was used less as time passed. It is thought that the psaltery evolved into the
harpsichord, zither, and other instruments.
 The Rebec
The use of a bow on stringed instruments probably originated in central Asia during the ninth
century, spreading through Islamic and Byzantine territories and later reaching western
Europe in the tenth to twelth centuries. Bowing may have developed in an attempt to create
an instrument which could imitate the voice. Bowing gave stringed instruments the
sustaining power necessary to play a continuous melodic line. Nevertheless, the status of
these bowed instruments and their players remained low. The rebec was definitely an
instrument of the lower classes, not the court.

The rebec (rebeca, rebecq, rebet, ribeca, rebecum, rabel, or rebequin) came from the
Arabian rabob. It has been known in Europe since the 10th century but their use in art music
was chiefly during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The rebec's rounded pear-shaped body
is carved from a single block of wood and tapers in such a way that there is no visible
distinction between the body and the neck. The fingerboard is a raised part of the soundboard
or is fixed to it from above, but this does not change the frontal outline of the instrument.
Early rebecs had no soundpost and the pegholder is flat. As with most early instruments,
rebecs came in many sizes and pitches and although the number of strings on early rebecs
varied from three to five, the three-stringed rebec seems to be the most popular.

In the Middle Ages the most common rebec was the soprano, played by resting it on one's
shoulder, across the chest, or in the armpit. The instrument often has frets, and probably had
a thin nasal, penetrating tone, Rebecs are associated with secular intrumental music,
especially dance music, and their role in the latter continues to the eighteenth century.
Remnants of its tone and style can be heard in the country fiddling of the United States.
 The Recorder
The principle of the recorder or whistle mouthpiece seems as old as mankind. The
instrument's essential features are the lip (cut near the top of the body), the fipple (a block of
wood inserted in the end to be blown), and the windway (a narrow channel along the fipple
through which air is blown against the edge of the lip to produce sound).

It is difficult to document the recorder's early history due to the inability to positively identify
what is and what is not a recorder in medieval art. Perhaps the earliest portrayal is an
eleventh-century carving on a stone pillar in the church at Boubon-l'Achambault, St George,
France.
 The Crumhorn
Beginning with the fifteenth century a new type of double reed instrument was developed.
The player's lips did not touch the reed because the reed was enclosed inside a protective cap
with a slot at one end. Strongly blowing through this slot causes the reed to vibrate as it does
in the bagpipe chanter. The name of the Crumhorn comes from the German krumhorn (also
krummhorn, krumphorn), meaning curved horn (or the older English crump, meaning curve,
surviving in modern English in crumpled and crumpet, a curved cake).

The name first occurs in 1489 as an organ stop.The crumhorn, used in the 14th to17th
centuries in Europe, is wooden, with a cylindrical bore. The crumhorn is the earliest and most
common instrument of the reed cap family which also includes the kortholt, cornamuse, and
hirtenschalmei. The crumhorn is thought to have developed from the earlier bladder pipe.

The cylindrical bore (as opposed to a conical bore) and the reed closing the end of the
resonating tube mean that the crumhorn overblows a twelfth rather than an octave, giving the
instrument a fingering system similar to the lower register of the clarinet. However, the lack
of direct control of the reed of a windcapped instrument renders these higher notes extremely
difficult to access. Thus the normal range is limited to the simple fundamental sounds
produced by successive opening of the holes giving a range of an octave and one note. Many
larger surviving instruments have auxiliary holes that extend the range downwards to just
over an octave. On modern reconstructions additional keys are provided to extend the range
upwards by one to three notes. And there is some evidence to suggest that crumhorns were
sometimes played without the windcap, possibly to facilitate the production of higher notes.

LESSON 3

PERFORMANCE – MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS & ENSEMBLES

PERFORMANCE
 • PERFORMER – Musician who makes the printed music sound. His/her job is to
bring life to the pieces written by a composer. A performer projects to the audience a
mixture of the composers’ intentions and their own feelings.
• IMPROVISATION – Music created at the same time it is performed. Very popular
concept. Today, improvisation is a vital aspect of jazz and non-western music.
• ORNAMENTS – Before the 19th century performers were expected to add certain
ornaments (embellishing notes) not indicated in the printed music.
• PERFORMANCE STYLES – They change from generation to generation. Some
performers believe that a work should be performed to sound as it was intended
(original instruments etc). Others believe they need to reinterpret a past work in a
contemporary spirit because the audiences are used to a wider range of dynamics and
are hearing the performance in larger concert halls.
• CONDUCTOR – The leader of a music group. He/she holds the performers together.
Hand movement indicates time, pulse and tempo, signals to instrument entrances to
the ensemble, dynamic changes etc. Before the 19th century, the need for conductors
was less because the orchestra size was smaller. From the 19th century and on,
orchestras became bigger and pieces more complex so the need for a conductor was
bigger.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

• PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUND

1. Pitch – Determined by rate of vibration (see lesson 1)
2. Duration – Depends on the length of time over which the vibration continues
(short and long sounds).
3. Volume – Depends on the intensity of vibrations (whether we perceive a tone
as being loud or soft).
4. Timbre – Striking differences in the sound of instruments (xroia). Influenced
by a number of factors (material, size, shape, manner in which it is played
etc).

• INSTRUMENT – A mechanism that generates musical vibrations and launches them

into the air. Each instrument has a different melodic range and dynamics range.
Instrument construction and sound is mostly inspired by the human voice.
• TYPES OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:
1. Aerophones – Sound is produced by air (wind instruments).
2. Chordophones – Sound is produced from a vibrating string stretched between
two points. The string can be set in motion by bowing or plucking.
3. Idiophones – Sound is produced from the substance of the instrument itself.
They may be struck, blown, shaken, scraped or rubbed. (Bells, rattles,
xylophones and cymbals).
4. Membranophones – Drum-type instruments that are sounded from tightly
stretched membranes that can be struck, plucked, rubbed, thus setting the skin
in vibration.
• WESTERN INSTRUMENTS – They can be categorized into four familiar groups:
o STRINGS – Two types of instruments are included in this group: those that
are bowed and those that are plucked.
- Violin, Viola, Violoncello, Double Bass.
 - Harp, Guitar.
o WOODWINDS – Not all of them are made of wood. The tone is produced
by a column of air vibrating within a pipe that has little holes along its length.
Opening and closing different holes changes the air column. Different types
of blowing air into the instruments (reed, hole, double reed).
- Flute, Piccolo, Oboe, English Horn, Clarinet, Bass Clarinet,
Bassoon, Contrabassoon, Saxophone.
o BRASS – Also aerophones. They have cup-shaped mouthpieces attached to a
length of metal tubing that flares at the end into a bell. Performer makes lips
buzz like a double reed.
- Trumpet, French horn, Trombone, Tuba.
o PERCUSSION – They accentuate the rhythm for the most part. 2 categories:
those that can be tuned (definite pitch) and those that produce a single sound
(indefinite pitch).
- Pitched Percussion Instruments: Timpani, Xylophone, Marimba,
Vibraphone, Glockenspiel (set of bells), Celesta, Chimes.
- Unpitched Percussion Instruments: Snare drum, Tenor drum,
Bass drum, Tom-tom, Tambourine, Castanets, Triangle, Gong,
Cymbals.

o OTHER INSTRUMENTS – Keyboard family.

- Piano (originally known as pianoforte): Strings are struck with
hammers controlled by a keyboard mechanism.
- Organ: Wind instrument. Has many pipes, the air flow to each is
controlled by the organist from a console containing two or more
keyboards and a set of pedals.

MUSICAL ENSEMBLES

There is a wide variety of music ensembles, all of which vary in number of instruments, type
of instruments etc.
- CHORAL GROUPS: Consist of many voices. A “Chorus” is a large body of singers
who perform together. Men and women. A “choir” is a smaller size chorus.
Voices: Sopranos, altos, tenors, baritones.
A cappella: Choir singing without instrumental accompaniment.
- CHAMBER MUSIC: Ensemble music for a group of 2-12 players, with one player to a
part, as opposed to orchestral music, in which many instruments play the same part.
Popular ensembles (The Enjoyment of Music, p. 53).
- ORCHESTRA: A large performing body of diverse instruments (The Enjoyment of
music, p.55 – 56).
- BAND: Music ensemble that consists of winds and percussion (military, school, sports
etc). Marching band, Concert band, jazz band, rock band.

SUGGESTED LISTENINGS: The Enjoyment of Music, p. 60-61.

MUSICAL STYLE
Broadly used word in every aspect of life. In music, style refers to a characteristic way of
using melody, rhythm, tone color, dynamics, harmony, texture and form. The particular way
these elements are combined can result in a total sound that’s distinctive or unique.
Musical styles change from one period to another. History of western music is divided into
the following stylistic periods:
Middle Ages (450-1450)
Renaissance (1450-1600)
Baroque (1600-1750)
Classical (1750-1820)
Romantic (1820-1900)
Twentieth Century to 1945
1945 to present.

LESSON 4

MIDDLE AGES

Historical time spam: 450 (disintegration of the Roman Empire) – 1450.

Basic elements:
- “Dark Ages” (migrations, upheavals, wars)
- Later Middle Ages: period of cultural growth (Romanesque churches and
monasteries, gothic cathedrals constructed, towns grew and universities founded).
- Main social classes: nobility, peasantry and clergy.
- Nobility: Lived in fortified castles, fought as knights during wars and hunted / feasted
/ took part in tournaments in peacetime.
- Peasantry: Peasants lived miserably; many were subject to feudal overlords.
- Clergy: Everyone was influenced by the Roman Catholic Church. Age of faith.
 Heresy was the biggest crime; hell was real, monks in monasteries held a monopoly
on learning. Most other people were illiterate.

CATHEDRAL – It dominated the medieval society and it was the center of musical life.
Most important musicians were priests and worked for the church.
- Important occupation of the time: liturgical singing.
- Boys learned music education in schools associated with churches and cathedrals.
Women were not allowed to sing in church but made music in convents.

MEDIEVAL MUSIC (general) – Was mostly vocal. There was a wide variety of
instruments that served as accompaniment. Few music manuscripts of the time indicate
specific instruments but we know they were used from paintings and literary descriptions.
The church was against instruments, because of their earlier role in pagan rituals.

1100 – Instruments start to be used increasingly in church. The most prominent instrument
was the organ. Primitive instrument at first (keys were operated by heavy blows with the
fists). Very loud. Gradually it evolved into a flexible instrument that could play polyphonic
music. Church authorities and composers were always in conflict because they wanted to
create elaborate compositions and the clergy wanted music only as a discreet accompaniment
to the religious service (they believed it was too loud).

GREGORIAN CHANT

The official music of the Roman Catholic Church for over 1,000 years. Gregorian chant
consists of melody set to sacred Latin texts and sung without accompaniment (chant is
monophonic in texture). The melodies of Gregorian chant were meant t enhance specific
parts of religious services. Set the atmosphere for prayers and ritual actions. It is named after
Pope Gregory I (the Great), who reorganized the Catholic liturgy during his reign (590-604).

- Features of Gregorian Chant:

o Calm quality. Represents the voice of the church.
o Flexible rhythm, without meter and has little sense of beat. Uncertain exact
rhythm, because precise time values were not notated.
o Free flowing, almost improvisational character.
o Melodies tend to move by step within a narrow range of pitches.
o Depending on the nature and importance of the text, the melodies are simple
or elaborate.
o Most of the several thousand melodies known today were created between
600 – 1300 AD.

At first Gregorian melodies were passed along by oral tradition, but as the number of chants
grew, they were notated to ensure musical uniformity through the western church. The
earliest manuscripts date back to the 9th century. The composers of Gregorian chant remain
almost completely unknown.

TERMS
 - NEUMES: Little ascending and descending signs written above the words to suggest
the contours of the melody. They eventually developed into a musical notation
consisting of square notes on a four-line staff. (Ex.1)
- TEXT SETTINGS: The melodies fall into three main classes according to the way
they are set in the text:
o SYLLABIC – One note sung to each text syllable.
o NEUMATIC – Generally with groups of two to four notes sung to a syllable.
o MELISMATIC – Long groups of notes set to a single syllable or text.

CHURCH MODES

The scales used in Gregorian chant are called church modes (or simply modes). They consist
of seven different tones (like major and minor scales) and an eighth tone that duplicates the
first an octave higher. However, the patterns of whole and half steps are different. The church
modes were the basic scales of western music during the Middle Ages and Renaissance and
were used in secular as well as sacred music. A lot of folk western music follows the patterns
of the church modes.

MODAL – Refers to the type of melody and harmony that prevailed in the early and later
Middle Ages. It is frequently used in opposition to tonal, which refers to the harmony based
on major-minor tonality that came later.

DRONE – The chant is usually notated in the manuscript as a single melodic line, without
accompaniment. However, sometimes the performers add a drone accompaniment. This
consists of one or more long, sustained tones accompanying a melody.

SECULAR MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Despite the predominance of Gregorian chant throughout the Middle Ages, there was also
much music outside the church (secular). The first large body of secular songs surviving in
notation was composed during the 12th and 13th centuries by French nobles called
troubadours and trouveres.
- Most well-known: Guillaume IX Duke of Acquitaine and Chastelain de Couci.
- Troubadour/Trouvere: French nobles who were musical poets and wrote secular
music during the 12th and 13th centuries. Wrote songs usually performed by court
minstrels.
- Song Content: The troubadour and trouvere songs talked mostly of love. There were
also songs about the Crusades, dance songs, spinning songs.

In southern France there were also women troubadours (Beatriz de Dia), who addressed their
songs to men.

About 1650 troubadour and trouvere melodies have been preserved. Their notation does not
indicate rhythm, but it’s likely that many had a regular meter with a clearly defined beat, thus
differing from the free, nonmetrical rhythm of Gregorian chant.
GOLIARD SONGS: Student songs (many with lewd texts) which express the “seize the
day” philosophy that always inspired youthful poets.

JONGLEURS: During the Middle Ages, wandering minstrels (Juggler – comes from the
French word) performed music and acrobatics in castles, taverns and town squares. They had
no civil rights and were on the lowest social level. They were an important source of
information in a time of no newspapers. They usually sang songs written by others and
played instrumental dances on harps, fiddles (ancestors of the violin), and lutes (plucked
string instruments). In Germany the jogleurs were known as MINNESINGERS.

ESTAMPIE (13th Century): Medieval dance, one of the earliest surviving forms of
instrumental music. A single melodic line is notated and no instrument is specified. Since
medieval minstrels probably improvised modest accompaniments to dance tunes, a drone is
usually added by performers. The estampie is in triple meter and has a strong, fast beat.
PSALTERY: Plucked or struck string instrument.

DEVELOPMENT OF POLYPHONY: ORGANUM

For centuries western music was basically monophonic (single melodic line). Between 700
and 900, the first steps were taking in a revolution that eventually transformed western
music. Monks in monastery choirs began to add a second melodic line to Gregorian chant. In
the beginning, this second line was improvised, not written and it duplicated the chant
melody at a different pitch. The two lines were in parallel motion, note against note, at the
interval of a fourth or a fifth.

ORGANUM: The additional melodic line or lines added to Gregorian chant. Between 900
and 1200 organum became truly polyphonic and the melody added to the chant became more
independent. Developed a melodic curve of its own (no longer strictly parallel to the main
melodic line).

1100: The second line became even more independent, when the chant and the added melody
were no longer restricted to a note-against-note style. Now the two lines could be different in
rhythm not just melody. The bottom melodic line was usually sung in very long notes, and
the added melody on top moved in shorter notes.

SCHOOL OF NOTRE DAME: MEASURED RHYTHM

After 1150, Paris (artistic and intellectual capital of Europe) became the center of polyphonic
music. The Cathedral of Notre Dame (est. 1163) was the supreme monument of gothic
architecture.

LEONIN & PEROTIN: Two successive choirmasters of Notre Dame, who are among the
first notable composers known by name. They and their followers are referred to as the
School of Notre Dame. Perotin was the first known composer to write music with more than
two voices (late 12th – early 13th century).

MOTET: The most important form of early polyphonic music. It derives from mot (which
means word in French), referring to the words that were added to the vocal lines.

1170-1200: The Notre Dame composers developed rhythmic innovations. Unlike the earlier
polyphonic music (performed in the free, unmeasured rhythms of Gregorian chant), the
music of Leonin and Perotin used measured rhythm, with definite time values and clearly
defined meter. For the first time in music history, notation indicated precise rhythms as well
as pitches. At first the new notation was limited to few rhythmic patterns and the beat had to
be subdivided into threes (the Holy Trinity symbol).

Despite these limitations, much fine polyphonic music was composed during the late 12th
century and 13th century.

Triads in general were not used much in the early Middle Ages because the interval of the
third was considered dissonant at the time. However, as the Middle Ages advanced, triads
and thirds were used more often and polyphonic music gradually became fuller and richer.

CANTUS FIRMUS: A chant that is used as the basis for polyphony. Above or below the
cantus firmus (preexisting melody), additional lines can be added. There can be rhythmic and
melodic contrast between each melodic line (very common in medieval polyphony of that
time). Another trait of that time is also the narrow range of the voices; they are never more
than an octave apart.
TENOR: A bottom voice (from the Latin tenere, which means to hold). Performed either
instrumentally or vocally.
OSTINATO: A repetition of a short musical pattern (melodic, rhythmic or harmonic).

FOURTEENTH-CENTURY MUSIC: THE “NEW ART” IN ITALY AND FRANCE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: 14th Century – age of disintegration. Europe suffered

through the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) and the bubonic plague (1350) which killed
one-fourth of its population. The feudal system and church authority had weakened by this
time. From 1378-1417, two rival popes claimed authority, confusing even devout Christians.
Graphic realism and earthly sensuality was expressed more in literature of the time, instead
of virtue and heavenly rewards.

In that context, secular music became more important than sacred music in the 14th century.
Composers wrote polyphonic music that was not based on Gregorian chant, including
drinking songs and pieces in which animal calls and human sounds were imitated.

By the early 14th century, a new system of music notation had evolved, and a composer could
specify almost any rhythmic pattern. Beats could now be subdivided into two as well as
three. Syncopation also became an important rhythmic practice.

ARS NOVA: This is how music theorists referred to Italian and French music as in the 14th
century, because of the profound changes in musical style at the time.

FRANSCESCO LANDINI: (? – 1397) was the most well-known Italian composer of the
14th century. He was born near Florence, where he worked much of his life. He was blind
from childhood. He was a famous organist, a poet, a scholar, and the inventor of a new string
instrument. His works consist exclusively of Italian songs for two or three voices dealing
with subjects ranging from nature and love to morality and politics.

BALLATA: An Italian poetic and musical form that originated as a dance-song.

GUILLAUME DE MACHAUT: (1300-1377) was famous both as a musician and a poet.

He was born in the French province of Champagne. He studied theology (was a priest) but he
spent most of his life as a court official for various royal families. In 1323, he became
secretary to the king of Bohemia, whom he accompanied on trips throughout Europe.
Machaut in his later years lived in Reims, where he served as an important church official.
He traveled to many courts and presented copies of his music to noble patrons. These copies
made him one of the first important composers whose works have survived. The decline of
the church in the 14th century is reflected in his output, which consists mainly of love songs
for one or two voices and instrumental accompaniment. His best known composition is the
Notre Dame Mass.

NOTRE DAME MASS: One of the finest compositions known from the Middle Ages. Also
of great historical importance: It is the first polyphonic treatment of the mass ordinary by a
known composer. Guillaume de Machaut’s Mass is written for four voices, some of which
were probably performed or doubled by instruments. It is not known when and why this mass
was composed.
MASS ORDINARY: It consists of texts that remain the same from day to day throughout
most of the church year. The five sung prayers of the ordinary are the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo,
Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. Since the 14th century, these five texts have often been set to
polyphonic music and have inspired great choral works. Each composer has written for these
in their own individual style.

EXAMPLES

EX.1
LESSON 5

THE RENAISSANCE

1. MUSIC IN THE RENAISSANCE (1450 – 1600)

TRAITS: Time spam is the 15th and 16th centuries in Europe. “Rebirth” or “Renaissance” of
human creativity. Period of exploration and adventure (Columbus - 1492, Vasco de Gamma -
1498, Ferdinand Magellan – 1519/1522). Age of curiosity and individualism.
Main Renaissance personality: Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519), who was a painter,
sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist, as well as a fine musician.
HUMANISM – The dominant intellectual movement, which focused on human life and its
accomplishments. Humanists were not concerned with an afterlife in heaven or hell. They
were interested in ancient Greek and Roman cultures and in the beauty of ancient languages,
as well as in the literature of antiquity. Painters and sculptors were influenced by classical
literature and mythology, once again depicting the nude body (popular during antiquity but
vanquished during the Middle Ages). Renaissance art was about linear perspective (illusion
of space and depth) unlike the flat surface concept of the Middle Ages. Depiction of the
Virgin Mary as a beautiful young woman rather than as a childlike, unearthly creature
(Middle Ages depiction).

CATHOLIC CHURCH – It was less powerful during the Renaissance than during the
Middle Ages. Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther in the early 1500s. Church did not
monopolize learning anymore. Aristocrats and upper class now considered education a status
symbol and hired scholars to teach their children. Books were rare and extremely expensive
before 1450 because they were copied entirely by hand, but with the invention of printing
with movable type (around 1450), learning started to become widespread. By 1500, almost
20 million copies of 40,000 editions had been printed in Europe.

2. MUSIC AND THE RENAISSANCE SOCIETY

Renaissance in music: 1450-1600. As in the other arts, musical horizons expanded. Invention
of printing made circulation of music easier and the number of composers and performers
increased. Educated people were expected to be trained in music as well as in all other
subjects (concert of the universal man). Tributes to music were included in many literary
works and theatre (Shakespeare, etc.).

MUSICIANS & MUSIC DURING THE RENAISSANCE – As in the past, musicians

worked in churches, courts, and towns. Church choirs grew in size (Papal Choir in Rome
increased from 10 singers in 1442 to 24 in 1483). Although polyphonic music in the Middle
Ages was usually sung by several soloists, during the Renaissance it was performed by an
entire (male) choir. The church remained an important patron of music, but musical activity
gradually shifted to the courts. Kings, princes, and dukes competed for the finest composers.
A single court had anywhere from ten to sixty musicians (including singers and
instrumentalists). Women functioned as virtuoso singers at several Italian courts during the
late Renaissance. A court music director would compose secular pieces to entertain the
nobility and sacred works for the court chapel. The nobility often brought their musicians
along when traveling.
Renaissance town musicians played for civic processions, wedding, and religious services.
Musicians enjoyed higher status and pay than ever before. Composers no longer remained
unknown; like other artists, they sought credit for their work. Many leading Renaissance
composers came from the Low Countries (Flanders), an area which now includes parts of the
Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. Flemish composers were highly regarded and
held very important positions throughout Europe, but especially in Italy, which became the
leading music center in the 16th century. Other countries in which music evolved during the
Renaissance were Germany, England, and Spain.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF RENAISSANCE MUSIC

Words & Music – In the Renaissance, as in the Middle Ages, vocal music was more
important than instrumental music. Vocal music was influenced by the humanistic interest in
language, creating a close relationship between words and music. Renaissance composers
wrote music to enhance the meaning and emotion of the text. Harmony was interrelated to
the feelings projected in the text. By contrast, medieval composers had been relatively
uninterested in expressing the emotions of a text.
Word painting – Musical representation of specific poetic images, often used by
Renaissance composers. For example, the words ascending to heaven might be set to an
ascending melodic line, and running might be heard by a series of fast notes. The interesting
aspect of Renaissance music is that although there is a wide range of emotion in it, it is
usually expressed in a balanced, moderate way, with no extreme contrasts of dynamics, tone
color, or rhythm.
Texture – Mainly polyphonic. A typical choral piece has four, five, or six voice parts of
nearly equal melodic interest. Imitation among the voices is very common: each presents the
same melodic idea in turn. Homophonic texture, with successions of chords, is also used,
especially in light music, like dances. The texture varies within a piece to provide contrast
and bring out aspects of the text. Renaissance music sounds fuller than medieval music. The
bass register was used for the first time, expanding the pitch range to more than 4 octaves.
This new emphasis of the bass line brought richer harmony. Composers began to think in
terms of chords as well as individual melodic lines. Now all the melodic lines were
conceived at the same time, whereas during the Middle Ages, a complete melodic line was
conceived and then another was added on top of it, with relatively little attention to the
harmonic effect. In Renaissance music, harmony is also very important (vertical aspect) and
triads often occur, while dissonances are played down. Renaissance choral music did not
need instrumental accompaniment. Mostly a capella music. Instruments were also combined
with voices on many occasions, duplicating the vocal lines to reinforce the sound, or taking
the part of a missing singer. But even so, we rarely find part written exclusively for
instruments in Renaissance choral music.
Rhythm and Melody – In Renaissance music, rhythm is more a gentle flow than a sharply
defined beat, because each melodic line has great rhythmic independence: when one singer is
at the beginning of his or her melodic phrase, the others may already be in the middle of
theirs. This technique makes singing Renaissance music a challenge, because each singer
must maintain an individual rhythm.

4. SACRED MUSIC IN THE RENAISSANCE

2 main forms of sacred Renaissance music: the motet and the mass. They are alike in style,
but a mass is a longer composition.
Renaissance motet: It is a polyphonic choral work set to a sacred Latin text other than the
ordinary of the mass.
Renaissance mass: It is a polyphonic choral composition made up of five sections: Kyrie,
Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei.

Josquin Desprez and the Renaissance Motet

Josquin Desprez (ab. 1440-1521) was a master of Renaissance music. Like many Flemish
composers, he had an international career. Born in what is today a part of Belgium, he spent
much of his life in Italy, serving in dukes’ private chapels and in the Papal Choir in Rome.
Later on, he worked for Louis XII of France and held several church posts in his native land.
His compositions, which include masses, motets, and secular vocal pieces, strongly
influenced other composers and were very popular (Motet page 116-117).

Palestrina and the Renaissance Mass

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (ab. 1525-1594) was among the most important Italian
Renaissance composers. He devoted himself to music for the Catholic Church. His career
centered in Rome, where he held important church positions, including that of music director
for St. Peter’s.
His music includes 104 masses and 450 other sacred works.
Counter-Reformation: During the early 1500s, the Catholic Church was challenged and
questioned by the Protestants and, as a result, sought to correct abuses and malpractices
within its structure, as well as to counter the move toward Protestantism. This need to
strengthen the church led to the founding of the Jesuit order (1540) and the convening of the
Council of Trent (1545-1563), which considered questions of dogma and organization.
During its deliberations, the council discussed church music, which many felt had lost its
purity. During those sessions, church music was attacked because it used secular tunes, noisy
instruments, and theatrical singing. Some complained that complex polyphony made it
impossible to understand the sacred texts and wanted only monophonic music (Gregorian
chant) for the mass. The council finally decreed that church music should be composed to
inspire religious contemplation and not to “give empty pleasure to the ear”.
Palestrina’s works reflect this emphasis on a more spiritual music, through restraint and
serenity. For centuries, his masses were regarded by church authorities as models of church
music because of this. His perfection of contrapuntal style is a model for students of
counterpoint.

5. SECULAR MUSIC IN THE RENAISSANCE

During the Renaissance, secular music became increasingly popular. Throughout Europe,
music was set to poems in various languages (including Italian, French, Spanish, German,
Dutch, and English). The development of music printing helped spread secular music, and
thousands of song collections became available. Music became an important leisure activity,
as every educated person was expected to play an instrument and read notation.
Renaissance secular music was written for groups of solo voices and for solo voice with the
accompaniment of one or more instruments. Word painting was common. Composers liked
imitating natural sounds such as animal calls and human cries. Secular music contained more
rapid mood shifts than sacred music did.
The Renaissance Madrigal

An important kind of secular vocal music during the Renaissance. It was a piece for several
solo voices set to a short poem, usually about love. A madrigal, like a motet, combines
homophonic and polyphonic textures. However, the madrigal uses word painting and unusual
harmonies more often.
The Renaissance Madrigal originated in Italy around 1520, during a creative explosion in
Italian poetry. Madrigals were published by the thousands in 16th century Italy, where they
were sung by cultivated aristocrats. Among the most known Italian madrigalists were Luca
Marenzio (1553-1599) and Carlo Gesualdo (1560-1613).
In 1588 – the year of the defeat of the Spanish armada – a volume of translated Italian
madrigals was published in Lodnon. That triggered madrigal writing by English composers,
and for about thirty years there was a steady flow of English madrigals and other secular
vocal music. The English madrigal became lighter and more humorous than its Italian model,
and its melody and harmony were simpler.
Among the finest English madrigalists were Thomas Weelkes (1575 – 1623), an organist and
church composer and Thomas Morley (1557-1603).

The Renaissance Ballett (Fa-La)

A simpler type of secular vocal music than the madrigal. It is a dance like song for several
solo voices. In contrast to much Renaissance music, the ballet was mostly homophonic in
texture, with the melody in the highest voice. The same music is repeated for each stanza of
the poem, and the syllables fa-la are used as refrain. Like the madrigal, the ballet originated
in Italy, and was cultivated in England from around 1595 to the 1620s.
In nearly all ballets, the music of each stanza consists of two repeated parts: aa and bb. Parts
a and b both end with fa-la refrain.

6. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

Instrumental music became more important during the Renaissance, although still
subordinate to vocal music. Traditionally, instrumentalists accompanied voices or played
music intended for singing. Instrumental groups performed polyphonic vocal pieces, which
were often published with the indication to be sung or played. Soloists used the harpsichord,
organ, or lute to play simple arrangements of vocal works.
During the 16th century, instrumental music became increasingly emancipated from vocal
models. More music was written specifically for instruments. Renaissance composers began
to exploit the particular capacities of instruments for instrumental solos. They also developed
purely instrumental forms, such as theme and variations.
Much of the instrumental music composed during that time was intended for dancing
(popular Renaissance entertainment). Every cultivated person was expected to be skilled in
dance, which was taught by professional dancing masters. Court dances were performed in
pairs. A favorite pair was the pavane, in duple meter, and the lively galliard, in triple meter.
Dance music was performed by instrumental groups or by soloists like harpsichordists and
lutenists. Much dance music was published during the 16th century.
Renaissance musicians distinguished between loud, outdoor instruments like the trumpet and
the shawm, and soft, indoor instruments like the lute and the recorder (an early flute). The
many instruments used in the Renaissance produced softer, less brilliant sounds than we hear
from instruments today; most came in families from of three to eight instruments, ranging
from soprano to bass.
Renaissance instruments:
- Recorders
- Shawms
- Cornetts (wooden instruments with cup-shaped mouthpieces)
- Sackbuts (early trombones)
- Lutes
- Viols (bowed string instruments)
- Organs
- Regals (small organs with reed pipes)
- Harpsichords

Often several members of the same instrumental family were played together, but
Renaissance composers did not specify the instruments they wanted. A single work might be
performed by recorders, viols, or several different instruments, depending on what was
available. Today’s standardized orchestra did not exist.

7. THE VENETIAN SCHOOL: FROM RENAISSANCE TO BAROQUE

During the 16th century, Venice (an independent city-state on the northeastern coast of Italy)
became a center of instrumental and vocal music. Venice was a center for European trade and
was also home to some of the most magnificent painters and architects of the time.
The focal point for music in Venice as St. Mark’s Cathedral; it was very wealthy and
employed up to twenty instrumentalists and thirty singers for grand ceremonies. The music
directors and organists at St. Mark’s, such as Adrian Willaert (ab. 1490-1562), Andrea
Gabrieli (ab. 1520-1586) and his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli, were among the finest
composers of the Renaissance. They and their colleagues are called the Venetian School.

VENETIAN SCHOOL
Venetian composers were stimulated by an architectural feature of St. Mark’s Cathedral (two
widely separated choir lofts, each with an organ – and wrote much music for several choruses
and groups of instruments. Unlike most Renaissance choral music, Venetian choral music of
the late 16th century often contains parts written exclusively for instruments. The conscious
use of instrumental color brings some works of the Venetian School close to the early
baroque style. Another early baroque feature of some Venetian music is a tendency toward
homophonic texture, rather than the polyphonic texture typical of Renaissance music.

GIOVANNI GABRIELI AND THE POLYCHORAL MOTET

Giovani Gabrieli was the most important Venetian composer of the late Renaissance. He
studied with his uncle Andrea Gabrieli and was an organist at St. Mark’s from 1585 to his
death (1612). His compositions include organ and instrumental ensemble works and
polychoral motets (motets for two or more choirs, often including groups of instruments).
Gabrieli’s polychoral motets for two or five choirs call for an unprecedently large number of
performers and brilliantly exploit contrasts of register, sonority, and tone color.
Sonata pian e forte (1597) – One of Gabrieli’s most famous works. It is known as one of the
earliest instrumental ensemble pieces in which dynamics and instrumentation are specified
by the composer.

Renaissance Mass

With the rise of Renaissance polyphony, composers concentrated their musical settings on
the Ordinary (the fixed portion of the Mass that was sung daily). The five main sections of
the Mass became prominent: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei.
• Kyrie: It is a prayer for mercy that dates from the early centuries of Christianity. In
Greek text. Written in A-B-A form that consists of nine invocations: Three “Kyrie
Eleison”, three “Christe Eleison” and three “Kyrie Eleison” again.
• Gloria: A joyful hymn of praise.
• Credo: It is the confession of faith and the longest of the Mass texts.
• Sanctus: It concludes with the “Hosanna in the highest”.
• Agnus Dei: It is sung three times. Twice it concludes with “Miserere nobis” and the
third time with the prayer “Dona Nobis Pacem”.

Early polyphonic settings of the Mass were usually based on a fragment of Gregorian chant,
called the cantus firmus (fixed melody). It served as the foundation for the Mass and it
helped unify it.
Of the Masses for special services, the most important was the Requiem, or Mass for the
Dead, sung at funerals and memorial services.
Guillaume DuFay (1397-1474) was one of the composers of the so-called Burgundian
School. He expanded the standard musical texture from three voices to four.

The Chanson

In the 15th century, the chanson was the favored genre at the courts of the dukes of Burgundy
and the kings of France, all great patrons of the arts. Chansons were usually written for three
voices, with one or both lower parts meant to be played on instruments. They were set to the
courtly love poetry of the French Renaissance. They remained in the fixed forms of the
Middle Ages for the most part: the rondeau, the ballade and the virelai. Guillaume DuFay
was also one of the prominent composers of chansons. The Renaissance chanson continued
to be a favorite secular form throughout the sixteenth century, culminating in the works of
the towering figure of Roland de Lassus (c.1532-1594). He wrote about 150 chansons, many
of them setting the verses of famous French poets. Sixteenth-century chansons were often set
for four voices, generally in a chordal or homophonic style.

Dance Types

Dance types that became popular in the 16th century include:

• Pavane: The first number of a set that included one or more quicker dances.
• Saltarello: Italian quick dance (jumping dance).
• Galliard: French dance, more vigorous than the saltarello.
• Allemande: German dance, in moderate duple time. It retained its popularity
throughout the Baroque.
• Ronde: Also called “round dance”. A lively romp associated with the outdoors and
performed in a circle.
 The Sacbut

Many names have been given to the Renaissance trombone, including sackbut (literally
"push-pull"), saqueboute, shakbusshes, seykebuds, sakbuds, shakebuttes, shagbutts, and even
shagbolts. It is uncertain when the sackbut first appeared, but by 1500 it is illustrated and
mentioned regularly. Detailed information about the instrument is given by Praetorius, who
also pictures four principal sizes: the alto, tenor, bass, and great bass. The tenor sackbut is the
most useful size and it is this instrument which has evolved into the modern tenor trombone.
In the early seventeenth century the sackbut was considered an instrument of the virtuoso
performer. Praetorius mentions an Erhardus Borussus of Dresden who had a range of nearly
four octaves (low A1 to g2) and was able to execute rapid coloraturas and jumps on his
instrument just as is done on the viola bastarda and the cornett.
For outdoor music the top part of a sackbut ensemble was usually taken by a shawm, and for
church music, by a cornett. The sackbut player should imitate the sound of the cornett, not
the trumpet. Thus today's marching band trombone blasts have no place in the performance
of early music. In spite of the instrument's wide range of dynamic and chromatic compass,
and its ability to be played "in tune" (by slide adjustment), the sackbut did not become a
regular member of the orchestra until the early nineteenth century.
The sackbut differs from today's trombone by its smaller bore, its bell which is less flared,
and in the lack of a water key, slide lock, and tuning slide on the bell curve. Sackbuts could
adjust tuning at the joint between the bell and slide.
The shallow brass mouthpiece was unplated. Decorated outer slide braces could telescope
slightly to follow the imperfections of the inner slide. Leather pieces cushioned the slide
when brought up to first postion. Since the human arm couldn't reach the longest positions on
the bass and great bass sackbuts, they have an articulated handle on the slide to extend the
reach.
 The Viol

The viols were bowed instruments with frets. They were usually played held downwards on
the lap or between the legs (the name viola da gamba translates to leg viol). The tone is quiet
but with a rather distinctly nasal quality which many think makes it too restrained for dance
music but an ideal instrument for polyphony where the clarity of texture is so important. The
viol played on the lap was known in Europe as early as the 11th century, and is pictured in
the art of the time. After the 13th century this style of playing bowed instruments had almost
completely disappeared, only to re-emerge two centuries later as the popular Renaissance
viol. The viols were used so much by court musicians throughout Europe, that it was
explained that the viol was played by genlemen, merchants and other men of virture, while
the violin was played in the streets to accompany dances or to lead wedding processions. The
instrument was introduced to the English court of Henry VIII by Italian and Flemish players
and soon became popular with amateurs as well as court musicians. Like madrigal singing,
viol playing had become part of music-maiking in the Elizabethan home by the end of the
16th century. Viols were popular in England long after they had been replaced by the violin
on the Continent.

The body of the viol was lightly constructed and the six strings were under rather low
tension. Common sizes included the treble, alto, small tenor, tenor, and bass. The strings
were usually tuned in a sequence of a 4th, 4th, M3rd, 4th, 4th (d-g-c'-e'-a'-d" for the treble).
The frets were made from pieces of stretched gut, and were tied around the neck with a
special fret knot. The frets could be pushed around for easy tuning.

The bow is rather convex in shape, as opposed to the violin bow's concave bend. It is held in
an underhand grip, the palm facing upwards. C. Simpson said in 1659, Hold the Bow betwixt
the ends of your Thumb and two foremost fingers, near to the Nut. The Thumb and first finger
fastned on the Stalk; and the second fingers end turned in shorter, against the Hairs thereof;
by which you may poize and keep up the point of the Bow. Danoville in 1687 gave the advice
that the viol bow must be of Chinese wood, and should not be too heavy, because it makes the
hand clumsy, nor too light, because than it cannot play chords enough; but a weight
proportioned to the hand, which is why I leave that to the choice of the one who plays the
Viol.
 The Mute Cornett
The mute cornett is another variety of the zink or cornett. It was favored in Germany and was
constructed as a straight, tapered, one-piece instrument which was turned on a lathe. Instead
of having a detachable mouthpiece, a tiny conical recess was cut into the top to serve as the
mouthpiece. There are holes in the body for fingering similar to recorders. The narrow bore
of the mute cornett gave it an exquisitely soft sound and made it ideal in consorts with
recorders, lutes, and viols.

LESSON 6

THE BAROQUE PERIOD (1600-1750)

BAROQUE = bizarre, flamboyant, elaborately ornamented. In history, it is used to indicate a

particular style in the arts. Baroque style fills space with action and movement. Artists
became interested in forming a total illusion, like a stage setting. Expanded the potential of
color, detail, ornament, and depth (creating structured worlds).
Main artists: Rubens, Rembrand, Caravaggio, etc.

Aristocracy also favored this kind of style. (I.e. Louis XIV’s palace, Versailles, was an
example of baroque painting, sculpture, and architecture).

Church needs also shaped the baroque style, because churches used the emotional and
theatrical qualities of art to make worship more attractive and appealing.

Middle class also influenced the development of the baroque style (commissions etc).

Baroque and Science: Scientific discoveries during the 17th century. Galileo and Newton
represented a new approach to science based on the union of mathematics and experiment.
They discovered mathematical laws governing bodies in motion. Scientific advances led to
new inventions and the gradual improvement of medicine, mining, navigation, and industry
during the baroque era. Thus, baroque art was a complex mixture of rationalism, sensuality,
materialism, and spirituality.

Baroque Music: In music, the baroque style flourished during the period from 1600-1750.
Two major composers of the baroque era were George Friedrich Handel and Johan
Sebastian Bach, whose death in 1750 marks the end of the baroque period.
Other baroque masters:
- Claudio Monteverdi
- Henry Purcell
- Arcangelo Corelli
- Antonio Vivaldi

PHASES OF THE BAROQUE PERIOD

The Baroque period can be divided into three phases:

- Early (1600-1640)
- Middle (1640-1680)
- Late (1680-1750).
The late period is the most well known today, but the earliest one was one of the most
revolutionary periods in music history. Monteverdi (1567-1643) for example, tried to create
unprecedented passion and dramatic contrast in his works. In Italy especially, music was
composed for texts conveying extreme emotion, and the text ruled the music.

EARLY BAROQUE PERIOD

OPERA: Drama sung to orchestral accompaniment. Created by Italian composers of the
early baroque period. Their melodic lines imitated the rhythms and inflections of speech.
TEXTURE OF THE EARLY BAROQUE: Early baroque composers favored homophonic
texture over the Renaissance music polyphonic texture. They felt that words could be
projected more clearly by using just one main melody with a chordal accompaniment.
To depict extreme emotions in their texts, early baroque composers used dissonance with a
new freedom. Unstable chords were very prominent and emphatic. Contrasts of sound were
emphasized (one or more solo singers against a chorus, or voices against instruments). In the
Renaissance choral music instruments (if used at all), duplicated a singer’s melody. In the
early baroque, however, voices were accompanied by melodic lines designed for instruments.
 MIDDLE BAROQUE PERIOD
The new musical style spread from Italy to practically every country in Europe. The
medieval or church modes were gradually replaced by major and minor scales. By
about 1680, major and minor scales were the tonal basis of most compositions.
Another feature of the middle baroque phase was the new importance of instrumental
music. Many composers wrote for specific instruments, the violin family being the most
popular.

LATE BAROQUE PERIOD

The most important period. Emphasis on the attraction of the dominant chord to the tonic was
one of the main aspects of harmony during this period. During the late baroque,
instrumental music became as important as vocal music for the first time. Early baroque
composers had emphasized homophonic; late baroque composers gloried in polyphony.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BAROQUE MUSIC

(See attached pages for detailed information)

- Unity of Mood: One basic mood throughout the piece. Moods represented in a piece
at the time were called affections. Specific rhythms/melodic patterns were associated
with specific moods.
- Rhythm: Continuity of rhythm. Rhythmic patterns heard at the beginning of a piece
are repeated throughout it. Big emphasis on rhythm in baroque music.
- Melody: Creates feeling of continuity. Opening melody repeated throughout the
piece. Constant character even through variation of the melody. Expanding,
unfolding, unwinding of melody. Often ornamented and elaborate.
- Dynamics: Tend to stay constant for a stretch of time. Sudden shifts. Alternation
between loud and soft is called terraced dynamics. Gradual changes do not occur
during baroque, except sometimes for expressive purposes.
- Texture: Predominantly polyphonic. Usually the soprano and bass lines are the most
important. Imitation very common. However a piece might shift in texture.
- Chords: Chords became increasingly important, as opposed to earlier times, when
the melodic line was more important. Composers wrote a melodic line and thought of
chords to enhance it. New prominence to the bass part (foundation of harmony). The
whole musical structure was based on the bass part.
- Basso Continuo: The most characteristic feature of baroque music. It is usually
played by at least two instruments: a keyboard instrument (organ, harpsichord etc)
and a low melodic instrument (cello or bassoon). The basso continuo offers the
advantage of emphasizing the all-important bass part, as well as providing a steady
flow of chords. The use of numbers (figured bass) saved time.
- Words and Music: Baroque composers used music to depict the meaning of specific
words (as in Renaissance).

THE BAROQUE ORCHESTRA

During the baroque period, the orchestra evolved into a performing group based on
instruments of the violin family. By modern standards, the baroque orchestra was small,
consisting of from 10 to 30-40 players. Flexible instrumental makeup that varied from piece
to piece. The nucleus were the basso continuo (harpsichord plus cello, double bass, or
bassoon) and upper strings (first and second violins and violas). Use of woodwind, brass and
percussion instruments was variable. To the strings and continuo could be added recorders,
flutes, oboes, trumpets, horns, trombones, or timpani. This flexibility of instrument use
contrasts the standardized orchestra of later periods, which consists of four sections (string,
woodwind, brass, and percussion).
Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, and others chose their orchestral instruments with care and obtained
nice effects from specific tone colors. They loved to experiment with different instrument
combinations. However, in the baroque period tone color was distinctly subordinate to other
musical elements (melody, rhythm and harmony). Composers frequently rearranged works
for different instruments.

BAROQUE FORMS

Many baroque compositions include a set of pieces that contrast.

Movement: It is a piece that sounds fairly complete and independent but is part of a larger
composition. Usually, each movement has its own themes, comes to a definite end, and is
separated from the next movement by a brief pause. Thus, a baroque composition in three
movements may contain contrasts between a fast and energetic opening, a slow middle and a
conclusion that is quick, light, and humorous.
Form: Ternary (A-B-A), binary (A-B) and continuous form are all common in baroque
music. Regardless of form, baroque music features contrasts between bodies of sound. Often
there is an alternation between a small and a larger group of instruments, or between
instruments and voices with instrumental accompaniment.

MUSIC IN THE BAROQUE SOCIETY

Before 1800, most music was written to order, to meet specific demands that came mainly
from churches and aristocratic courts. Opera houses and municipalities also required a
constant supply of music. The demand was for new music (not old-fashioned style music).
The ruling class was enormously rich and powerful. European rulers lived in luxury.
Entertainment was necessary and they spent a lot of money on it.
Music was a main source of diversion. Courts employed orchestras, chapel choirs, opera
singers, etc. Bach directed about 18 players in the orchestra of a small German court in 1717;
a large court might have more than eighty performers. The size of the musician body varied
by court, depending on the resources.
Music director: He supervised performances, and composed much of the music required,
including operas, church music, dinner music, and pieces for court concerts. He was also
responsible for the discipline of other musicians, and for the upkeep of the instruments and
the music library.
Everyone in the baroque society, musicians included, tried to be in good standings with the
aristocracy. This is why composers dedicated works often to aristocrats (patrons). (ex. page
143).
Churches also needed music, and church music was often very grand (as opposed to earlier
music times). Along with an organ and a choir, many baroque churches had an orchestra to
accompany services. Church had become the place where ordinary citizens usually heard
music. There were very few public concerts. The music director of a church had the same
duties more or less as the music director at a court.
Church musicians earned less than court musicians. Large towns employed musicians for a
variety of functions (play in churches, processions, concerts, etc).
Some baroque musicians earned money by writing operas for commercial opera houses
(located mainly in Italy). Venice had six opera companies. In London, Handel became music
director of a commercial opera company in the early 1700s and later on formed his own.
Musicians in baroque period: Musicianship was often passed on from father to son. Many
leading composers were sons of musicians. Other times boys were apprenticed to a town
musician and lived in his home, and did odd jobs in return for instruction. In Italy, music
schools were connected with orphanages. Eminent composers helped teach orphans.
Women: During the baroque period, women were not permitted to be employed as music
directors or as instrumentalists in court or opera orchestras. However, a number of women
succeeded in becoming respected composers.
To get a job, musicians usually had to pass a difficult examination, performing and
submitting compositions. An applicant was also expected sometimes to make a “voluntary
contribution” (Bach-Handel example).
Composers were an integral part of baroque society. Wrote music for several occasions and
of very high quality.

THE CONCERTO GROSSO AND RITORNELLO FORM

Definition: Basic principle of baroque is the contrast between loud and soft sounds. This
principle governs the Concerto Grosso, an important orchestral music form in the late
baroque period. In a concerto grosso, a small group of soloists is pitted against a larger group
of players called the tutti. Usually, between two and four soloists play with anywhere from
eight to twenty or more musicians for the tutti. The tutti consists mainly of string
instruments, with a harpsichord as part of the basso continuo. Contrast of texture between the
tutti and the soloists. Brilliant and fancy melodic lines.
Structure: A concerto grosso consists of several movements that contrast in tempo and
character. Most often there are three movements: (1) fast, (2) slow, (3) fast. Tge opening
movement is usually vigorous and determent, clearly showing the contrast between tutti and
soloists. The slow movement is quieter, often lyrical and intimate. The last movement is
lively, often dance like.
Ritornello form: The first and last movements of concerti grossi are often in ritornello form,
which is based on alternation between tutti and solo sections. In ritornello form the tutti
opens with a theme called the ritornello (refrain). This theme, always played by the tutti,
returns in different keys throughout the movement. But it usually returns in fragments, not
complete. At the end of the movement the entire ritornello returns in the home key. Although
the number of times a ritornello returns varies from piece to piece, a typical concerto grosso
movement might be outlined as follows:
 1. a. Tutti, ritornello in home key
b. Solo
2. a. Tutti, ritornello fragment
b. Solo
3. a. Tutti, ritornello fragment
b. Solo
4. Tutti, ritornello in home key.

In contrast to the tutti’s ritornello, the solo sections offer fresh melodic ideas, softer
dynamics, rapid scales, and broken chords. Soloists may also expand short melodic ideas
from the tutti.

THE FUGUE

One of the cornerstones of baroque music. It is a polyphonic composition based on one main
theme, called a subject. Throughout the fugue, different melodic lines, or voices, imitate the
subject. The top melodic line is the soprano voice, and the bottom is the bass. The texture of
a fugue usually includes three, four, or five voices. Though the subject remains fairly
constant throughout, it takes on new meanings when shifted to different keys or combined
with different melodic and rhythmic ideas.
The form of a fugue is very flexible. The only constant feature of fugues is how they begin –
the subject is almost always presented in a single, unaccompanied voice. By thus
highlighting the subject, the composer tells us what to remember and listen for. After its first
presentation, the subject is imitated in turn by all the remaining voices.
A fugue can be written for a group of instruments or voices, or for a single instrument (organ,
harpsichord).
The subject of the fugue can be announced by any voice (top, bottom or middle) and the
order in which the remaining voices imitate it is also completely flexible.
The subject is originally presented by the first voice in the tonic scale (scale in which the
piece is written). The second voice presents the subject in the dominant scale (five scale steps
higher than the tonic) and this is called the anwer.
In many fugues, the subject in one voice is constantly accompanied in another voice by a
different melodic idea called a countersubject. A constant companion, the countersubject
always appears with the subject, sometimes below or above it.
After the opening of the fugue, when each voice has taken its turn at presenting the subject,
the composer is free to decide how often the subject will be presented, in which voices, and
in which keys. Between presentations of the subject, there are often transitional sections
called episodes, which offer either new material or fragments of the subject or
countersubject. Episodes do not present the subject in its entirety.
Musical procedures often appearing in fugues:
- Stretto: A subject is imitated before it is completed; one voice tries to catch the other.
- Pedal point: A single tone, usually in the bass, is held while the other voices produce
a series of changing harmonies against it. Usually in organ music.

A fugue subject can be varied in four principal ways:

- Inversion: The theme is turned upside down (if the subject moves upward by leap,
the inversion will move downward the same distance etc).
 - Retrograde: The subject may be presented retrograde, which means by beginning
with the last note of the subject and proceeding backward to the first.
- Augmentation: The subject may be presented in augmentation, in which the original
time values are lengthened.
- Diminution: The opposite of augmentation; the original values of the subject are
shortened.

Fugues usually convey a single mood and a sense of continuous flow. They may be written
as independent works or as single movements within larger compositions. Very often an
independent fugue is introduced by a short piece called a prelude.
Bach and Handel wrote hundreds of fugues, which represent the peak among works of this
form. Fugal writing continued into the 19th and 20th centuries.

LESSON 6 (Cont)

THE ELEMENTS OF OPERA

Opera: Drama sung to orchestral accompaniment. A major innovation in music,

during the baroque era. It is a unique fusion of music, acting, poetry, dance, scenery
and costumes in a theatrical experience offering excitement and emotion. Since its
beginning in Italy around 1600, it has spread to many countries.
Main elements:
- Characters and plot are revealed through song.
 - Opera demands performers who can sing and act simultaneously. On stage are
star solo singers, secondary soloists, a chorus, and sometimes dancers – all in
costume.
- The orchestra and the conductor are in the orchestra pit.
- There are scenery, lighting and stage machinery to create illusions.

Opera was initially associated with high social status, as it originated in the courts of
kings and princes and long continued as a form of aristocratic entertainment. But as
opera became more concerned with “real” people and less with royal figures, it
attracted popular audiences.
The creation of an opera involves the joint efforts of a composer and a dramatist. The
text of the opera is called libretto, and is usually written by the librettist, or dramatist,
and set to music by the composer.
Some operas are serious, some are comic, some both. Operas (usually comic) may
sometimes include some spoken dialogue but are mostly entirely sung.
The range of characters found in opera is broad and varied (from humans to gods to
creatures etc).
The four main voice ranges (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) are divided more finely in
opera depending on their texture and body.
Acts: Like a play, an opera has from one to five acts subdivided into scenes. A single
act presents a variety of vocal and orchestral contrasts. A section may end definitely,
or it may be linked with the next section to form a continuous flow of music within
the act.
Aria: A song for solo voice with orchestral accompaniment. It is the main attraction
for many opera fans. It usually lasts several minutes. It is a complete piece with
definite beginning, high point, and end.
Recitative: A vocal line that imitates the rhythms and pitch fluctuations of speech and
leads into an aria. From the Italian word for recite; words are sung clearly and
quickly, often on repeated songs. There is usually only one note to each syllable as
opposed to the aria, where a syllable can be stretched through many notes.
Besides arias, composers will write compositions within the opera for two or more
singers (duets, trios, quartets, etc.). When three or more singers are involved, the
composition is called an ensemble.
Chorus: It generates atmosphere and makes comments on the action. Their sound
creates a tonal background for the soloists.
Overture / Prelude: Most operas open with a purely orchestral composition called an
overture or prelude. Since the 18th century, the overture introduces melodic elements
heard later on during the opera.

LESSON 6 (Cont)

OPERA IN THE BAROQUE ERA

- Opera was born in Italy.

- Camerata: A group of nobles, poets, and composers, who began to meet and
hold musical discussions regularly in Florence around 1575. They set the way
for the creation of opera. The Camerata wanted to create a new vocal style
modeled on the music of ancient Greek tragedy. Since no actual dramatic
 music survived from Ancient Greece, they based their theories on literary
accounts. They believed that the Greek dramas had been sung throughout in a
style that was midway between melody and speech. The Camerata wanted the
vocal line to follow the rhythms and pitch fluctuations of speech.
- Recitative (recited): The new vocal style that was created and modeled after
speech. It was sung by a soloist with only a simple chordal accompaniment
(homophonic).
- The Camerata rejected polyphony because different words sounding
simultaneously would obscure the all-important text.

Earliest Opera: The earliest opera that has been preserved is Euridice by Jacopo
Peri. It was composed for the wedding of King Henri IV of France and was
performed in Florence in 1600. Seven years later, Monteverdi composed the first
great opera, Orfeo.

Purpose of baroque operas: Much baroque opera was composed for ceremonial
occasions at court and was designed as a display of magnificence and splendor.
The subject matter was drawn from Greek mythology and ancient history.
Aristocrats were fascinated by the above and identified with Greek and Roman
heroes and divinities. The composers had a way of flattering the nobility as well
as satisfying their creative urge.

1637: The first public opera house opened in Venice. Now anyone with the price
of admission could attend an opera performance. Between 1637 and 1700 there
were 17 opera houses in Venice alone, as well as many in other Italian cities.
Hamburg, Leipzig, and London had public opera houses by the early 1700s, but
public opera took longer to develop outside Italy.

Castrato: Baroque opera marked the rise of virtuoso singers. Chief among these
was the castrato, a male singer who had been castrated before puberty. A castrato
combined the lung power of a man with the vocal range of a woman. Castrati
received the highest fees of any musicians. They played male roles such as Caesar
and Nero.

During the late baroque, operas consisted largely of arias linked by recitatives.
Secco Recitatives: The recitatives that were usually accompanied only by a basso
continuo.
Accompanied Recitatives: The recitatives that were accompanied by the
orchestra, to enhance emotional high points and moments of tension.

Aria: All action stopped during the aria, when the singer faced the audience,
expressed the feelings of the character and displayed vocal virtuosity. The form of
a typical late baroque aria is ABA. An aria in A B A form is called da capo aria;
after the B section, the term da capo is written. This means from the beginning
and indicates the repetition of the opening A section. However, the repetition was
not literal usually, because the singer was expected to embellish the returning
melody with ornaments.

Trill: An ornament consisting of the rapid alternation of two tones that are a
whole or half step apart.
 CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI

1567-1643
One of the most important composers of the early baroque era. Born in Cremona,
Italy. He created the earliest operatic masterpiece, Orfeo (1607). He was
appointed music director at St. Mark’s in Venice in 1613 (the most important
church position in Italy). There he composed sacred as well as secular music for
the aristocracy. His last opera was L’ incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of
Poppea) in 1642. Monteverdi is a very important figure in the history of music.
His works form a musical bridge between the 16th and 17th centuries and greatly
influenced composers of the time. His music (madrigals, church music, opera) is
for voices, ordinarily supported by a basso continuo and other instruments. He
wanted to create music of emotional intensity. He felt that earlier music had
conveyed only moderate emotion and he wanted to extend its range to include
agitation, excitement and passion. To achieve this intensity, he used dissonances
with unprecedented freedom and daring. And to evoke the angry or warlike
feelings in some of his texts, he introduced new orchestral effects, including
pizzicato and tremolo.
Monteverdi was the first composer of operatic masterpieces. Only three of the
twelve operas he wrote are preserved, but they truly blend music and drama. His
vocal lines respond greatly to the inflections of Italian language while maintaining
melodic flow.

HENRY PURCELL

1659-1695
The greatest of English composers. He was the last native English composer of
international rank until the twentieth century.
He wrote church music, secular choral music, music for small groups of
instruments, songs, and music for the stage. His only true opera is Dido and
Aeneas (1689), which many consider the finest ever written to an English text.
Other dramatic works include spoken plays with musical numbers in the form of
overtures, songs, choruses, and dances.
Purcell’s vocal music is faithful to English inflection and brings out the meaning
of the text. Purcell developed a melodious recitative that seems to grow out of the
English language. His music is filled with lively rhythms and a fresh melodic style
that is in the spirit of English folk songs. He treated the chorus with great variety
and was able to obtain striking effects through both simple homophonic textures
and complex polyphony. His music contains dissonances that seemed harsh to the
following generation of musicians. Some of Purcell’s finest songs use a variation
form found in many baroque works, a ground bass.

Ground Bass: Often in baroque music, a musical idea in the bass is repeated over
and over while the melodies above it change. The repeated musical idea is called a
ground bass, or basso ostinato. The ground bass pattern may be as short as four
notes or as long as eight measures. In this type of variation form, the constant
 repetition of the bass pattern gives unity, while the free flow of the melodic lines
above it results in variety.

THE BAROQUE SONATA

Sonata: One of the main developments of instrumental music during the baroque
period. It is a composition in several movements for one to eight instruments.

Composers often wrote trio sonatas, so called because they had three melodic
lines: two high lines and a basso continuo. Yet the word trio is misleading,
because the “trio” sonata actually involves four instrumentalists. There are two
high instruments (commonly violins, flutes, or oboes) and two instruments for the
basso continuo (a keyboard instrument – organ or harpsichord and a low
instrument – cello or bassoon).
The sonata originated in Italy but spread to Germany, England, and France during
the 17th century. Sonatas were played everywhere.
Sonata da chiesa: It means church sonata, which had a dignified character and
was suitable for sacred performance.
Sonata da camera: It means chamber sonata, which was more dance like and
was intended for performance at court.

BAROQUE COMPOSERS

1. Arcangelo Corelli

The most prominent Italian violinist and composer of string music around 1700.
As a teacher, he instructed some of the most eminent musicians of his time.
- He laid the foundations of modern violin technique.
- He was unique among Italian composers of the period in that he wrote only
instrumental music. 60 sonatas, 12 concertos only for strings.

2. Antonio Vivaldi

A towering figure of the late Italian baroque. He has a strong religious background
and was a priest for a little while. He was a violin teacher, composer, and
conductor for a music school. He was famous as a virtuoso violinist and
composer.

JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH

The masterpieces of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) mark the high point of
baroque music. Bach came from a long line of musicians and he held various
positions at churches, etc, until his reputation as organist started growing steadily
through his virtuoso performances, which included improvising elaborate fugues and,
reportedly, playing with his feet (on the pedal keyboard) better than many performers
could play with their fingers.
In 1708, Bach obtained a more important post, as court organist in Weimar. He stayed
there for nine years, becoming concertmaster of the court orchestra. He left after
being passed over for promotion. Bach kept demanding his rights, never fearing
controversy, throughout all his life.
One of Bach’s most productive period was from 1717-1723. During this period he
became court conductor for the prince of Cothen. His salary and job were lucrative
and prestigious, but more important, this was the first time in his career that he was
not involved with church or organ music. During the six years, Bach directed the
prince’s small orchestra of about eighteen players and composed music for them. The
Brandenburg Concertos grew out of this period.
In 1723, Bach became cantor (music director) of St. Thomas Church in Leipzig. He
remained in this job for the last 27 years of his life. At Leipzig, Bach rehearsed,
conducted, and usually composed an extended composition for chorus, soloists, and
orchestra for each Sunday and holiday of the church year. He was also an eminent
teacher of music, organ and composition, gave organ recitals, and was often asked to
judge the construction of organs. It’s hard to imagine how he did all this while
surrounded by children, relatives, and students – and living in the school building next
to a classroom.
Although his vision started deteriorating in 1740, he continued to teach, perform and
conduct until his death in 1750.
Though recognized as the most eminent organist, harpsichordist, improviser, and
master of fugue, Bach was by no means considered the greatest composer of his day.
He was little known outside Germany, and even his post in Leipzig was offered to
him only after two other noted musicians had turned it down. By the time of Bach’s
maturity, the baroque style had begun to go out of fashion; people wanted light,
uncomplicated music. May considered his work heavy, complex and polyphonic.
Bach’s music was largely forgotten and remained unpublished for years after his
death. But a few composers of the generations following knew some of his
compositions and were aware of his genius. In 1829, Felix Mendelssohn presented the
St. Matthew Passion, and Bach’s music has been the daily bread of every serious
musician since then.

BACH’S MUSIC

Bach created masterpieces in every baroque form except opera. Throughout, he fused
technical mastery and emotional depth. His instrumental music includes pieces for
orchestra, for small groups, and for solo organ, harpsichord, clavichord, violin, and
cello. The number and excellence of these works show how prominent instrumental
music had become in the baroque period. Bach’s vocal music was written mostly for
the Lutheran church and was often based on familiar hymns.
Personal style: In forming his personal style, Bach drew on the musical resources of
three different lands. He studied Italian concertos and French dance pieces, as well as
the church music of his native Germany. His music is unique in its combination of
polyphonic texture and rich harmony. Several melodic lines of equal importance often
occur at once. His music is complex and elaborate. However, although the individual
voices are very interesting, it is the progression of chords (harmony) that directs the
musical motion. Bach used complex and dissonant harmonies more imaginatively
than his contemporaries.
When it comes to unity of mood (basic feature of the baroque), Bach liked to
elaborate a single melodic idea in a piece. His melodies can be unpredictable, and
highly embellished but the unity of mood is created by an insistent rhythmic drive
(perpetual motion).
Bach liked to illustrate religious or pictorial ideas through musical symbolism. For
example, in a piece called These are the Holy Commandments, he uses the theme
exactly ten times.
Main Works:
- The Art of Fugue: A collection which displays all the resources of fugue
writing.
- The Well-Tempered Clavier: A collection of 48 Preludes and Fugues (2
books of 24 each), one pair in every major and minor key. The word “clavier”
refers to keyboard instruments in general. In Bach’s day, the preludes and
fugues were most likely played on the harpsichord or clavichord.
- Brandenburg Concertos (6): Composed for small orchestra (between 1717-
1723).
- Mass in B minor (Begun 1733): The most monumental setting of the Roman
Catholic Mass. He wrote the first two sections (Kyrie and Gloria) in 1733 and
years later he finished the mass by composing new music and by fitting the
Latin text to some of his earlier Lutheran church pieces. It is far too long to be
used in the Catholic service, but Bach may simply have wanted to show what
he could do with this ancient and imposing form. His Mass is totally
contrasting with the Renaissance Mass. It has specific orchestral
accompaniments for the voices. Also, each major section of his mass is
subdivided into arias, duets, and choruses. Thus, this mass has more variety
within each large section than a Renaissance mass has in its sections.

OTHER IMPORTANT MUSIC FORMS

BAROQUE SUITE: Baroque composers wrote suites, which are sets of dance-
inspired movements, composed either for solo instruments, small groups, or orchestra.
The baroque suite is made up of movements that are all written in the same key but
differ in tempo, meter, and character. The dancelike movements also have a variety of
national origins:
- Allemande: moderately paced dance (Germany)
- Courante: fast paced dance (France)
- Gavotte: moderate paced dance (France)
- Sarabande: A slow and solemn dance (Spain)
- Gigue: Fast dance (England-Ireland)
- French Overture: Suites often begin with a movement that is not dance-
inspired. Most common opening is the French Overture, which is also heard in
the beginning of baroque oratorios and operas. It is usually written in two parts
and first presents a slow section, while the second section is quick and lighter
in mood, often beginning like a fugue. Sometimes part of the opening section
will return at the end of the overture.
Suites were played in private homes, court concerts, or as background music for
dinner and outdoor festivities. The movements of a suite are usually in two-part form
with each section repeated (form A A B B).
CHORALE: The chorale, or hymn tune, was sung to a German religious text and was
included in each Lutheran service. Chorales were easy to sing and remember, having
only one note to a syllable and moving in steady rhythm. They were tunes that had
been composed in the 16th and 17th centuries or had been adapted from folk songs and
Catholic hymns.

CHURCH CANTATA: The principal means of musical expression in the Lutheran

service. Cantata originally meant a piece that was sung, as distinct from a sonata,
which was played. The cantata designed for the Lutheran service in Germany in the
early 1700s was usually written for chorus, vocal soloists, organ, and a small
orchestra. It had a German religious text, which was related to the different Gospel
and Epistle reading for each Sunday and holiday. It was used to reinforce, in a sense,
the minister’s sermon. The cantata of Bach’s day might last 25 minutes and include
several different movements (choruses, recitatives, arias, and duets). Bach wrote
about 295 cantatas.

ORATORIO: A large—scale composition for chorus, vocal soloists, and orchestra. It

is usually set to a narrative text. Oratorio differs from opera in that it has no acting,
scenery, or costumes. Most oratorios are based on biblical stories, but usually they are
not intended for religious services. An oratorio contains a succession of choruses,
arias, duets, recitatives, and orchestral interludes. The chorus is especially important
and serves either to comment on or to participate in the drama. A narrator’s recitatives
usually relate the story and connect one piece with another. Oratorios are longer than
cantatas (sometimes last over 2 hrs) and have more of a story line. They first appeared
in early 17th-century Italy. The best-known and most loved oratorio is Handel’s
Messiah.

GEORGE FRIEDRICH HANDEL

1685-1759
A master of Italian opera and English oratorio. Did not come from a musical family
(like Bach did). He had an outstanding musical talent and together with composing,
he gave organ lessons and also became a violinist and a harpsichordist in the
Hamburg opera house orchestra. One of his operas was successfully produced there
when he was 20. Handel became England’s most important composer. He became the
music director of Royal Academy of Music, a commercial opera company founded in
London in 1719 and composed a number of brilliant operas for sopranos and castrati.
Throughout his life, Handel composed and produced a number of operas and
oratorios.
His most well-known oratorio, the Messiah was composed in 1741, the year when he
stopped writing operas entirely. He composed and produced a massive amount of
oratorios until his death.

HANDEL’S MUSIC

Handel is as important a baroque composer as Bach. Although he wrote a great deal

of instrumental music (suites, organ concertos, and concerti grossi) the core of his
huge output consists of Italian operas and English oratorios.
Operas: He wrote 39 Italian operas, which, after 2 centuries of neglect, have been
successfully revived by modern opera companies. Handel’s operas are based on
ancient Greek and Roman characters.
Oratorios: They are usually based on stories from the Old Testament and have titles
like Israel in Egypt, etc. They are NOT church music, however; they were composed
to entertain paying audiences in public theatres. Most have plots and characters, even
though they are performed without acting, scenery, or costumes. Messiah is an
exception, in that it deals with a New Testament subject and is without a plot. The
focus of Handel’s oratorios is the chorus. Sometimes it participates in the narrative,
representing the Israelites or their enemies. But it also comments on the action,
lamenting or exulting. Also, in order to reinforce n idea in his text Handel didn’t
hesitate to interrupt a polyphonic flow of music with a series of chords. Changes in
texture are more frequent in his music than in Bach’s. He also liked to present two
different melodic ideas and then combine them polyphonically. He achieved sharp
changes of mood by shifting between minor and major keys.

LESSON 7

THE CLASSICAL ERA

1750-1820
- Baroque era: scientific methods and discoveries changed people’s view of the
world
- Middle of the 18th century: faith in the power of reason was so great that it
began to undermine the authority of the social and religious establishment.
- Philosophers, writers, “age of enlightenment”.
- Progress, reason (not custom or tradition) was the best guide for human
contact. Attacked the privileges of aristocracy and clergy and the middle class
was fighting for its rights.
- Shifts of style in visual arts: ROCOCO style (light colors, curved lines and
graceful ornaments), versus the previous heavy, monumental baroque style of
the early 18th century.
- Later 18th century, another shift from rococo to NEOCLASSICAL style,
which attempted to recapture the simplicity, nobleness and grandeur of ancient
Greek and Roman art. Rococo was then considered to be excessively
ornamented and lacking in ethical content. Moralistic issues depicted again in
neoclassicism.

CLASSICAL PERIOD IN MUSIC

- Preclassical period: The transition from baroque to classical period (1730-

1770). Shift in musical taste is parallel to that of the visual arts. Among the
most important pioneers of this style were Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and
Johann Christian Bach (both sons of J.S. Bach).
- Middle 18th Century: Composers concentrated on simplicity and clarity,
discarding much of the late baroque music traits. Polyphonic texture was
neglected in favor of tuneful melody and simple harmony. Contrast of moods
and theme.
 - Style Galant: Was referring to light, graceful music. It is comparable to the
rococo style in art.
- Classical: Confusing term, may refer to Greek or Roman antiquity or maybe
used for any supreme accomplishment of lasting appeal. The reason historians
borrowed the term classical from art history is because of the influence of
Greek and Roman models to all arts during 18th and 19th centuries. Common
balance between clarity of structure is one of the main parallel between
“classical” music and “neoclassical” art.
- Classical style flourished from about 1770 to 1820, and the most important
composers were:
o Joseph Haydn
o Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
o Ludwig Van Beethoven

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASSICAL STYLE

- Contrast of mood: great variety, compositions fluctuated in mood, contrasts

not only between movements, but in the same movement, even the same
theme.
- Rhythm: Flexibility of rhythm, many rhythmic patterns (variety), unexpected
pauses, syncopations, frequent changes from long to shorter notes. Changes
are sudden or gradual.
- Texture: Homophonic. Texture as flexible as rhythm. Sudden or smooth shift
of textures.
- Melody: Tuneful, easy to remember. Borrowed popular tunes sometimes.
Balanced and symmetrical, usually made up of two phrases of the same length.
Baroque melodies more elaborate and more difficult to sing.
- Dynamics and the Piano: Composers’ interest in expressing shades of
emotion led to the widespread use of gradual dynamic change. Crescendos and
decrescendos. Replacement of the harpsichord by the piano. It was invented
around 1700 but replaced the harpsichord only around 1775. Most of the
mature compositions by classical composers were written for the piano.
- The End of the Basso Continuo: Gradually abandoned during the classical
period. One reason because more and more music was written for amateurs
who could not master the art of improvising from a figured bass. Also classical
composers wanted more control and preferred to specify an accompaniment
rather than trust the improvisators.

THE CLASSICAL ORCHESTRA

New orchestra evolved. Standard group of four sections (unlike the baroque).
- Orchestra sections
- Number of musicians
- The way classical composers treated the orchestral instruments as opposed to
baroque
 - Role of each section

CLASSICAL FORMS

- Movements (4, fast-slow-dance related – fast), followed by classical

symphonies, string quartets.
- Classical sonatas consist usually of 3 movements.
- Terms: SYMPHONY, STRING QUARTET, SONATA.
- Forms: Different choices (ABA form, variations, etc.)
- CLASSICAL MOVEMENTS: Often contrast themes vividly. May contain
2,3,4 themes of different character. This use of contrasting themes
distinguishes classical from baroque (which often only used one main theme).
Larger sections often symmetrical and balanced.
- Although similar in form, compositions varied because of the composers’
individualism and style.

COMPOSER, PATRON AND PUBLIC

Slow emancipation of the composer. Political and economic power shifted from the
aristocracy and the church to the middle class. All established ideas were being
reexamined.
- Haydn: Spent most of his life serving a wealthy aristocratic family.
- Mozart: Born 24 yrs after Haydn, could not bear being treated as a servant.
Tried to be freelance musician.
- Beethoven: Fared better than Mozart. Few years after Mozart’s death he was
able to work as an independent musician. (Middle class market for music and
his own personality).
- 18th century: people made more money, wanted more material goods, also
sought aristocratic luxuries like theater, literature and music. Great influence
of the middle class on music. Public concerts throughout Europe. Also middle-
class wanted music at home and composers took that into account, composing
music for amateurs to be able to play. Turned from serious opera to comic
opera, to middle-class subjects and figures. Often used dance-like and folk
themes in serious compositions.
- VIENNA: Music center of Europe during the classical period. Indoor, outdoor
music, court, concerts, etc.

SONATA FORM

Most important musical form from classical to 20th century periods.

SONATA FORM: Refers to a the form of a single movement. Should not be
confused with the term sonata, which is a whole composition made up of several
movements. The opening movement of a classical symphony, string quartet, or
sonata is usually in sonata form. This form is also used in slow movements and in
fast concluding movements.
SONATA FORM MOVEMENT: Usually consists of three main sections:
- Exposition: The themes are presented
 - Development: The themes are treated in new ways
- Recapitulation: The themes return
- Concluding section (the CODA).
All these sections are within one movement.

- THEME AND VARIATIONS

- MINUET AND TRIO: Used as the third movement of classical symphonies,
string quartets, and other works. It originated as a dance. (around 1650 at the
court of Louis XIV). Dignified dance. triple meter, usually in moderate tempo,
in ABA form (minuet-trio-minuet). Eplain “TRIO”.
- RONDO: Form in which many classical movements are. Tuneful main theme
(A) which returns several times in alternation with other themes. (ABACA)
(ABACABA). Main theme usually lively, pleasing and simple to remember.
Rondo can be used either as an independent piece or as one movement of a
symphony, string quartet, or sonata. Often combined with elements of sonata
form to produce a sonata-rondo (which contains a development section like
that in sonata form and is outlined ABA – development section – ABA).

THE CLASSICAL SYMPHONY

Haydn wrote 104 symphonies, Mozart over 40, Beethoven 9.

SYMPHONY: Extended, ambitious composition typically lasting between 20 and
45 minutes, exploiting the expanded range of tone color and dynamics of the
classical orchestra. 4 movements (wide range of emotions through mood and
tempo contrasts).
- Opening movement: almost always in sonata form. Tonic.
- Second movement: Song like melodies, either in sonata form, ABA form or
theme-and-variations form. Not in tonic.
- Third movement: Dance-like, tonic.
- Fourth Movement: Fast, lively, lighter in mood than the opening. Tonic.

THE CLASSICAL CONCERTO

Concerto: Three-movement work for an instrumental soloist and orchestra. It

combines the soloist’s virtuosity and interpretive abilities with the orchestra’s wide
range of tone color and dynamics. The soloist is pretty much the star.
Classical love of balance can be seen because soloist and orchestra are equally
important. Concertos last 20-45 mins. Instead of the symphony’s four movements,
concerti usually have 3 movements (fast-slow-fast). No minuet or scherzo.
Cadenza: In the first and sometimes the last movement there is an unaccompanied
showpiece for the soloist. Near the end of the movement the orchestra suspends
movement by sustaining a dissonant chord, which announces the entry of the soloist.
Themes of the movement are varied and presented in new keys and show off the
virtuosity of the soloist. At the end of the cadenza, the soloist plays a long trill
followed by a chord that reintroduces the orchestra. In the classical era the soloist
improvised the cadenza. After 18th century composers began to write cadenzas.
1st movement: Sonata form, containing 2 expositions (first played by the orchestra,
which presents several themes in the home key). The second begins with the soloist’s
first notes. Slow movement may take any one of several forms, but the finale is
usually quick rondo or sonata-rondo.

CLASSICAL CHAMBER MUSIC

Designed for the intimate setting of a room in a home or palace rather than for a
public concert hall. Lighter in sound than orchestral music. It is performed by a small
group of two to nine musicians, with one player to a part. They don’t need a
conductor.
The most important form in chamber music is the string quartet. It is written for 2
violins, viola and cello. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven wrote a lot of music for this
genre. Conversation like.
Usually consists of 4 movements: Fast, slow, minuet or scherzo, fast. Sometimes 2
and 3 movement can be reversed. Other popular chamber music forms are the sonata
for violin and piano, the piano trio, and the string quintet.

ROMANTICISM IN MUSIC

1829-1900

Romanticism – cultural movement that stressed emotion, imagination, and

individualism. Rebellion against the neoclassicism of the 18th century and the age of
reason. Freedom of expression. Broader horizons. Romantics drawn to the realm of
fantasy, the world of dreams. Romantic fascination with fantasy. Revival of gothic.
Coincided with the industrial revolution, shift of interest to the middle class and the
poor.

Romantic period in music – Most significant musicians:

- Franz Schubert
- Robert Schumann
- Clara Wieck Schumann
- Frederic Chopin
- Franz Liszt
- Felix Mendelssohn
- Johannes Brahms
- Hector Berlioz
- Giuseppe Verdi
- Giacomo Puccini
- Richard Wagner

Composers of the romantic period continued to use the musical forms of the classical
era. The emotional intensity was greater. Romantic preference for expressive,
songlike melody also grew out of the classical style.
Differences in classical and romantic music – Romantic works have greater ranges
of tone color, dynamics, and pitch. Harmony is broader, with more emphasis on
colorful unstable chords. Romantic music is linked more closely to the other arts,
especially literature. New forms developed, and there was greater tension and less
emphasis on balance and resolution. Some romantic composers were more traditional
to the classical era, some more revolutionary.

Characteristics of romantic music

- Individuality of style: music that sounds and reflects each composer’s

personality.
- Expressive Aims and Subjects: Different feelings explored. Fascination
with the fantastic and diabolical, and all aspects of nature. Also subjects
drawn from the Middle Ages.
- Nationalism and Exoticism: Nationalism was an important political
movement that influenced 19th century music. Romantic composers
deliberately created music with a specific national identity, using folk
songs, dances, legends, and history of their homelands. Exoticism was
related to composers drawing on colorful materials from foreign lands.
- Program music: Instrumental music associated with a story, poem, idea
or scene. The non musical element is usually specified by a title or by
explanatory comments called a program.
- Expressive Tone Color: Rich and sensuous sound, using tone color to
obtain variety of mood and atmosphere.
- Romantic Orchestra: Larger than ever before. Up to 100 musicians.
Constant expansion of the orchestra due to changing needs of the
composers, as well as the growing size of concert halls and opera houses.
Percussion, brass and woodwind took on a more active role. Spectacular.
New instruments. New sounds required from the instruments. New
combinations of tone colors to achieve the most intense sounds.
- Piano: The favorite instrument of the romantic era. Vastly improved
during the 1820s and 1830s. Cast-iron frame to hold the strings under
greater tension, hammers were covered with felt. Range was extended, and
being a stronger instrument, the pianist could produce more sound. Use of
damper (loud) pedal allowed a sonorous blend of tones from all registers
of the piano.
- Colorful Harmony: New chords and new ways of using familiar chords.
Emphasis on colorful and complex harmonies. Chromatic harmony à use
of chords containing tones not found in the major or minor scale. They add
color and motion to romantic music. Dissonant chords also used more
freely than during the classical era.
- Expanded range of Dynamics, Pitch, and Tempo: Wide range of
dynamics. Sharp contrasts between very very soft and very very loud.
Frequent crescendos and diminuendos, as well as sudden dynamic
changes. Extremely high or low sounds also used. Changes of mood also
frequently accented by gradual changes in tempo and dynamics. Rubato.
- Form - Miniature and Monumental: Contradictions. Musical miniatures
and monumental compositions both used. Short forms meant to be heard in
the intimate surroundings of a home, and the gigantic works last for
several hours and were designed for large opera houses or concert halls.
The duration of a 19th century symphony could be 45 minutes as opposed
to the 18th symphony which could be 25 minutes.
- Thematic Transformation: One of the new techniques used to unify long
works. A melody returns in a later movement or section of a romantic
 work, with its character transformed by changes in dynamics, orchestration
or rhythm.

Romantic Composers and their public

In earlier periods, part of a musician’s job had been the composition of works
for a specific occasion and audience. Beethoven established the “free artist”
image and inspired romantic musicians, who often composed to meet an inner
need rather than to fulfill a commission. They wrote primarily for a middle-
class audience whose size and prosperity had grown since the industrial
revolution. Formation of many orchestras and opera groups during the
romantic era. Numerous public concerts with regular subscription.
Conservatories also founded in Europe in the first half of the 19th century.
Virtuosity: The 19th century audience was captivated by virtuosity, the
incredible technical and musical ability of performers. The musical heroes of
the 1830s were primarily Franz Liszt (pianist) and Niccolo Paganini
(violinist). They toured Europe and astonished audiences. The concept of
soloists and solo recitals started growing.
The piano became a staple in almost every middle-class home and the demand
for piano pieces grew. Most romantic composers came from that same class.

THE ART SONG

Composition for solo voice and piano. Initially composed to be performed and
enjoyed at home, but now performed also in concert halls. Poetry and music
are the main elements of the art song. The form bloomed with the emergence
of a rich body of romantic poetry in the early 19th century. Various subjects to
the art songs. Very emotional.
Song Cycle: Romantic art songs are sometimes grouped in a set, called the
song cycle. A cycle may be unified by a story line that runs through the
poems, or by musical ideas linking the songs.

IMPORTANT ROMANTIC COMPOSERS

FRANZ SCHUBERT
Know about volume of work, main compositional characteristics, “Schubertiads”,
types of compositions he wrote.

ROBERT SCHUMANN
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions.

FREDERIC CHOPIN
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions. Also know the nocturne, polonaise and etude compositional
types.
FRANZ LISZT
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions. Virtuoso pianist/soloist. Created the tone poem
Tone poem: A one-movement orchestral composition based to some extent on
literary or pictorial ideas. Contrasting moods were unified through thematic
transformation: a single musical idea reoccurs throughout a work but is varied so that
its character is transformed.

FELIX MENDELSSOHN
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions. Revived Bach’s work. Affinity for classical models.

HECTOR BERLIOZ
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions. Innovations and revolutionary compositional style.
Idée Fixe: A single melody, which is used to represent the beloved. It appears in all
movements and unifies the contrasting episodes of the work.

JOHANNES BRAHMS
Know about the volume of work, main compositional characteristics, his personality,
types of compositions. Very classical in his approach.

GIUSEPPE VERDI
Operatic composer. Know about his compositional characteristics and main operas.

GIACOMO PUCCINI
Operatic composer. Know about his compositional characteristics and main operas.

RICHARD WAGNER
Operatic composer. Know about his compositional characteristics, main operas and
also about his innovations and contradictions with other composers of his time.
Different opera house/orchestra setup.
Leitmotif: Leading motif. A short musical idea associated with a person, an object, or
a thought in the drama.

GUSTAV MAHLER
Know the basic characteristics of his music, his main influences and innovations.
Concept of programmatic music

NATIONALISM IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY MUSIC

How it influenced Romantic music and composers. What kinds of elements are used
by them in their music?

The Russian Five: In the 1860s, a true “school” of national music came into being in
Russia. Five young men met in St. Petersburg, with the aim of creating a truly Russian
music. They criticized each other’s works and asserted the necessity of breaking from
some of the traditional techniques of German, Italian and French composers. Their
names were:
Bakakirev, Cui, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Mussorgsky.