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4. Gravitation............................................................................................................ 25-27
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UNITS & CHRONICLE
MEASUREMENT IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
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All the quantities in terms of which Systems of units Length Mass Time
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laws of physics are described and whose
1. C.G.S. System Centimetre Gram Second
measurement is essential are called physical
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quantities like mass, length, time, light, 2. F.P.S. System Foot Pound Second
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current electricity, temperature, etc.
UNIT
3. M.K.S. System Metre Kilogram Second
4. Tempertature Kelvin K
5. Electric-current Ampere A
lasers.
6. Luminous intensity Candela Cd (ii) Kilogram (kg) : A standard block of
7. Quantity of matter Mole mol
Platinum Iridium alloy preserved in the
Supplementary Supplementary Symbol
Physical quantity Unit International Bureau of Weights & Measures
1. Plane angle Radian rad. at Sevres, near Paris, France is used as a
2. Solid angle Steradian sr prototype of unit of mass and one kilogram
is equal to the mass of this alloy.
The units of three quantities viz mass,
length and time are called fundamental (iii) Second (s) : The definition of second
units because all physical quatities can be is based on an atomic clock which works
expressed in terms of mass, length and on energy radiation from an isotope of
time and remaining all units are called caesium (Cs-133). One second is equal to
derived units. the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 periods of
Physics [5]
radiation corresponding to unperturbed (iii) Par sec. (Parallactic second) : 1
transition between the two specific energy Par sec = 3.1 × 1016m = 3.26 ly
levels of the ground gaseous state of Cs-
(iv) 1 micrometre or 1 micron = 10–6m
133 isotope. The caesium atoms in the
atomic clock act like a pendulum in a (v) 1 nanometre (1nm) = 10–9m
pendulum clock. The atomic clock gives
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(vi) 1 Angstrom (1A°) = 10–10m
the most accurate time with an error of 1
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For Masses : (i) 1 tonne or 1 metric ton
second only in 5000 years.
= 1000 kg
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IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS (ii) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg.
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(iii) The largest unit of mass is Chandra
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For Lengths : (i) Astronomical Unit
(A.U) : It is equal to the distance between Shekher Limit (C.S.L) 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 times
the centre of the earth and the centre of the the mass of the Sun.
sun. One A.U. = 1.5 × 1011m.
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(iv) For small masses atomic mass unit
(ii) Light Year (ly) : It is equal to the (a.m.u.) is used. 1 a.m.u = 1.6 × 10–27kg.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in For Area : (i) 1 acre = 4047 m2.
one year. 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015m.
(ii) 1 hectare = 104m2.
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its velocity increases by 9.8 m/s in every
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ACCELERATION second and when a body is thrown above
the earth’s surface, its velocity decreases
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The rate of change of velocity with re-
by 9.8 m/s in every second. This change in
spect to time is called acceleration.
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velocity every second is called acceleration
due to gravity which is denoted by ‘g’. Its
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When a body completes equal displace-
average value at the earth’s surface is 9.8
m/s2. It is always directed towards the
centre of the earth because of the gravita-
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ment in equal interval of time, its velocity is tional pull. For a freely falling body, its
constant and hence, it does not have an acceleration is 9.8 m/s2.
acceleration. When a body shows equal
change in velocity in equal interval of time POSITION (DISPLACEMENT)-
its velocity is not constant but it has a TIME GRAPHS
constant acceleration.
(i) For a body moving with a uniform
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or ...(i)
(ii) For a body moving with a uniform (ii) For the motion of a body thrown
vertically upwards : When the body moves
acceleration : If a body starting with an
up, its velocity continuously decreases due
initial velocity ‘u’ moves with a uniform
to gravity and finally becomes zero at the
acceleration ‘a’ for a time ‘t’ and attains a
maximum height. Then, the body falls with
final velocity ‘v’ after travelling a displace-
an increasing velocity.
ment ‘s’ then,
....(iii)
and ...(iv)
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and OB = time (t)
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VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH
For a uniformly accelerated motion the
or,
or v = u + at or = 5 sec.
∴ V = u + at
Physics [9]
or h = gt2
= 50 – 25 = 25m
or, v2 – u2 = 2as
Example 5. A stone is thrown vertically
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= 25m. upwards with a velocity of 98 m/s. What will
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be its maximum height attained and time taken
It covers a distance of 25 m before it stops. to achieve this height ?
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Example 3 : A train travelling with an Solution : a = g = – 9.8 m/s2, u = 98
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initial velocity of 4 m/s accelerates uniformly m/s2.
at a rate of 2m/s2. for 20 seconds. Calculate
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the distance covered.
Solution : Given, the initial velocity = u
= 4m/s
At the maximum height (h) = s = h and
v=0
∴ v2 – u2 = 2as
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acceleration = a = 2m/s2. ∴ 0 – (98)2 = (–)2 × 9.8 × h
∴ Displacement,
∴ v = u + at
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∴ 0 = 98 – 9.8 × t or t = 10 seconds
or s = 80 + 400 = 480m.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
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tion and may not be zero simultaneously. Every body continues to be in a state
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The body in equilibrium may be at rest or of rest or uniform motion in a straight
may move with a constant velocity. When line, except in so far as it may be com-
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a body is thrown upwards, it will go verti- pelled by force to change that state.’
cally until its vertical velocity becomes zero
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Newton’s first law of motion defines in-
and it will return to the ground with the ertia.
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same velocity with which it was thrown.
When a body is thrown horizontally
from a height or dropped from the same
1. Inertia of Rest : the inability of a
body to change by itself its state of rest.
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height in both cases it will be reaching to When a branch of a fruit tree is shaken,
the ground simultaneously because in both the fruits fall down. This is because the
the cases the body will be acted upon by the branch comes in motion and the fruits
tend to remain at rest. Hence, they get
same vertically downward acceleration due
detached.
to gravity (g).
The dirt particles in a durree fall off if it
A physical quantity having direction
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Physics [11]
When a horse at full gallop stops sud- When a knife is sharpened by press-
denly, the rider on it falls forward be- ing it against a grinding stone, the
cause of inertia of motion of the upper sparks fly off tangentially because
part of the rider’s body. of the inertia of direction.
When an athelete takes a long jump, he When a stone tied to one end of a string
runs first for a certain distance before is whirled and the string breaks sud-
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the jump. This is because his feet come denly, the stone spins off along the tan-
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to rest on touching the ground and the gent of its circular path. It happens so
remaining body continues to move ow- because of the pull in the string was
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ing to inertia of motion. forcing the stone to move in a circle. As
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soon as the string breaks, the pull dis-
When train stops suddenly, a passen-
appears. The stone becomes free and in
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ger sitting inside tends to fall forward.
It happens because the lower part of
the passenger’s body comes to rest with
a bid to move along the straight line
flies off tangentially.
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the train but the upper part tends to
continue its motion due to inertia of Second Law of Motion
motion. ‘The rate of change of linear momen-
tum of a body is directly proportional to
A person jumping out of a speeding
the external force applied on the body
train may fall forward due to inertia of
and this change takes place always in
motion of his body. Hence, he should
the direction of the applied force’.
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over the wheels stop this mud, protect- acceleration which measures the magni-
ing the clothes, etc. of the person sitting tude of the applied force i.e.
on the bike.
Use of an umbrella to protect us from
rain is based on the property of inertia
= mass × acceleration
of direction because the rain drops can-
not change their direction of motion. or,
When a bus or a car rounds a curve When a body is moving with a uni-
suddenly, the person sitting inside is form velocity along a straight line, it nei-
thrown outwards. It happens so be- ther experience nor require an external
cause the person tries to maintain his force. This is because, the acceleration is
direction of motion due to directional due to change in the velocity of the body
inertia while the vehicle turns. and the velocity remains constant for a
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damage to the vehicles.
an external applied force. Hence, an ac-
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celerated motion is always due to an When a person falls from a height on a
external force. concrete floor, the floor does not yield.
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The total change in linear-momentum
Application of the change in linear is produced in a very small interval of
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momentum (impluse) and second law time. Hene, the floor exerts a much
of motion :
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Bogies of a train are provided with the
buffers. These buffers avoid severe jerks
larger force and the person receives
more injury. But when a person falls
on a heap of sand, the sand yields. The
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during shunting of the train. Since force same change in linear momentum is
= change in momentum/time and the produced in a much longer time. The
time of impact increases due to pres- average force exerted on the person by
ence of buffers. Hence, force during the heap of sand is, therefore, much
jerks decrease. It results in decrease in smaller and hence the person is not
the chances of damage. hurt.
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avoids the chances of damage during Here, the action is the force exerted by
the jerks. one body on the other body while the reac-
An athlete should stop slowly, after fin- tion is the force exerted by the second body
on the first.
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Physics [13]
of forces e.g. gravitational, electric or mag- of reaction on the jet-plane or rocket in
netic forces, etc. the forward direction. Consequently,
Example and application of the third the jet-plane or rocket moves.
law of motion :
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
A book placed on a table exerts a force
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
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as an action on the table. This action is
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equal to the weight of the book. The The total sum of the linear momen-
table exerts a force of reaction equal tum of all bodies in a system remains
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and opposite to the reaction to support constant and is not affected due to their
the book. mutual action and reaction. It means in
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When a gun fires a bullet, it moves a system of the two bodies, the total
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forward due to a force exerted by the
gun. The bullet exerts a reaction due to
which the gun recoils backward.
momentum of the bodies before impact
is equal to the total momentum of the
two bodies after impact. The law of
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conservation of linear momentum is
We can walk on a ground easily if it is universal i.e. it applies to both, the mi-
tough because the ground provides suf- croscopic as well as macroscopic sys-
ficient reaction against our push. But it tem.
is difficult to walk on sand or ice. This
is because on pushing, sand gets dis- Some common applications of the
placed and reaction from sandy ground principle of conservation of linear
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reaction exerted by the wall on the ball. object thrown remains zero due to op-
posite directions.
A swimmer pushes the water with a
force of action in backward direction When a man jumps out of a boat to
while water pushes the swimmer with the shore, the boat is pushed slightly
a force of reaction in the forward direc- away from the shore. The initial
tion. Consequently, the swimmer is able momentum of the man and boat re-
to swim. mains equal to that of the final
value.
When a jet-plane or rocket moves in
the sky, the gases produced due to com- The gun must be held tightly to the
bustion of fuel escape through the shoulder when the gun is fired. It would
nozzle in the backward direction due save hurting the shoulder
to the force of action exerted by the Motion of rocket and jet planes is based
engine. The escaping gases exert a force on the conservation of linear momentum.
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the top of the loop being without belt.
When a body moves along a circular
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path or a curve with a uniform circular Motion of vehicles on a curved road :
speed, the body is acted upon by an in-
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(a) Level Curved Road : A level curved
ward acceleration. This acceleration acts
road is constructed where the speed of
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towards the centre of a circular path or
curve and is called as radial or centripetal the vehicles is slow. Here, the force of
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acceleration which gives rise to the cen-
tripetal force. The centripetal force is an
essential condition of the circular motion.
friction between the road and tyre of
the wheel of the vehicle provides the
necessary centripetal force.
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Centripetal force (Fc) = mass of the body
(m) × centripetal acceleration (ac) (b) Banking of Roads : At the highways
where vehicles run fast, the frictional
or, force is not a reliable source for provid-
ing the required centripetal force to the
centripetal acceleration (ac) = vw vehicle. Hence, at such curved roads, a
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curve.
vides the required centripetal force.
A cyclist leans forward while going along
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Physics [15]
versa. It is because in doing so the
ROTATIONAL MOTION angular speed increases.
(iii) Consider a ballet dancer is rotating
Torque (Moment of Force)
with her arms and legs stretched
The product of force acting on a body outwards. When she folds her arms
and perpendicular distance of line of action and brings the stretched legs close to
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of the force from the axis of rotation is the other leg, her angular speed
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called moment of force or torque. increases.
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Torque = Force × Perpendicular distance (iv) Due to the same reason, the angular
from axis rotation speed of the inner layer of the tornado
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Applications of Torque : (whirlwind) is extremely high.
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Torque due to a force is maximum, the
distance from the axis of rotation is
maximum. We can open or close a door
(v) All helicopters are provided with two
propellers. If there was one single
propeller, the helicopter would rotate
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easily by applying force near the edge of itself in an opposite direction in
the door i.e. at maximum distance from accordance with the laws of
the hinges. Hence, a handle or knob is conservation of angular momentum.
fitted near the free edge of the plank of the
door. A wrench with a long arm is required FRICTION
to unscrew a nut fitted tightly to a bolt.
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Longer the arm of the wrench, smaller is When a body moves (slides or rolls) or
the required force to give sufficient turning even tries to move over the surface of
effect. another body a tangential force comes into
action between their surfaces in contact,
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distance from the axis of rotation. It follows mass of the body on a surface and
the principle of conservation. It means the roughness of the surfaces in contact
total angular moment of an isolated system between them and the magnitude of
remains always constant. friction, which increases with increase in
Applications of conservation of roughness and mass.
Angular Momentum : When a body is at rest on a surface, the
(i) The angular velocity of revolution of a friction is called static friction which is a self
planet around the sun in an elliptical adjusting force. When the body is on the
orbit increases, when the planet comes verge to move (slide or roll), the friction is
closer to the sun and vice-versa. called limiting friction but when the body
moves, it gives rise to dynamic friction. The
(ii) A circus acrobat performs feats
limitting friction is the maximum force of
involving spin by bringing his arms
friction and it is always more than static or
and legs closer to his body and vice-
dynamic friction.
[16] General Science
Usually, smoothness decreases the force The transfer of motion from one part of
of friction. However, when the surfaces in a machine to the other part through
contact are made too smooth by polishing, belts is possible by friction.
the binding force of adhesion increases and
The working of nuts and bolts for hold-
hence, the frictional force increases. This is
ing parts of machinery together is based
called ‘cold welding’.
on friction.
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Friction is a non-conservative force
The knots in woven clothes are possible
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and hence, the mechanical energy
due to friction.
(potential and kinetic energy) is not
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conserved. In fact, friction converts
Disadvantages of Friction
mechanical energy partly into heat, light
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(spark), sound, electricity, etc. Since, the force of friction opposes the
relative motion between any two bod-
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Generally, friction opposes motion.
However, in certain cases friction is
essential for motion. Without friction,
ies in contact, hence, extra work is done
to overcome the force of friction. It in-
volves extra loss of energy. About 20%
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motion cannot be started, stopped or
of the petrol used in an automobile is
transferred from one body to the other.
used up to overcome the force of fric-
Thus, friction is a necessary evil.
tion in the engine and in driving.
Advantages of Friction The force of friction results in heating
the working parts of the machinery that
When a person pushes the ground back-
may damage the parts.
ward, the rough surface of the ground
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exerts a forward force due to friction. It Friction causes wear and tear of the
makes possible a person to move on the parts of the machinery.
ground. Due to lack of sufficient fric-
tion on ice or wet soil, it is difficult to
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Physics [17]
Order of the magnitude of the tity. And it never decreases with time.
force of friction is: For a moving particle it cannot be zero.
Rolling friction < sliding friction < lim- Distance covered ≥ magnitude of dis-
iting friction. placement.
Owing to least value of rolling friction Speed is always a + VE quantity.
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wheels are used in vehicles. However, it can increase or decrease
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with time.
TRIVIA
When a particle returns to the starting
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When a particle goes from one point point its average velocity is zero but
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to another, the actual length of the average speed is not zero.
path is called distance covered. The
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average speed is defined as the dis-
tance covered per unit time. In the
above case, the straight line distance
For uniform motion distance covered =
magnitude of displacement. The mo-
tion is along a straight line and its di-
rection cannot change.
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between the initial and final positions
is called magnitude of displacement. If a body covers first half distance with
The average velocity is defined as mag- speed v1, and the second half distance
nitude of displacement per unit time. with speed v 2, then average speed
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WORK POWER
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When a force is applied on a body and The time rate of change of work is
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a displacement is carried out in any power. When a body takes less time to do a
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direction except in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the force,
an amount of work is done by the force.
certain work, its power is said to be more
and vice-versa.
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The amount of work done is equal to
the product of the force and the distance Its unit is watt (w). One kilowatt (1 kw)
travelled in the direction of the applied is equal to 1000 watt. One horse power
force i.e. (h.p.) is equal to 746 watt. Power of an
agent measures how fast it can do the
work. The area under the force versus
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displacement.
Work = Force × Distance
When a coolie is carrying some load on
his head and is waiting for the arrival of
the train, he is not doing any work. No The area under power-time graph gives
mechanical work is done by a teacher the work done while the slope of work
teaching a class. When a body falls freely versus time graph gives the power.
under the action of gravity, work done by
gravity on the body is positive. When a
body is pushed or pulled by a force, work
done is positive. The force of friction acts
against the motion, hence the work done
by the frictional force is negative.
Physics [19]
Work = power × time = area under w-t moving with same K.E. and same retarding
graph force is applied on each, both the bodies
will stop after travelling the same distance.
or,
K.E. of a body is also given as :
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graph.
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ENERGY or,
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The ability of a body to do work is called
Hence, when a light and a heavy body
energy. When a body can do more work, it
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is said to have more energy and vice versa.
Energy is different from power. Energy refers
to the total amount of work a body can do
are moving with the same linear momentum,
the light body will have more K.E.
Every moving system is associated with
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and power determines the rate of doing a definite amount of K.E. e.g. a moving
work. Both the energy of a body and work vehicle, wind, water flow, etc.
done by the body are equivalent and are
measured in Joule (J). Potential Energy (P.E.)
The energy possessed by a body by virtue
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) of its position or configuration is known as
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It is the energy possessed by the body its potential energy. The mechanical P.E. is
by virtue of its motion. The kinetic energy of two types viz., gravitational P.E. and
of a body is given as elastic P.E. The gravitational P.E. of a body
at a certain height is due to gravity whereas
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velocity of the body. Thus, K.E. of a body is due to gravity × height = mgh
equal to half the product of mass of the
body and square of velocity of the body. At the surface of the earth, h = 0, ∴
The change in K.E. of a body measures the P.E. = 0
work done by the body.
Different Forms of Energy
(i) Heat : It is the energy possessed by a
body by virtue of random motion of
the molecules or particles of the body.
or,
(ii) Internal Energy : It is the energy of a
Where u and v are initial and final body due to the molecular
velocities of the body of mass m. configuration and molecular motion.
When a heavy and a tight body are (iii) Electrical Energy : This energy arises
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Sources of Energy
(v) Nuclear Energy : It is the energy
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The sources of energy are immense and
released during the nuclear reaction
they are divided into two groups viz.
due to conversion of mass into energy.
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(i) Renewable Source : These sources
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Mass-Energy Equivalence of energy are inexhaustible and are being
continuously supplied by nature e.g. wind,
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Mass and energy are equivalent to each
other and can be interconverted according
to Einstein’s equation or
flowing water, the sun, ocean tides, biogas,
plants and vegetable waste, etc.
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(ii) Non-renewable Source : They are
m = E/c2.
exhaustible and have been formed in nature
Where E = energy, m = mass and, c = long ago e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas,
speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s. fissionable materials like uranium.
If mass = 1 kg, the energy released is
Wind Energy
E = 1 kg × (3 × 108)2 m/s2 = 9 × 1016
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Physics [21]
a sail is used by utilizing K.E. of the wind gravitational force of attraction exerted by
to move the boat. A sail is a large sheet of moon and to some extent by the sun on the
thick cloth spread over a boat in such a water of the ocean. At the time of new and
way that maximum wind falls on it. The full moon, when the sun and the moon are in
sail boat moves due to wind. The speed a straight line, tides are very high. When the
and direction of motion of the soil boat sun and the moon are at right angle from the
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depend mainly upon the wind. earth, tides are low. The K.E. of the water
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during tides is used to produce electricity.
To move the boat in any desired
direction, two sails at right angles to each Tidal power plant is made near narrow
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other are attached to the same pole fixed bays. During tides, the gates of the dam
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on the pole . A steering device known as are opened. The rising water is allowed to
rudder is used to turn these two sails fall on the turbine of the generator which
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through any angle. One of the sails is used
to direct the wind and the other sail collects
this wind. The kinetic energy of the wind
produces electricity and the K.E. of the
water is converted into electrical energy.
During low tides, gates of the dam are
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collected by the second sail (propeller) closed and hence the water level behind
moves the boat in th desired direction. the dam rises. This raised water has high
potential energy. Again the gates are
(ii) Wind Mill : A device used to convert opened and the water falls on the turbine.
wind energy into the mechanical energy of Thus, the electricity is produced
the machine is called wind mill. continuously.
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Wind energy is pollution free and France and Canada are the leading
economical. However, it is limited to certain countries which harness the tidal energy.
places where wind is in plenty and blows In India, three sites viz. Gulf of Kutch
most of the time. In India, there are some (Gujarat), Gulf of Cambay (Gujarat) and
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high wind energy regions like Islands of Sunderbans (West Bengal) have been
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, coastal identified to construct tidal power plants.
parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, some
parts of Rajasthan, Karnataka and Western
CH
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The steam of these springs under high the mouth of the digester acts as a storage
tank for biogas. This tank moves up and
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pressure can be used to rotate the turbines
down over the slurry in the digester tank
of the generator to produce electricity.
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and hence this gas plant is called floating
gas holder type. The motion of the drum
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Biogas
is controlled by a pipe.
Biogas is a mixture of gases like methane
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(65%), CO2, H2 & H2S formed when the
animal dung mixed with water is allowed
to ferment in the absence of air (Oxygen)
Mixing tank is connected to the digester
with the help of the inlet pipe. The overflow
tank used to collect the used slurry is also
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connected by a pipe. The biogas collected
and it is produced in a biogas plant. Biogas
in the floating tank is taken out with a pipe
is a very good fuel to produce heat.
having a gas valve.
The arrangement of producing biogas
from animals dung, human excreta and
industrial and domestic wastes is known
as biogas plant. There are two types of
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Physics [23]
Effort : The force applied to a machine with the help of the laws of
to overcome load (resistance) is called conservation.
effort.
Violation of the laws of conservation
Load : The resistance (force) to be indicates that the event cannot take place.
overcome by a machine is called load.
Work done depends on the frame of
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reference.
Mechanical Advatnage (M.A.):
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Work done is path independent only in
Velocity Ratio (V.R) or Ideal Mechanical a conservative field.
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Advantage (IMA)
Stopping distance of a body
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Efficiency of a machine When the water is flowing through a
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pipe with speed v, then its power is
proportional to v3.
If kinetic energy of body is doubled, the
its momentum becomes times.
Efficiency is always less than one or If an elastic collision of two equal
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less than 100%. Ony for ideal machines, masses, their kinetic energies are
the efficiency is one or 100%. exchanged.
V.R. or I.M.A. for some simple If a light and a heavy body have equal
machines— momenta, then lighter body has greater
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kinetic energy.
(i) Lever : I.M.A. Potential energy of a system increases when
a conservative forces does work on it.
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The force of attraction between any two eclipses, and the orbits and time period of
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bodies in the universe is called gravitation. the modern artificial satellites. The cause
The force of gravitation is the weakest force behind the tides in the oceans is mainly the
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in the nature. However, it is the most gravitational force of attraction between
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important force in the universe because it
plays an important role in planetary motion,
the birth of a star, etc.
the moon and ocean water.
GRAVITY
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NEWTON’S LAW OF It is the force of attraction exerted by
GRAVITATION the earth towards its centre on a body
lying on or near the surface of the earth. It
The gravitational force of attraction is called earth’s gravitational pull. Thus,
between any two bodies in the universe is the gravity is a special case of gravitation.
directly proportional to the product of their
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masses and inversely proportional to the The force of gravity acting on a body is
square of distance between them. the measure of weight of the body. The
force of gravity produces an acceleration
Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2
in a body and it is known as acceleration
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E
value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth is 9.8
Y
m/s2. Heavier a planet or satellite, higher (ii) Polar Satellite : It revolves around
is its ‘g’. The value of ‘g’ at the surface of the earth in a polar orbit which is at 90° to
AD L
the moon is 1/6th of the value at the earth’s the equatorial plane. It passes over both
surface. The value of acceleration due to the north and south poles of the earth once
EM
gravity is minimum at planet Mercury and per orbit. Hence, every location on earth
C
maximum at planet Jupiter.
SATELLITE
lies with the observation of polar satellite
twice each day. It is also known as the sun
synchrononous satellite.
AC NI
In order to monitor 100% earth’s
The body revolving around a planet
surface, three geostationary satellites are
continuously in an orbit is called a satellite.
required while a single polar satellite can
Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
do the same job.
Since 1957, many man made satellites have
been put in different orbitals around the
earth. They are called Artificial Satellites. ESCAPE VELOCITY
S O
attraction between the satellite and the velocity. It is given as = 11.2 km/
planet. The minimum velocity with which s for the earth where g is acceleration due
a satellite is put into its orbital is called to gravity and R, the radius of the earth.
orbit velocity which is given as
CH
EFFECT OF GRAVITY ON
WEIGHT OF A BODY
When a body falls freely, its weight
Where g = acceleration due to gravity, becomes zero. This situation is known as
R = radius of the earth and h = height of weightlessness. In a spacecraft or satellite,
the satellite above the earth’s surface. If h the effective weight of a body is zero because
<< R, then = 8 km/s. the gravitational force is balanced by the
centrifugal force.
(i) Geostationary Satellite : It appears
always at a fixed location above the earth When a lift is at rest or is moving up/
in its orbit. Its time period of revolution down with a uniform velocity, the weight
around the earth is 24hrs and its height is of a body inside it remains unchanged.
36000 km above the equator of the earth. It But, when the lift accelerates upwards,
E
around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Orbital velocity very near the surface of
Y
●
(ii) The Second Law : The average radius the earth is 7.92 km/s.
AD L
of the elliptical orbit of the planet
● Greater the height of the satellite smaller
sweeps out equal areas in equal
EM
intervals of time. is the orbital velocity.
C
(iii) The Third Law : The square of the time
period of revolution of a planet is
directly proportional to the cube of
● Time period of the satellite very near
the surface of the earth is about 84.6
minutes.
AC NI
average radius of its elliptical orbit i.e. ● No energy is dissipated in keeping the
T2 µ R3.
satellite in orbit round a planet.
Physics [27]
PROPERTIES OF CHRONICLE
MATTER IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
Matter is broadly divided into three (ii) Amorphous or Glassy Solids : They
AD L
categories, viz. Solid, Liquid and Gas. Due have irregular arrangement of particles.
to the strongest intermolecular force of Hence, they do not have a definite
EM
attraction in solids, they are tough and external geometrical shape and sharp
C
have a definite shape and size. This force is
relatively weak in liquids and so the shape
is easily changed but liquids have a definite
melting point. They are isotropic i.e. their
physical properties have the same value
in all directions e.g glass, cement,
AC NI
volume. In gases, the intermolecular force rubber, paraffin, plastic, etc.
of attraction is minimum and hence, they
do not have a definite shape, size and LIQUIDS
volume.
Pressure due to a liquid column depends
There is a fourth state of matter called
upon its density and height
plasma state in which matter exists in
S O
ionised state. Plasma state is common in Where h = height of liquid column and
stars. d = density of liquid. If equal amounts of a
liquid are kept in two containers one with
SOLIDS broad base and another with a narrow
IA R
E
load on the piston of small cross section a
air displaced by the balloon is greater
heavy load placed at the piston of the broad
Y
than the weight of the balloon. As it goes
cross-section can be uplifted.
up, the weight of air displaced decreases
AD L
Buoyancy : Whenever a body is due to decrease in the density of air and
EM
immersed in a fluid, the displaced fluid has hence, the balloon halts at a height
a tendency to occupy the original position. where the weight of air displaced by the
C
Hence, an upward force is experienced by
the body. This upward force acting on the
body inside a fluid is called bouyancy or
balloon becomes equal to the weight of
the balloon.
AC NI
buoyant force or upthrust. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Archimedes Principle : ‘When a body Air content above the earth exerts force
is partially or completely immersed in a due to its weight on the ground. This force
fluid, it loses some of its weight which is on the ground gives rise to the atmospheric
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced pressure. At the sea level the value of
by the body.’’ atmospheric pressure is one atmosphere.
S O
E
a road covered with edgy pebbles.
elastic limit.They are used in making
Y
Vander Waal Force of Attraction : It is springs and sheets e.g. coppers, iron, silver,
the minimum force of attraction between aluminium, etc.
AD L
any two neutral particles (atoms or
Brittle Materials : These materials
EM
molecules). It may be of two types viz.
show a very small plastic range beyond
cohesive force (between similar molecules)
C
and adhesive force (between dissimilar
molecules).
elastic limit e.g. glass, cast iron, etc.
Elastomers : These materials have no
plastic range. In such materials even a
AC NI
ELASTICITY small stress can produce a large strain e.g.
rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta in the
The ability of a body to regain its original human blood circulatory system, etc.
configuration after removal of an applied
deforming force is called elasticity and the Safety factor
body is termed elastic. Quartz and
S O
phospher bronze are nearly perfectly elastic When a material is used in a certain
bodies. Steel is more elastic than rubber. construction, the working stress is kept
Most of the metals are elastic. much lower than that of breaking stress so
When a body does not regain its original that the safety factor may have a large
IA R
When a deforming force is applied on limit, otherwise they will get permanently
an elastic body, its configuration changes deformed.
and after the removal of the force the body The bridges are designed in such a way
regains the original form. The force applied that they do not bend much or break under
per unit area is called stress and the ratio the load of heavy traffic, force of strongly
of the change in configuration to the blowing wind and its own weight. In order
original configuration is called strain. to minimise the depression in the beam of
Hooke’s Law : Within the elastic limit, given length and material the depth of the
the stress developed is directly proportional beam is kept large as compared to its breadth.
to the strain produced in a body i.e. stress a However, too large a depth of the beam may
cause bending, called buckling. Hence, a
strain or stress = E × strain or compromise between breadth and depth of
a beam is made by using an ‘’I shaped girder’’
Where E is a constant for a given body with a large load bearing surface.
E
spring. Rubber is of lower eleasticity and producing a given change.
Y
hence, it cannot be used to construct a spring.
The materials which break as soon as
AD L
If a material is subjected to repeated the stress goes beyond the elastic limit
strains, it losses its elasticity over a long are called brittle.
EM
period of time. After a long use, the bridges
The materials which do not break well
C
are declared unsafe.
The modulus of elasticity has the same
units and dimensional formula as that
beyond the elastic limit are called ductile.
The deformation beyond elastic limit is
called plasticity
AC NI
of strees or pressure.
Rubber sustains elasticity even when
The material is more elastic if its value
stretched several times its length.
of modulus of elasticity is large.
However it is not ductile. It breaks down
Young’s modulus of elasticity-Y and as soon as the elastic limit is crossed.
modulus of rigidity h exist only for
Breaking stress does not depend on the
S O
K exists for all the three states of mater; Breaking force depends on the area of
viz; solid, liquid and gas. cross section. Breaking stress of a wire
is called tensile strength.
The solids are more elastic and gases are
Elastic after effect is temporary absence
CH
Young’s modulus is defined only for the When a body is sheared, two mutually
solids. perpendicular strains are produced.
They are called longitudinal strain and
Bulk modulus is defined for all types of compressional strain. Both are equal in
materials : solids, liquids and gases. magnitude.
Physics [31]
Quartz is the best available example of If a body just floats in a liquid (density
perfectly elastic material. of the body is equal to the density of
The pressure is perpendicular to the liquid) then the body sinks if it is pushed
surface of the fluid. downwards.
The upthrust on a body immersed in a The hydrometer can be used to measure
density of the liquid or fluid.
E
liquid does not depend on the mass,
density or shape of the body. It only
Y
When a gale blows over a roof, the force
depends on the volume of the body. on the roof is upwards.
AD L
The weight of the plastic bag full of air
Sudden fall in atmospheric pressure
is same as that of the empty bag because
EM
predicts possibility of a storm.
the upthrust is equal to the weight of
C
air enclosed.
The wooden rod cannot float vertically
in a pond of water because centre of
If two bodies have equal upthrust in a
liquid, both have the same volume.
If one floats on one’s back on the surface
AC NI
gravity lies above the metacentre. of water, the apparent weight is zero.
The cross-section of the water stream If a beaker is filled with liquid of density
from a tap decreases as it goes down in p upto a height h, then the mean
accordance with the equation of pressure on the walls of the beaker is
continunity.
hp g/2.
We cannot sip a drink with a straw on
S O
heats × pressure.
The floating body is in stable equilibrium
when the metacentre is above the centre Normal stress is also called tensile stress
of gravity. (Centre of gravity is below when the length of the body tends to
the centre of buoyancy) increase.
The floating body is in unstable Normal stess is called compressive stress
equilibrium when the metacentre lies when length of the body tends to
below the centre of gravity. (Centre of decrease.
gravity is above the centre of boyancy).
Tangential stress is also called shearing
The floating body is in the neutral stress.
equilibrium when centre of gravity
coincides with the metacentre. (Centre When the deforming force is inclined to
of gravity coincides with the centre of the surface, both the tangential as well
buoyancy). as normal stress are produced.
E
Compressibility
The height of the liquid column in a
Y
Breaking stress is independent of the
capillary tube on the moon is six times
length of the wire.
AD L
that on the earth.
Breaking stress depends on the material
EM
Soldering of two metals is possible
of the wire.
because of cohesion.
C
Breaking load depends on the area of
cross-section of the wire.
Bulk modulus was first defined by Max
When the liquid drops merge into each
other to form a larger drop, energy is
released.
AC NI
well.
The liquid rises in a capillary tube, when
In the stretched spring, tensile strain is the angle of contact is acute.
produced.
Surface tension of molten cadmium
Breaking stress for a wire of unit increase with the increase in
crosssection is called tensile strength. temperature.
S O
If we double the radius of a rope its Reynold number is low for liquids of
breaking stress becomes four times, but higher viscosity.
breaking stress remains unchanged.
Bernoulli’s theorem is based on the
When a beam is bent, both extensional conservation of energy.
as well as compressional strain is
Bernoulli’s theorem is strictly applicable
produced.
to non viscous fluids.
When there is no external force, the
Viscosity is due to the transport of
shape of a liquid drop is determined by
momentum.
the surface tension of the liquid.
Maximum possibility of streamlined
Soap helps in better cleaning of clothes
flow is for low density and high
because it reduces the surface tension
viscosity fluids.
of the liquid.
Physics [33]
Gases cannot be liquified above the
critical temperature.
Above critical temperature a substance
is in gaseous state and below critical Dew point
temperature it can be in vapour state.
It is the temperature at which the
E
The branch of thermal physics that deals amount of water vapour actually
Y
with measurement of the amount of present in a certain volume of the air is
water vapours present in the sufficient to saturate that volume of air.
AD L
atmosphere is called hygrometry.
* At the dew point the actual vapour
EM
Saturated and unsaturated air : pressure becomes the saturation vapour
pressure.
C
(i) The air is said to be saturated when the
maximum possible amount of water
vapours are present in it.
Relative humidity can also be defined
as:
AC NI
* The pressure of the water vapours in Relative humidity =
the saturated air is called saturation
vapour pressure.
(ii) If the air contains vapours less than the
maximum possible amount possible in
the air, then it (air) is said to be Relative humidity is low when the air is
S O
unsaturated. dry.
The humidity refers to the presence of Relative humidity is high if the air is
water vapours in the atmosphere. It is moist.
IA R
air. humidity.
* Relative humidity = Saturation vapour pressure changes
with the increase in temperature.
At 0°C, the saturation vapour pressure
is 4.6 mm of Hg. Therefore, water
vapours are always present around the
ice.
* The relative humidity is generally
* It increases with the increase in
expressed in percentage.
temperature.
Relative humidity may also be defined
When the temperature of the
as :
atmosphere is equal to the dew point,
Relative humidity = the relative humidity is 100%.
E
As the temperature rises, the absolute Mist or fog formed much high above the
Y
humidity may increase and the relative surface of earth is called cloud.
humidity may remain constant or may
AD L
Human beings feel comfortable when the
even decrease. relative humidity is between 50% to 60%.
EM
Let the saturation vapour pressure at When the air is saturated with water
C
temperature t°C is p. If the atmospheric
pressure is reduced to p, the water starts
boiling at t°C.
vapours, the relative humidity is 100%
and dew point is equal to the room
temperature.
AC NI
At the same temperature one feels hotter
if the relative humidity is high. When the relative humidity is 100%, the
reading of the dry and wet bulbs is
If the air is absolutely dry, the dew point same.
is not observed.
Smaller the difference in the
The dew point does not change if the temperature of dry and wet bulbs, larger
temperature of the room is changed.
S O
Physics [35]
SURFACE TENSION
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
The molecules at the surface of a liquid Some common examples of surface
AD L
have a higher potential energy than those tension :
of the inner molecules. P.E. = mgh where
EM
The hairs of a shaving brush when taken
m is mass of a molecule, g is acceleration
out of water are pressed together. In-
C
due to gravity and h is the height of the
molecule above the bottom of the liquid.
Due to maximum height the surface
molecules of the liquid have maximum P.E.
side water, hairs spread out. On taking
out the brush from water, the water
film forms between the hairs while tend-
AC NI
Hence, in order to have higher stability, ing to make its surface area minimum
the liquid surface tries to minimize its P.E. due to surface tension brings the hairs
In doing so, it tends to contract to have closer to each other.
minimum surface area, number of In soldering, addition of flux reduces
molecules and hence, minimum P.E. and the S.T. of molten tin, hence, it spreads.
maximum stability. Consequently, the
S O
liquid surface behaves as if convered with The liquid drop has a tendency to have
a stretched membrane. This property of minimum surface area due to the sur-
the liquid by virtue of which the free surface face tension of the liquid and hence, it
of the liquid has a tendency to contract so becomes spherical.
IA R
that it can have minimum surface area is The surface tension of oil is less than
called surface tension. that of cold water hence an oil drop
The surface tension is measured as the spreads on cold water while the sur-
CH
force acting per unit length at the liquid face tension of oil is more than that of
surface. hot water, hence oil drop remains as a
drop on hot water.
E
water where they are dipped. Due to
When a chalk piece is dropped into
Y
irregular shape of the camphor bits,
unequal forces of surface tension act on water, air bubbles come out. The pores
AD L
them. Hence, they move erratically on in the chalk containing air act as nar-
the surface of water. row capillaries. Hence, water enters
EM
It is better to wash clothes in hot soap these pores due to capillary action and
C
solution. Hot solution has lower sur-
face tension. Hence, the solution spreads
over a larger area or clothes and clean-
air bubbles come out.
A blotting paper has fine pores that
act as capillaries. Hence, ink rises in
AC NI
ing action increases. them leaving the paper dry.
Action of detergent or soap solution : The capillary action of narrow capillar-
When detergents or soaps are dissolved ies in the threads of a towel enables the
in water, the surface tension of water towel to soak water.
decreases. Hence, a detergent/soap so-
lution spreads more quickly over the The wooden door swells in the rainy
S O
clothes. Consequently, more dirt come season because of the capillary action
in contact with the solution and cleans- of moisture available in the air through
ing action enhances. Further, hot the pores in the wood.
soution has lower surface tension than Molten wax in candles or oil in lamps rises
IA R
a cold one which gives extra cleaning through threads due to capillary action.
ability to the detergent/soap solution.
Clay soil has capillaries but sand does
Warm food taste better on our tongue
not have capillaries. Hence, under-
CH
Physics [37]
hence, its area of cross-section decreases. If
VISCOSITY the mouth of the tube used to water plants
It is fluid friction that arises due to inter in the garden is pressed, the speed and
molecular forces which are effective when range of the water flow increases, because
the different layers of the fluid are moving on pressing the cross sectional area of the
with different velocities. It gives rises to a mouth of the tube decreases. Due to similar
E
backward dragging force between the fluid reason the velocity of water increases when
Y
layers moving with respect to each other. water flowing in a broader pipe enters a
Viscosity of a liquid decreases with increase narrow pipe.
AD L
in temperature but viscosity of gases
EM
increase, under similar conditions. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
C
The phenomenon of viscosity plays an
important role in the circulation of blood
through arteries and veins of human
body.
The total sum of energy of a fluid
during its flow remains constant. A fluid
can have potential energy, kinetic energy
and pressure energy during its flow. Its
AC NI
At railway terminals, the liquids of high potential energy depends upon height,
viscosity are used as buffers. kinetic energy on velocity and pressure on
the pressure of the fluid.
Water flows faster than honey because
viscosity of water is lower than that of Applications of Bernolli’s Theorem :
honey hence, a small dragging force The size of the needle of a syringe con-
S O
appears during the flow of water. trols flow better than the thumb pres-
In an industry, the measurement of sure exerted by a doctor while adminis-
viscosity and its variation with tering an injection. The velocity of flow
is controlled by the size of the needle
IA R
E
sure above the ball. This pressure pro-
The wind blows speedly above the roof
vides a centripetal force acting at a
Y
during the storm whereas air inside the
right angle to the linear velocity of the
hut remains at rest. It gives higher ki-
AD L
ball. Consequently, the ball follows a
netic energy and small pressure energy
curved path.
EM
above the roof whereas below the roof
K.E. is small and pressure energy is high.
C
Due to high pressure and hence, higher
pressure below the roof, the roof experi-
ences an upward force and is blown off
TRIVIA
Molecular forces donot obey the inverse
square law of distance.
AC NI
with stormy wind.
The molecular forces are of electrical
The wings of the aeroplanes are de- origin.
signed such that it experiences an up-
ward pressure and hence, an upward Work done in forming a soap bubble of
force. It is based on Bernoulli’s theo- raidus R is 8πR2 σ, where σ = surface
tension.
rem. The upper surface of the wing is
S O
more curved than its lower surface and Work done in breaking a drop of radius
its leading edge is thicker than its trail- R into n drops of equal size = 4 π R2 σ
ing edge. Hence, the velocity of air above (n1/3 – 1).
the wings becomes more than that be- Same amount of energy is liberated in
IA R
low them i.e. kinetic energy of air above combining n drops into a single drop.
the wings becomes greater than that of
air below the wings. Consequently, the Angle of contact increases with rise in
pressure energy and hence, pressure of temperature. It decreases on addition
CH
of soluble impurities.
air below the wings become greater than
those of the air above the wings. It gives Angle of contact is independent of the
an upwards push on the wings and angle of inclination of the walls.
prevents the planes from falling down. The materials used for water proofing
When a spinning ball is thrown, it de- increase the angle of contact as well as
viates from its usual straight line path surface tension.
and its path becomes curved. This ef- Detergents decrease both the angle of
fect is based on Bernoulli’s theorem contact as well as surface tension.
and is known as Magnus effect. When
Surfaces tension does not depend on
a spinning ball is thrown, air moves
the area of the surface.
backward above and below the ball.
The speed of air below the ball be- Viscosity of liquids decreases with the
comes more because the spinning ball rise in temperature.
Physics [39]
Viscosity of gases increases with the above the bottom or at the depth h
rise in temperature. below the surface of the liquid.
The rate of flow of liquid in a tube of The range is maximum for h = H/2. It
radius r length l whose ends are main- is given by
tained at a pressure difference p is :
E
. Here η = coefficient of vis-
Y
cosity where R = 8η l/πr4 is called fluid Interatomic or intermolecular forces are
zero when the separation between them
AD L
resitance.
is infinite.
EM
Viscosity is independent of pressure.
At a certain distance r = r0, the inter-
C
When a liquid is in equilibrium, the
force/forces acting on its surface are
perpendicular everywhere.
atomic or inter molecular force is zero.
The value of r0 is different for the differ-
ent atoms and molecules.
AC NI
In a liquid the pressure is same at the For r > r0, the interatomic/ intermo-
same horizontal level. lecular forces are attractive.
The pressure at any point in the liquid For r < r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
depends on depth (h) below the sur- lar forces are repulsive.
face, density of liquid and acceleration
due to gravity. At r = r0, the interatomic/intermolecu-
lar potential energy is minimum and
S O
Bernoulli’s theorem doesn’t take the (i) Interatomic forces depend only on
viscosity into account. When the fluid the interatomic separation but the in-
flows along a covered path the en- ter molecular force depends on the
ergy of centripetal force must also be intermolecular separation as well as
taken into account. the orientation of the molecules.
If a vessel contains liquids upto a (ii) Interatomic force are 50 to 100 times
height H and it has a hole in the side larger than the intermolecular forces.
at a height h, then the velocity of
(iii) Value of r0 for atoms is less than that
efflux is . The time taken by for molecules.
the liquid to reach the ground level is
(iv) The intermolecular forces may extend
. Horizontal range of the liq-
beyond their immediate neighbours.
uid R = 2[h(H – h) 1/2. The range is This is not true for the interatomic forces.
the same for the hole at a height h
■■■
[40] General Science
SPACE EXPLORATION CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
Space is a vast and endless area or an artificial satellite around the earth is
region outside the earth’s atmosphere known as the orbit of the satellite.
AD L
where the stars, planets and other celestial
Characteristics of the Orbit of the
EM
bodies exist.
Satellite:
C
Space exploration is the study of
collecting and analysing the information
and data about the various heavenly or
(a) Apogee : The farthest point on the
orbit of a satellite from the surface of the
earth is known as apogee.
AC NI
celestial bodies in the outer space.
(b) Perigee : The nearest point on the
With the advancement in technology, a
orbit of the satellite from the surface of the
complete branch of science known as Space
earth is known as perigee.
Science has been developed to explore the
outer space. At present, the space (c) Inclination : The angle between the
exploration is done by using artificial and plane of the equator of the earth and the
S O
Physics [41]
Specialised Establishments Operating Under DRDO
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC): Specialised in the development of satellite launch ve-
hicles and sounding rockets.
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC): The lead centre for satellite development, covering structures, ther-
mal systems, spacecraft mechanisms, power systems and satellite integration.
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)-SHAR - Sriharikota Space Centre:India's prime launching
pad facility, providing the launch infrastructure as well as solid propellant processing and their test-
E
ing. A second launch pad has been recently built at SDSC-SHAR.
Y
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) : The lead centre in the area of liquid and cryogenic
propulsion for launch vehicles and satellites.
AD L
Space Applications Centre (SAC): Specialised in the development of payloads for communication,
meterological and remote sensing satellites; it conducts space applications research and develop-
EM
ment.
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC): It provides mission support to Low-
C
Earth orbit satellites and to launch vehicle missions.
Master Control Facility (MCF) : The monitoring and control centre for the geostationary satellites.
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU): Carries out research and development in inertial sensors and
systems and allied satellite elements.
AC NI
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) : An autonomous institution supported by DOS, it is re-
sponsible for acquisition, processing and distribution of data from remote sensing satellites, based
in Hyderabad.
the equatorial plane, are used for sufficient in the space technology has to
communication purposes. fulfill the following requirements:
On the other hand, low to medium 1. Fabrication of Satellite or
S O
The orbit in which the polar satellite moves of satellites or space crafts.
is known as the polar orbit.
2. Designing and Fabrication of
Polar satellites are not used for Launch Vehicles : Launch vehicles are
CH
communication purposes. They are used required to put satellite in the orbit around
for remote sensing and hence are known earth and to launch the space probe.
as remote sensing satellites.
Therefore, these vehicles have to be
The orbit in which a polar satellite or developed for the successful launching of
remote sensing satellite moves is such that satellites.
the satellite always passes over a particular
area of the earth at the same local time. 3. Earth Control Station : When satellite
Such orbit of the satellite is known as sun- is put into orbit, its all operations have to
synchronous orbit (or polar orbit). be controlled and guided by sending proper
command from surface of the earth. Such
commands are sent from the station
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR
established on the earth.
SELF-SUFFICIENCY IN SPACE
TECHNOLOGY 4. Ground Facilities : The arrangements
Any country which intends to be self-
[42] General Science
are to be made in order to get the benefit of Setting up of Rocket Launching
the information and data sent by the Facility : The India’s space exploration
satellite throughout the country. The signals programme began with the setting up of a
re-transmitted from the satellite are received rocket launching facility at Thumba, near
by the receiving antennas installed across Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). India
launched its first rocket RH-75 in 1967
E
the length and breadth of the country.
from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket
Y
The Indian Space Rearcher Organisation Launching Station (TERLS). Although this
has set up a large number of organisations rocket was very small (diameter = 75 mm),
AD L
and research centres across the country to yet it had all the basic features of a rocket.
EM
carry out research and developmental Since then India never looked back and
C
activities in the field of space research and today it has the honour to be the sixth
technology. nation in the world in the field of space
technology.
AC NI
S O
IA R
CH
Physics [43]
SIMPLE HARMONIC CHRONICLE
MOTION IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
PERIODIC MOTION a simple pendulum etc. are simple
AD L
harmonic motions.
The motion of a body which is repeated
EM
identically after a fixed interval of time is Application of SHM are discussed as
below :
C
known as periodic motion and the fixed
interval of time is known as time period of When the load attached to a spring is
the motion. pulled once a little from its mean
position & left free, it oscillates in simple
AC NI
The motion of the hands of a clock is in
harmonic motion.
a periodic motion. The time period of the
hour’s hand is 12 hours, of the minute’s The motion of liquid contained in U-
hand is 1 hour and of the second’s hand is tube when it is compressed once in one
1 minute. of the two limbs & left to itself, is simple
harmonic motion.
The rotation of the earth about its axis
S O
with a time period of 24 hours and the If a tunnel is dug along the diameter of
revolution of earth around the sun with a earth & a body is dropped in it, the
time period of 1 year are other examples of body will oscillate in simple harmonic
the periodic motion. motion between the ends of the earth’s
IA R
diameter.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION When the oscillation of a body in simple
harmonic motion is free from frictional
It is a special type of oscillation in which forces, its oscillations are undamped.
CH
the particle oscillates in a straight line, the The amplitude and energy do not
acceleration of the particle is always change with time in an undamped
directed towards a fixed point on the line oscillation. The oscillation of a simple
& the magnitude of acceleration is pendulum in vacuum is an undamped
proportional to the displacement of the oscillation.
particle from this point. This fixed point is When the oscillation of a body in simple
called the centre or mean position of harmonic motion involves frictional
oscillation. The simple harmonic motion is forces, its oscillations are damped. The
an oscillatory motion which in turn is a amplitude and energy of the body in a
periodic motion. However, a periodic may
damped oscillation decrease with time.
or may not be an oscillatory motion.
Most of the oscillations in air or in a
The motion of a freely suspended bar
medium are damped oscillations like
magnet in the earth’s magnetic - field, of
the pendulum of a wall clock, of the bob of oscillation of the bob of a simple
E
It is for the same reason the marching
oscillations of the string of a sitar when
soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge.
Y
plucked once and let free, of the bob of
In order to avoid effect of resonance the
a simple pendulum when once
AD L
aircraft designers make sure that none of
displaced from its mean position and
the natural frequencies at which a wing
EM
let free and of the prongs of a tuning
can oscillate match the frequency of the
fork when one of its prong is struck
C
engines during flight.
once on a rubber and let free are
examples of free oscillations. In an earthquake, the structures, whose
natural frequency matches the frequency
When a body oscillates with the help of
AC NI
of the seismic waves, collapse. During an
an external periodic force other than it
earthquake sometimes, short and tall
own natural frequency, its oscillations
structures remain uneffected while the
are called forced oscillations.
medium height structures fall down. This
All musical instruments consisting of happens because the natural frequencies
strings like sitar, violen Reasonant of the short structures happen to be higher
Oscillations etc. produce forced and those of taller structure lower than the
S O
When a system oscillates with its own Wave is some sort of disturbance in
natural frequency, with the help of an which, information and energy, in the form
external periodic force whose frequency is of signals, propagate from one point to
CH
the same as that of the natural frequency another without the actual journey of the
of the oscillating system, then the medium. All our communications depend
oscillations of the system are called on the transmission of signals through
resonant oscillations. The resonant waves. All radiations are waves.
oscillations have very large amplitude. At
Wave motion is a kind of disturbance
resonance, the oscillating system
which travels through a medium on account
continuously absorbs energy from the
of repeated periodic vibrations of the
agent applying external periodic force.
medium particles about their mean position
If the rhythm of pushing against the without any net transport of the medium.
ground is synchromized with the natural
Types of Waves : On the basis of
frequency of the swing, it gives greater
medium requirement waves are of two
heights due to resonance effect.
types viz. (i) Mechanical or Elastic waves :
All mechanical structures have one or They require a medium for propagation.
Physics [45]
e.g. sound, waves on the liquid surface, Longitudinal waves
vibration of string, etc. (ii) Electromagnetic
waves : They do not require a medium for
propagation e.g light, X-rays, microwaves,
infra-red, ultra-violet rays, etc.
On the basis of the mode of vibration
E
the waves are of two types viz.
Y
(i) Transverse wave and (ii) Longitudinal
waves C = Compression
AD L
Transverse Wave Motion : It is the R = Refraction
EM
type of wave motion in which the particles l (Wave Length) : For the transverse
C
of the medium vibrate about their positions
in a direction perpendicular to the
propagation of the wave. A transverse
wave is represented in the form of crest
wave the wave Length is equal to the
distance between the two successive crests
or troughs. It is also equal to the sum of the
AC NI
width of a crest and a neighbouring trough.
and trough.
For the longitudinal wave, the wave length
When a stone is thrown in a pond, is equal to the distance between the two
transverse waves are formed. The vibrations successive compressions or rarefactions. It
of the membrane a of drum, of the string of is also equal to the sum of the width of a
a sitar, violin etc. produce transverse waves. compression and a neighbouring
S O
E
A pendulum clock slows down in sum- factor of 10 then the loudness increase
Y
mer and goes faster in winter. by 10 dB or 1B.
AD L
Sound waves are mechanical waves If the loudness of sound is changed
which cannot travel in vaccum. by 1dB, then the intensity of sound
EM
Sound waves do not propagate in saw- changes by 26%.
dium.
C
dust because it is not a continous me-
S O
IA R
CH
Physics [47]
SOUNDS
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
Sound is produced in a material sounds are heard at the other end. The first
AD L
medium by a vibrating source. These sound heard is propagated through steel
vibrations are carried by air, as a medium and the second one is propagated through
EM
and strike our ear drum. The ear drum air.
C
vibrates and the message is conveyed to
our brain and we hear the sound. A sound
heard persists for 0.1 second in brain. It is
An increase in the density of the
medium reduces the speed of sound. Moist
air has lower density than dry air and
AC NI
called as persistence of hearing.
hence speed of sound is more than that
Depending upon the frequency range, moist air.
sound has three categories viz. (i) Infrasonic
The speed of sound increases with rise
(ii) Sonic and (iii) Ultrasonic or supersonic
in the temperature of the medium. The
sounds.
speed of sound in air increase by 0.61 m/
Infrasonic sound has a frequency less second for every one degree rise in
S O
and a bat upto 10 5 Hz. Dolphins can much after the flash of lightning is seen.
produce and detect sounds of frequency Due to the same reason, spectators hear
upto 105 Hz. the sound of ball on bat a little after they
see the batsman actually striking the ball in
Sound is a longitudinal wave. Its speed
a cricket match.
in dry air is 332 m/s. The speed of an
object greater than the speed of sound is Sonic Boom : Sound produced by a
known as supersonic speed. The speed of supersonic aircraft is heard as a loud
sound depends upon elasticity, density, explosion on the earth. It is known as sonic
temperature and motion of particles of the boom. However, a person inside the
medium of propagation. Higher the supersonic aircraft cannot hear its sound.
elasticity of a medium, greater is the speed Reflection of Sound : Sound waves
of sound in it e.g. speed of sound in air is are reflected from the obstacles of size of
332 m/s and in steel 5000 m/s. If one end wavelength of sound and follow laws of
of a long steel rod is struck, two distinct reflection similar to those of light. The
[48] General Science
reflecting obstacles can be walls, mountains, (iv) to form stable emulsions of immiscible
clouds, ground, etc. Sound waves can be like water and oil.
focused after reflecting from a curved surface
(v) to accelerate crystallisation of
in the same way as light waves.
substances and to produce oxidation.
ECHO (vi) to coagulate aerosols i.e. displaced fine
E
particles of a solid or a liquid in a gas,
Reflected sound is called echo. An echo e.g. dust, smoke, mist, etc.
Y
occurs when the reflected sound wave
(vii) to liquify gels in the same manner as
comes back to the listener within a time
AD L
they are liquefied by shaking.
interval of not less than 0.1 second after the
EM
original sound wave reaches the listener so (viii) in getting alloys of uniform
C
that a distinct repetition of the original sound composition.
is perceived. It is so because the persistence (ix) for washing silken fabrics.
of hearing of sound is 0.1 sec. A sound can
AC NI
be perceived only if stays back at least for
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
0.1 second or more on our ears.
An echo is used to determine the speed It is a technique used to form an image
of sound in a medium. Exploration of or picture of a matter by using ultrasonic
underwater petroleum deposits is done by waves. This technique is used in medical
science treatment. The medical sonography
detecting echo of shock waves produced
is commonly known as ultrasound. In this
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also given by sound waves similar to those density of the tissues in the organ and an
of the light wave. echo is detected by a specific microphone.
The echo obtained from the tissues of the
SUPERSONIC OR ULTRASONIC organ is converted into electric signals on
CH
Physics [49]
Difference between Intensity and Loudness
Intensity Loudness
1. It is a physical quantity. 1. It is not an entirely physical
which can be accurately measured. quantity.
2. It does not depend upon the sensitivity 2. It depends upon (i) sensitivity
of the ear. of the ear and (ii) intensity of\
E
sound.
3. It has an objective existence i.e., it 3. It has got a subjective existence
Y
exists whether there is some i.e, it exists only when some
listener or not. listener is acually present.
AD L
4. Unit of intensity is Wm–2. 4. Unit of loudness is bel.
In a tape recorder of T.V. bass refers to low pitch and treble refers to high pitch. So when bass is on,
EM
low pitch sounds of tabla and dholak become loud. When treble is on, high pitch sounds become
predominant.
C
animals like frog, fish, etc. These waves
can destroy micro organisms like bacteria
received per second or the apparent
frequency of the source changes and is
not the same as that of the source. The
AC NI
and yeast.
pitch of the note heard appears to rise if
In dental science, ultrasonic waves are they approach each other and appears to
used for extracting the broken teeth, to detect fall if they recede away from each other.
cracks or other defects in homogeneity The apparent change in frequency of a
noticeable by reflection or absorption. sound wave due to a relative motion
Vibration of a Source of Sound : When between the source of sound and the
S O
frequencies. The tones of the lowest Doppler’s effect is used to detect a star,
frequency are called the fundamental note a galaxy etc. It can be used to find out
and the tones of higher frequencies are whether a star/galaxy is approaching us
called over tones. The notes of frequencies or receding away from us. It favours the
which are integral multiples of the hypothesis of an expanding universe.
fundamental frequency are called as
harmonics. Dopplers effect is used in ‘speed guns’
used by police to measure the speed of
vehicles. This effect can be used to detect a
DOPPLER’S EFFECT moving object as well.
When a source of sound and a listener
are at rest, the listener receives an MUSICAL SOUND
unchanged frequency produced by the
source. If there is a relative motion Sounds produced by oscillating strings
between them, then, the number of waves (sitar, piano, violin etc.), vibrating
E
are characteristics of musical sounds. a gent’s voice.
Y
Intensity : Intensity of sound is a purely Quality : It is the characteristic of
physical quantity, It is equal to the amount musical sound that enables us to distinguish
AD L
of sound energy passing per unit time per between the sounds of same intensity and
EM
unit area around a point in a direction same pitch produced by two different
normal to the area. Intensity is measured sources. Its cause is the difference in the
C
in watt/m2 or watt/(cm)2.
Threshold of Hearing or Zero Level
frequency and relative intensities of
overtones produced by two sources of
sound.
AC NI
of Intensity : it is equal to 10–16 watt/cm2
for a normal human ear which can just Voices of two singers singing a duet,
hear a note of frequency of 1000 Hz. voices of our friends, voices of family
Loudness : The sensation produced in members etc. can be distinguished from
the ear that enables us to distinguish each other on the basis of difference in
between a loud sound and a faint sound is quality of the sound produced by them.
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called loudness.
REVERBERATION
Two sounds of equal intensity but
different frequencies may not appear to be The persistene of sound after the source
equally loud even to the same listener has actually stopped producing sound is
IA R
because sensitivity of the ear is different for called reverberation of sound and the time
different frequencies. for which the sound persists is called the
Loudness is measured in bel. one bel = time of reverberation.
CH
10 decibel (db). Both the intensity of sound When a loud sound is produced by a
and loudness increase with increase in source in a hall it is partially absorbed,
amplitude of the sound wave, frequency of reflected and transmitted by the walls,
the wave, density of the medium and ceiling and floor. If the source of sound
velocity of sound in a medium. They stops producing sound, the intensity of
decrease with increase in distance from sound decreases due to absorption of sound.
the source of sound. However, the sound continues to be heard
Pitch : It is the characteristic of musical because of the persistence of the reflected
sound which distinguishes a sharp sound sound waves which go on traversing the
from a dull sound. Thus, it represents the hall a number of times before they reach
degree of shrillness of a musical note. Pitch an intensity below the threshold of hearing
depends on the frequency of sound and i.e. the multiple reflection of sound results
Doppler’s effect. in reverberation.
Physics [51]
A room with zero reverberation time is (iii) A good audience, because one listener
called a dead room. An ordinary syllable is equal to 5 square feet of an open
takes about 0.2 seconds to decay. For a window.
musical sound, the optimum value of
(iv) Curved walls or corners should be
reverberation time may be between 1 to 2
avoided so that sound is not unduly
seconds. The reverberation time in the halls
concentrated and there are no regions
E
like theatres, auditoria, etc. is adjusted
of silence.
Y
suitably by a specific design so that sound
heard is distinct and pleasant. The time of reverberation can be
AD L
decreased by increasing absorption of
For obtaining good acoustic property
sound. Reverberation should be small but
EM
the hall should have sufficient sound
not absolutely zero because then the hall
absorbing features, like:
(i)
C
A few open windows.
(ii) Sound absorbing soft materials like
gives a dead effect.
Diatonic Musical Scale : This scale
consists of 8 notes. From the note (1) to (8)
AC NI
cloth, asbestos, etc. or heavy curtains pitch increases due to increase in the
put up in the hall at various places. relative frequencies.
S O
IA R
CH
E
Y
Ray Optics : It is based on “the Reflection on a Plane Mirror : The
rectilinear propagation of light” i.e., light image formed by a plane mirror is virtual
AD L
follows a straight line motion through a & erect. The image distance is equal to the
EM
given transparent medium. It involves object distance from the mirror. The image
reflection, refraction & dispersion of light. is laterally inverted i.e., the right side of the
C
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
object appears as the left side of its image
& vice-versa. Lateral inversion is due to the
fact that the image of an object is as far
AC NI
“When a light ray is incident on a sur- behind the plane mirror as the object is in
face, it returns back into the same medium.” front of the mirror.
Laws of Reflection : For a given incident ray, if the plane
(i) The incident ray, normal drawn at the mirror is rotated through an angle ‘q’ then
incident point and the reflected ray lie the reflected ray rotates through an angle
in the same plane. of ‘2q’.
S O
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the The length of a plane mirror in which a
angle of reflection. In the given figure person can see his/her full image is half
the height of the person.
IA R
XY = reflecting surface,
(a) if n = an odd whole no. then ‘n’
AB = incident ray,
images are formed
BC = reflected ray,
(b) if n = an even whole no., then (n – 1)
DB = normal drawn at images are formed.
the incident point. e.g. (i) if angle between the two plane
Angle of incidence mirrors is 60°, then
i = ∠ABD and angle of reflection no. of images formed by them
r = DBC
= 6 – 1 = 5.
∴ i = r or, ∠ABD = ∠DBC
Physics [53]
Image Formation in a Concave Mirror If the mirror moves by a distance ‘x’
Position of Position of Nature of
towards or away from the object, its
object image image image will move by a distance ‘2x’ in
1. At infinity At the focus Real, Inverted & the same sense.
diminished.
2. Beyond the Between the Real, Inverted & If the object moves with a velocity ‘v’
centre of centre of cur- Diminished towards or away from the mirror, its
E
curvative vature & focus image appears to move with a velocity
Y
3. At the centre At the centre Real, inverted ‘2v’ in the same sense. The same is true
of curvature of curvature & same size as if the mirror moves.
AD L
that of the object
4. Between the Beyond the Real, inverted Reflection on Spherical Mirrors :
EM
centre of curvat- centre of & magnified Types of spherical mirrors
ure and focus curvature
C
5. At the focus
6. Between pole
& focus
At inifinity
Behind the
mirror
Real, Inverted &
highly magnified
Virtual, Erect &
magnified
(i) Convex or Divergent Mirror : It is a
portion of a hollow sphere of glass whose
inner surface is silvered. Since rays incident
parallel to the principal axis are diverged
AC NI
(ii) If the two mirrors are parallel, then away the principal axis, hence, it is known
q = 0° as a divergent mirror.
(ii) Concave or Convergent Mirror : It
∴ = µ = infinity. is a portion of a hollow sphere of glass
i.e., infinte no. of images are formed. whose outer surface is silvered. All rays
incident parallel to its principal axis are
S O
Some important facts regarding the the pole and the focus is focal-length (f). The
image formation by a plane mirror : distance between the pole and the centre of
curvature is radius of curvature (R). The
When we see a series of images in a perpendicular drawn at a point where a ray
thick plane mirror, out of these the sec- is incident on the spherical mirror must pass
ond image is brightest. through the centre of curvature.
Out of 26 alphabets (e.g., A, B, C etc.)
only 11 alphabets show lateral symme-
try and the rest 15 alphabets have lat-
eral inversion.
If the object is displaced by a distance
‘x’ towards or away from the mirror,
then its image will be displaced by a
distance ‘x’ in the same sense. Convex mirror
E
focus, is called spherical aberration.
Concave mirror
Y
It can be removed by using a parabolic
P = Pole concave mirror of larger aperture.
AD L
Px = Principal axis Uses of Spherical Mirrors:
EM
C = Centre of Curvature A convex mirror is used as a reflector in
C
PC = Radius
F = Focus
street lamps to diverge light over a large
area.
A convex mirror is used as a rear view
AC NI
PF = Focal Length
mirror or driver’s mirror in cars, scoot-
A & B : Incident points ers etc. for looking at the traffic at the
rear of the vehicle because this mirror
AC & BC = Normal drawn at incident
produces an erect and diminished im-
points.
age of the traffic behind the vehicle. Since
Image formation in a convex Mirror. the image is small in size, hence the field
S O
behind the concave and convex mirror. the concave mirror. The beam of light
Focal length is half of the radius of from the bulb after reflection from the
concave mirror goes as a parallel beam.
curvature (f = R/2).
A concave mirror is used by dentists
and ENT specialists to focus light on
Mirror Formula :
teeth, eye and throat to examine these
Where u = objects distance from the organs. The device consisting of the con-
pole of mirror. cave mirror used to examine eyes is
called Ophthalmoscope.
v = image distance from the pole of
mirror. A concave mirror is used as a shaving
mirror or make up mirror as it can form
f = focal length of the mirror. erect and magnified image of the per-
R = radius of curvature of the mirror. son within its focus.
Physics [55]
A spherical mirror can also be used as a the virtual image (acting as virtual
trick- mirror or magic mirror to see dif objects) on the retina. A virtual image
ferent types of images of the same ob- can be photographed.
ject or person.
The focal length of a plane mirror is
Some important facts regarding the infinity.
reflection of light:
E
When a spherical mirror (concave or
Image : Size of mirror does not affect convex) is placed in a liquid e.g. water,
Y
the nature of the image except that a its focal length does not change because
bigger mirror forms a brighter image. A focal length of a mirror depends upon
AD L
virtual image cannot be taken on screen. its construction and not on the external
EM
But our eye lens forms a real image of medium.
1.
2. C
S.No. Term
Luminous flux (f)
Lumnious intensity or
ABC of Photometry
Definition
visible light energy
luminous flux emitted
Unit
lumen
Candela or C.P.
AC NI
Illuminating power (l) per unit solid angle
3. Illuminance or Intensity luminous flux that passes (i) Lux or metre candle
of illumination of surface (E) through unit area in a (ii) phot or cm candle
direction normal to area.
4. Luminance or Brightness (B) luminous flux reflected Lambert
from unit area into our eyes.
When we read a book, light is scattered rarer medium, it bends away from the
by the paper into our eyes. This is called normal to the interface separating these
S O
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When light goes from rarer (e.g. air) to
PO = Incident ray, AB = Interface
a denser (e.g. glass) medium, it bends
towards the normal to the interface, OQ = Refracted ray, i = Angle of incidence,
separating these two media. On the other
hand, when light goes from a denser to r = Angle of refraction.
E
constant. µ is known as the refractive index where 1µ2 = Relative refractive index of
Y
of the medium in which refracted ray medium 2nd w.r.t. 1st medium,
travels w.r.t. the medium in which the C1, C2= speeds of light of the two media.
AD L
incident ray travels.
l1, l2 = wavelengths of light of the two
EM
Cause Behind Refraction of Light: Due media.
C
to change in medium, wavelength of light
changes. It results into change in the speed µ1 & µ2 = individual refractive indices
of the two media
AC NI
Difference between Concave and Convex Mirrors
Concave mirror Convex mirror
1. Reflection of light occurs from sunken side of 1. Reflection of light occurs from the side which is bulged
mirror. out.
2. Its focus and centre of curvature are on front 2. Its focus and centre of curvature are at the back of mirror.
side of mirror. f and R both are negative f and R, both are positive.
S O
Convex between ∞ and pole between pole and focus erect smaller than object
Concave at µ at focus real and inverted smaller than object
Concave beyond C. between F and C real and inverted smaller than object
Concave at C at C real and inverted same as size of object
Concave between F and C beyond C real and inverted larger than the object
Concave at F at infinity real larger than the object
Concave between F and P behind the mirror virtual and erect larger than the object
Physics [57]
and reflections, then in the given figure apparanet position of the star changes
a light ray suffers refraction thrice at point continuously. It leads to the twinkling
B, C & D. It follows path AB → BC → CD of a star.
→ DE. If the final ray DE is incident at 90°
A rod appears bent in water due to
to a plane mirror M, it retraces the original
refraction of light.
path as ED → DC → CB → BA.
E
The sun is visible to us before actual
Y
sunrise & after actual sunset. The at-
mosphere has higher density than that
AD L
of outer space. Hence, light coming from
the sun enters outerspace to atmosphere
EM
i.e., from rarer to denser medium. It
2. Reflection takes place at all values of angle 2. It is possible only when angle of incidence in denser
of incidence. medium is greater than critical angle for the pair of
media in contact.
3. Some energy gets absorbed or refracted 3. The entire energy is reflected. There is no absorption/
while majority of energy is reflected. refraction.
E
an angle i2>i1. Its refracted ray is OD in the
denser medium. It means when a light ray
Y
An object at O appears at I when it is is incident at an angle greater than the
AD L
viewed from air. critical angle, it returns back to the same
medium. This phenomenon of returning
EM
AO = Real depth of object in water or a
back of a light ray in the denser medium is
transparent medium.
C
known as T.I.R. Critical angle (c): The angle
AI = Apparent depth of object. of incidence of a light ray in the denser
medium corresponding with the angle of
If µ = relative refractive index of water
refraction in the rarer medium is 90° is called
AC NI
w.r.t.air.
as critical angle.
Physics [59]
the normal as it travels from denser Seven Colours of Visible Light
upper layer to the rarer lower layer.
This process continues till the angle of Colour Range of Range of frequnecy
Violet wavelength (λ) (× 1014 Hz)
incidence is less than the critical angle.
Indigo 3900-4550 7.69-6.49
At a particular layer of air the angle of Blue 4550-4920 6.59-6.10
incidence becomes greater than the Green 4920-5770 6.10-5.20
critical angle and it gives rise to the
E
Yellow 5770-5970 5.20-5.03
T.I.R. It gives the impression of a water Orange 5970-6220 5.03-4.82
Y
pond near the tree i.e. mirage. Red 6220-7800 4.82-3.84
AD L
Air bubbles in water or glass shine : Refraction Through Lenses
Water or glass is denser w.r.t. air. When
EM
light is incident at an angle greater than Lens is a transparent medium bounded
the critical angle, on going from wa- by two refracting surfaces. Out of these
C
ter/ glass to air bubble, it suffers T.I.R.
Hense the air bubble shines brilliantly.
This effect is used in manufacturing
two refracting surfaces at least one is
spherical.
A lens can be regarded as combination
AC NI
decorating glass objects.
of a larger no. of small prisms. When a
Totally Reflecting Prisms : These prisms beam of light is incident on a lens, the rays
are right angled isosceles prisms which
of light get refraction through these prisms.
turn the light through 90° or 180°. The
critical angle for glass-air interface is 42° Structure of a lens:
& in these prisms the angle of incidence
is 45°. Thus, the angle of incidence be- (i) Principal Axis : It joins the two centres
S O
comes greater than the critical angle that of curvature of the two spherical
causes total internal reflection. Such surfaces of a lens.
prisms are used in periscopes. (ii) Optical Centre : The central point
IA R
(ii) B + Y = W
(iii) R + C = W principal axis where the rays of a
(iv) G + M = W parallel beam of light meet or appear
(b) Triangle representing complimentary to meet after being refracted through
colours and their combination is : the lens.
(i) B + Y = G
(ii) R + B = M (iv) Focal Length : It is the distance
(iii) Y + R = O between the principal focus & the
(iv) Y + M = B + O = R + G = Black optical centre.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Rainbow
Primary Rainbow Secondary Rainbow
1. It is much brighter. 1. It is fainter.
2. Outer arc is red and inner arc is violet. 2. Outer arc is violet and inner arc is red.
3. Incident ray of light undergoes one total 3. Incident ray of light undergoes two total internal
internal reflection. reflections.
E
Common Defects of Vision
Y
Long sightedness (Hypermetropia): A
AD L
person suffering from this defect can
Concave lens see objects far away but cannot see the
EM
nearer object. In this defect eye forms
C
the image of an object behind the retina.
For correct vision image should be
formed at the retina only. This defect is
corrected by using a convex (converg-
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ing) lens of suitable focal length.
Short-sightedness (Myopia) : A per-
XY = principal axis, C = optical centre, son suffering from this defect can see
the nearer objects clearly but is unable
C1 & C2 = Centres of curvaturess
to see objects far away. In this defect
F1 & F2 = foci of lens. the image is formed in front of retina.
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upon the position of the object. (1) If a convex and a concave lens of the
(2) A concave lens forms always a virtual same focal length are put in contact the
image. combination acts as a glass slab.
CH
shifts away from the eye. the back of ratina. u = distance of object from eye
lens v = distance of near point
of defective eye.
Physics [61]
(2) If a convex and a concave lens of the (7) When a lens is placed in a medium of
same focal length are placed co-axially equal density, it acts as a glass slab. Its
with a small separation between them, focal length becomes infinity and
the combination acts as a convex lens. power becomes zero.
(3) If a lens is cut into two equal halves
with a plane perpendicular to the OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
E
principal axis, the focal length of each
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Microscope : It is used to magnify
part doubles. minute objects close to us.
AD L
(4) If a lens is cut into two equal halves (i) Simple Microscope (Magnifying
with a plane along the principal axis,
EM
glass) : It is a biconvex lens. When an
the focal length of each part remains object is placed within its focus, a
C
unchanged.
(5) An air bubble in water behaves as a
concave lens.
magnified, virtual and erect image is
formed.
(ii) Compound Microscope : It consists
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(6) When a lens is placed in a medium of of two convex lenses of unequal size placed
higher density (higher refractive co-axially. The larger lens is eye-lens to see
index), the nature of the lens reverses the final image and the smaller lens is object
i.e. a converging lens behaves as a lens in front of which the object is placed.
diverging lens & vice-versa. The object lens forms a real inverted image
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4. 4.
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of the object. This image is formed within the eye-lens, acts as an object for the eye-lens
focus of the eye-lens and acts an object for which gives the final, virtual and highly
the eye-lens. The eye-lens forms a highly magnified image.
magnified virtual image of the object.
Telescope : It is used to see far off DISPERSION OF LIGHT
objects.
When white light passes through a glass
(i) Astronomical Telescope : It is used prism, we get seven colours on a white
to see stars, planets etc. screen. This phenomenon is known as
It consists of two convex lenses. The dispersion of light. These seven colours
larger one is the object lens and the smaller obtained are viz. violet, indigo, blue, green,
one is the eye lens. The real image formed yellow, orange and red. They can be
by the object lens within the focus of the remembered as ‘VIBGYOR’. Dispersion of
E
of seven colours of white light obtained by
dispersion is known as a spectrum.
Y
Spectroscope (or Spectrometer) : A (1) Magenta (M) = Red + Blue
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device used to disperse light and to observe
(2) Yellow (Y) = Red + Green
EM
the spectra obtained is called spectroscope.
(3) Cyan (C) = Green + Blue
C
COLOUR OF OBJECTS
Colour of any object is the same as is
(4) White (W) = Red + Green + Blue.
Complimentary Colours : Any two
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reflected by the object and received by our colours are said to be a pair of
eyes. e.g. when white light falls on a red- complimentary colours if these colours
produce white, when mixed together e.g.
rose, it reflects only wavelength of red
colour and absorbs all other colours of white
light. Hence, it appears red.
Pigment : It imparts colour to the
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flower appears red in red light. This is ∴ Red + Green + Blue = White & Red +
because yellow pigment in the yellow Green = Yellow.
flower cannot absorb red light and hence,
(ii) Magenta + Green = White
reflects the red light.
∴ Red + Blue + Green = White & Red +
Primary Colours : They cannot be Blue = Magenta.
obtained by mixing two or more colours.
(iii) Cyan + Red = White
They are viz. Red, Blue and Green. When
they are mixed together, the result is white ∴ Green + Blue + Red = White & Green
i.e. Red + Blue + Green = White + Blue = Cyan.
Physics [63]
Primary Pigments : They are Yellow, particles because blue colour has
Cyan & Magenta. When these three smaller wavelength.
primary pigments are mixed in equal
(ii) The sun looks red at the sunrise and
proportion a black pigment is obtained.
sunset: The red colour is scattered least
Yellow pigment + Cyan pigment + due to its longest wavelength and
Magenta pigment = Black pigment. hence, the red-light is able to travel
E
maximum distance in atmosphere. At
Y
Because, this mixture of pigments
the time of the sunrise and sunset, the
absorbs all colours of white light and reflects
position of sun is lower in sky and
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nothing, so it appears black.
hence, it looks orange-red.
EM
Secondary Pigments : When a pair of
(iii) Due to least scattering of red-colour,
primary pigments are mixed together, a
C
new pigment is obtained called secondary
pigment. They are:
Primary Pigments Secondary
it is used as a sign of danger-signals.
Rainbow : It is a spectrum of sun’s
light in nature. It occurs in the form of arcs
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Pigments of concentric coloured circles in the sky,
(i) Cyan pigment + Yellow Green Pigment when the sun’s light falls on rain drops.
pigment Rain-drops act as tiny prisms that cause
(ii) Cyan pigment + Blue Pigment dispersion of light. The essential condition
Magenta pigment
for observing a rainbow is that the observer
must stand with his back towards the sun.
(iii) Yellow pigment + Red pigment
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E
holography (three dimensional virtual
image formation) by using a laser beam. light.
Y
Polarisation of scattered sunlight is used
AD L
POLARISATION OF LIGHT for navigation in solar compass in po-
lar regions of earth, where magnetic
EM
It involves restricting all vibrations of a
compass becomes non-functional.
light wave in a single plane.
C
Polaroids : Materials that polarise light.
Most of them are artificial. Tourmaline is a
In CD Players, polarized laser beam
acts as needle for producing sound from
compact disc, which is in encoded digi-
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natural polaroid.
tal format.
Uses of Polaroids :
Polarisation is used to study asymme-
In Sun glasses to protect the eyes from tries in crystals and molecules using
glare. the phenomenon of optical activity.
In head light of motor-car to reduce The ability of a crystal or molecule to
rotate the plane of polarised light,
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glare.
either clockwise or anticlockwise is
In wind shields of automobiles. called optical activity.
In holograhy (3D Motion pictures)
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CH
Physics [65]
HEAT
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
Heat is the form of energy that flows The temperature of a body is measured
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from a body at higher temperature to by a
another body at lower temperature, when
EM
Thermometer: There is no upper limit
the two bodies are in contact with each
of temperature but there is a fixed lower
C
other. Every body is composed of a large
no. of particles which possess certain kinetic
energy. The total sum of kinetic-energy of
limit. The lowest value of temperature is
called as ‘Absolute Zero’. The absolute zero
is equal to zero kelvin (O°K) or (–)273.15°C.
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all constituent particles of a body is equal
to heat contained by the body. Clinical Thermometer : It is a mercury
in glass type thermometer. The
TEMPERATURE thermometer scale is marked from 95°F to
110°F or 35°C to 43°C within the range of
It is the degree of hotness or coldness of human body temperature. Advantages of
the body. It is just a scale that measures the mercury in the thermometer-
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E
temperature. The expansion/contraction for aquatic animals. Since the density of
water is maximum at 4°C, water at the
Y
of an object depends upon the change in
temperature & its nature i.e. expansivitiy. bottom of lakes, ponds etc. remains at 4°C
AD L
in winter even if at the surface it freezes.
Practical applications of thermal This allows marine animals to remain alive
EM
expansion: and move near the bottom.
C
• A small gap is always left in between
two iron-rails in a railway line.
• An iron rim to be fitted on a wooden
SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat of a substance is equal
AC NI
cart wheel is always slightly small in to the amount of heat absorbed by its unit
diameter. The rim on heating expands mass to raise its temperature through one
and upon cooling gives a strong grip on degree. Thus, larger the value of specific
the wheel due to contraction. heat of a substance, smaller is rise in its
• Some suitable space is left between the temperature inspite of absorbing a large
girders used for supporting bridges. amount of heat. The specific heat of a
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• The clock pendulums are usually made temperature of water changes by small
of invar (an alloy), which has very low amounts. That is why water is used in hot
expansivity. This enables the clock to water battles and also as coolant in radiators.
keep correct time in different seasons.
CH
Physics [67]
above the surface and this process is known Generally, relative humidity (R.H) is
as evaporation. Evaporation lowers the expressed in a percentage. If the above
energy of a liquid and hence, causes cooling ratio is 0.5, the relative humdity is 50%. If
effect. This effect is used in cooling water the air is already saturated, the R.H. is
in pitchers having porous walls. When a 100%.
space contains the maximum possible
E
amount of vapour, the vapour is called Dew : In winter nights, the atmospheric
Y
saturated. If the amount is less than temperature goes down. The surfaces of
possible maximum amount of vapour, the window-panes, flowers, grasses etc. become
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vapour is called unsaturated. The possible still colder due to radiation. The air near
maximum amount of vapour depends on
EM
them becomes saturated & condensation
the temperature & can be achieved easily begins. The droplets condensed on such
C
due to rise in temperature of the liquid.
The pressure exerted by a saturated vapour
is called saturation vapour pressure (SVP).
The temperature at which the saturation
surfaces are called as Dew.
Fog : In winter, if temperature goes
down even more, the whole atmosphere in
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vapour pressure becomes equal to the that region may become saturated. Small
present pressure is know as Dew-Point. If droplets then condense on the dust particles
the temperature is decreased below the present in the air. These droplets keep
dew point some of the vapour condenses. floating in the air & form a thick mist
which restricts visibility. This thick mist is
HUMIDITY
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called Fog.
The amount of water vapour in a unit
In winter, glass-walls of a house,
volume of air is called the Absolute
window & car-glass get wet on its outer
humidity of air. Generally, it is expressed
surface. It occurs due to the condensation
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E
stage, the molecules anywhere in liquid less than 1 or 100% because a heat engine
Y
can form vapour bubbles. These bubbles cannot convert total heat supplied to it
float to the surface and finally vapour into mechanical work.
AD L
molecules come out of the liquid. This A heat engine consists of three
phenomenon is known as boiling and the
EM
components viz.
temperature at which boiling occurs is
C
known as boiling point. At the boiling point, (i) Source of heat : It is at higher
the vapour pressure at the liquid surface temperature from which the engine gets
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. heat.
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Hence, higher the atmospheric pressure at (ii) Working Substance : It converts
the liquid surface higher is the boiling point the heat obtained partly into mechanical
of liquid. Water boils at 100°C when the work & supplies the remaining heat to the
atmospheric pressure is 1 atmosphere. 1 sink.
atmosphere is equal to 760 mm of mercury.
(iii) Sink : It is at lower temperature to
If the pressure becomes 2- atmosphere,
absorb unused heat.
water boils at 120°C. In pressure cooker
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to hold more heat which cooks food-faster. produced by the burning fuel in a chamber
At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure outside the body of the engine e.g. steam-
is reduced. It lowers the boiling point of engine. Super heated steam at 250°C & 20
water and food takes longer time to cook. atmospher is its working substance.
CH
Hence, a pressure cooker is more useful for Practically, its efficiency is about 12% to
cooking on hill-stations. 16%.
(ii) Internal Combustion Engine : In
HEAT ENGINES
this engine, heat is produced by burning of
A heat engine converts heat into fuel inside the body of engine e.g. Petrol &
mechanical work. It takes heat from a body diesel engine. Its working substance is a
at higher temperature, converts a part of mixture of air (98%) and fuel (2%). Petrol
heat into the mechanical work & delivers engine with a practical efficiency of 26% is
the rest to bodies at lower temperature. used in light vehicles while diesel engine
The working substance inside the heat with a practical efficiency 40% is used in
engine comes back to the original state. heavy vehicles.
Thus, a heat engine works in cyclic process. (iii) Refrigerator or Heat Pump : It is a
The efficiency of a heat engine is equal to heat engine working in reverse direction.
Physics [69]
Its working substance takes an amount of than liquids & liquids are better conductors
heat from a cold body, converts it partly than gases. Metals are much better
into work & supplies the heat left to the conductors than non-metals. Metals have
hot body. Food stuffs, water, etc. inside the free moving electrons which carry heat
refrigerator act as a source of heat. A highly from one point to the other in a metal.
volatitle liquid, Freon (dichlorodifluoro
For a given body, the rate of flow of
E
methane) is its working substance. The outer
heat by the conduction is directly
Y
surrounding at higher temperature acts as
proportional to the cross-sectional area,
sink.
proportional to the temperature difference
AD L
The freezer is surrounded by a copper between the ends & inversely proportional
EM
coil in which freon evaporates that causes to the distance between the ends. Hence, a
cooling effect. The vapour is removed and thick & short metallic rod conducts more
C
condensed to form liquid in the condenser
coil, fitted at the back of the cabinet, by a
compression-pump or compressor. The
heat in a given time across its two ends
than a thin & longer metal-rod.
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Applications of Thermal Conduction:
condenser coil becomes warm due to the
liquification of vapour. Again, the liquid • Cooking utensils are made of metals
begines to evaporate & this cyclic process whereas their handles are made of plas-
continues. A thermostat switch regulates tic or wood because metals are better
the temperature inside the refrigerator by conductor and plastic & wood are poor
switching the compressor on and off at conductors. Hence, hot utensils can be
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Conduction, convection and radiation huts called igloos. Air enclosed between
are the three methods to transfer heat from the walls of ice is a bad conductor and
one point to another. Usually, conduction ice is also a bad conductor. It prevents
takes place in solids, convection in liquids the heat they produce from escaping
& gases and radiation does not require a and keeps them warm.
medium. • Saw dust is a poorer conductor of heat
A. Conduction : It involves heat-transfer than the wood from which it is made
from the hot end of a body to its cold end because of air trapped in the saw dust.
due to molecular collision to minimise the • In winter, birds often swell their feath-
temperature difference. However, the ers. Air enclosed between their body
conduction does not involve the actual and feathers does not allow flow of
movement of the molecules of the medium. heat from the body of the birds to the
In general, solids are better conductors cold surroundings.
E
The new quilt encloses more air than
Y
the old one. This air, being bad conduc- Applications of Thermal Convection:
tor of heat, does not allow heat of our • Function of ventilation in houses is based
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body to flow to the surroundings. on the convection. During winter, air
EM
• Two thin blankets together are warmer comes out from houses because the in-
than one blanket of their combined side temperature is high whereas in
C
thickness. The air contained in between
the two blankets is a bad conductor
and it prevents heat from escaping and
summer air comes in because the outer
temperature is high. It involves the
movement of air from high in tempera-
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keeps the body warm. ture to lower temperature by convec-
tion currents.
• In airconditioned rooms, double lay-
ered windows are preferred than the • In refrigerators, freezer is set at the top.
single layered windows because a thin Temperature of air at the bottom is
layer of air is contained between the higher than that inside the freezer. The
two layer of glass panes in the win- warm bottom air moves up and cold
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radiation radiated per unit time depends glass bottle having a vacuum between
Y
on the nature of the radiating surface, the walls. The inner wall is silvered
surface area and temperature of the body. whose mouth is closed by a plastic
AD L
Similarly, all bodies absorb a part of thermal stopper. The vacuum does not allow
radiation incident on them. When an
EM
the loss of heat by convection and the
amount of thermal radiation is incident on stopper being insulator does not allow
C
a body, it is partly absorbed, partly reflected
and partly transmitted. The amount of
absorbed, reflected and transmitted thermal
conduction of heat. The silvered wall
prevents radiation as it is a poor emitter
and a poor absorber of radiation. Thus,
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radiation depends on the nature & in a thermos flask transfer of heat by
temperature of the body. conduction, convection and radiation
When a body absorbs more and emits is minimised. Hence, a hot liquid in it
less radiation, its temperature goes up; when remains hot and a cold liquid or ice in it
a body emits more and absorbs less remains cold for a longer time.
radiation, its temperature goes down and • At a point in front of fire, heat is received
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when a body absorbs and emits equal due to radiation only, while at a point
amount of radiations, its temperature above the fire, heat is received both due
remains constant. A good absorber is a good to radiation and convection. Hence, it
emitter and a poor absorber is a poor emitter. is hotter at the same distance over the
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A body that absorbs all the radiations falling top of a fire than in front of it.
on it is called a black body.
• When animals feel cold, they curl their
Applications of Black Body: Such a bodies in a ball so as to decrease the
CH
body will emit radiation at the fastest rate surface area of their bodies. As total
on heating. Lampblack is close to a energy radiated by a body is
blackbody. Bolometer and thermopile are proportional to the surface area of the
close to a blackbody. Bolometer and body, the loss of heat due to radiation
thermopile are instruments used to measure would be reduced.
thermal radiation.
• A box or a house with glass walls or
• A rough black surface is a good emitter glass windows, acts as a green-house
as well as a good absorber of heat- because it traps heat radiations entering
radiation while a bright polished surface it through glass. The glass allows the
is a bad emitter as well as a bad heat radiation inside but blocks the hot-
absorber. Hence, a bright polished cup air from comeing out. Hence, a car
keeps tea or coffee warm for a longer parked in the sun with its windows
time in comparison a rough black cup. closed gets terribly warm in comparison
The base of an electric iron is highly to the outer atmosphere.
[72] General Science
• Cloudy nights are warmer than clear
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
nights because clouds reflect the
radiations emitted by the earth at night It states that the rate of loss of heat
and keep it warm. Thus, clouds act as a from a hot body is directly proportional to
blanket. temperature difference between the body
and its surroundings.
• Glass, which is ordinarily used as the
E
base in photographic plates, is A hot water during cooling from 100°C
Y
transparent to light while opaque to to 90°C takes less time than that in cooling
thermal infra-red radiation. But certain from 50°C to 40°C. Hence, when hot water
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special kinds of glass have been and fresh tap-water are placed inside a
EM
prepared which are transparent only refrigerator, the rate of cooling of hot water
to thermal infra-red. Such glasses, used is found to be faster than that of fresh-tap
C
in the preparation of photographic
plates, have made it possible to obtain
long distance photographs, even under
water.
If hot coffee is served with cream in a cup
and without cream in another cup, the
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misty conditions using infra-red creamed coffee remains hot for a longer time.
radiations.
• The fact that good reflectors are bad LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
absorbers and bad radiators is utilised
First Law : The first law of
in making firemen’s helmets and metallic
thermodynamics is a particular and more
tea-pots highly polished on the outside.
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atmosphere. The water vapours in the to raise the temperature which results in
atmosphere protect the earth from the the increase of internal energy. The rest of
more intense heat rays of the sun during the heat is used in doing work in allowing
the external pressure.
CH
E
temperature in Kelvin.
Y
Isobaric Process : It involves constant
pressure
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Isochoric Process : It involves constant
• Gay Lussac’s Law : The volume
EM
volume.
remaining constant, the pressure of a
C
Isothermal Process : It involves
constant temperature. However, heat
changes.
given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature in
Kelvin i.e.
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Adiabatic Process : It involves constant
heat. However, temperature changes. P a T or = constant, where P is pressure
• Boyle’s Law : For a given mass of a gas, moles and R = universal gas constant.
the volume is inversely proportional to
its pressure at a constant temperature. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
If P = pressure and V = volume of a
The Kinetic Theory of gases explains
given mass of a gas at a constant
the behaviour of gases. Basic features are:
temperature then, (i) All gases are composed of molecules.
constant The molecules of a gas are alike and
or, P1V1=P2V2 differ from the molecules of other gases.
Where P1 and P2 are initial and final (ii) The molecules are extremely small point
pressures and V1 and V2 are initial and masses, their dimensions being
final volumes of a given mass of a gas at a negligible as compared to the distance
constant temperature. between them.
E
continuously against each other and intermolecular potential energy of the
Y
against the wall of container. system changes. This is the case with
melting and boiling.
(v) The pressure of the gas is equal to the
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pressure exerted by the gas molecules • Systems are in thermal equilibrium
EM
on the wall of container. when their temperature are same or
average kinetic energy per molecule is
C
(vi) The gas-molecules are perfectly elastic
spheres and exert negligible force of
attraction or repulsion on each other
same.
• Internal energy consists of energy of
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or on the wall of container. translational, rotational as well as vi-
brational motion of the molecules.
The kinetic theory of gases explains
most of the gas laws like Boyle’s law, • The ratio of molar specific heat capac-
Charle’s law, ideal gas equation, etc. ity depends on the molecular weight of
the substance. Because it depends on
TRIVIA mass of one mole which is turn de-
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• The heat capacity or thermal capacity • Whole of the heat supplied can never
depends on nature of the substance be converted into mechanical work.
(specific heat capacity) and mass or This implies that the efficiency of heat
quantity of matter of the body. engine can never be equal to 100%.
• Thermodynamics deals with the con- • Thermodynamics deals with the
version of heat into other forms of en- interconversion of heat energy, internal
ergy as well as the change in state (solid, energy and mechanical energy or work.
liquid, gas) of a system. • The physics of heat engine is similar to
• Random motion of the constituents of that of refrigerator.
the system involving exchange of en- • Hydrogen cannot be used as a thermo-
ergy due to mutual collisions is called metric substance above 500°C, because
thermal motion. it starts diffusing.
Physics [75]
• Pure and dry gas should be used as drical bulb are more sensitive than those
thermometric substance. with spherical bulb.
• Below -200°C, the hydrogen and nitro- • Alcohol thermometer is preferred to the
gen cannot be used because they start mercury thermometer due to the larger
liquifying. Therefore, helium gas is used value of the coefficient of cubical ex-
for temperature below - 200°C. pansion.
E
Y
• The platinum thermometer can mea- • Following properties make mercury the
sure temperature accurately upto 0.1°C. ideal thermometric substance.
AD L
• The thermoelectric thermometers are (i) Does not stick to the glass walls.
EM
very sensitive and can be used to mea-
(ii) It shines.
sure the temperature of insects.
C
• Radiation Pyrometer : These are the
devices to measure the temperature by
measuring the intensity of radiations
(iii) Coefficient of expansion is uniform.
(iv) Vapour pressure is low.
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(v) Low thermal conductivity and
received from the body. They are based specific heat.
on the fact that the amount of radia-
tions emitted from a body per unit area (vi) Available in pure form.
per second is directly proportional to • Gas thermometers have higher sensi-
the fourth power of temperature tivity than the mercury thermometers
(Stefan’s law). These can be used to because their coefficient of cubical ex-
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measure temperatures ranging from pansion is much larger and same is for
800°C to 4000°C. They cannot measure all gases:
temperatures below 800°C, because the
amount of radiations emitted from the (i) Celsius & Fahrenheit at - 40°C = -
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E
ture. • Specific Heat : It is the amount of heat
Y
required to raise the temperature of unit
• Clinical thermometer are much shorter
mass of substance through 1 degree. Its
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than the laboratory thermometers be-
dimensional formula is ML2T–2q–1. It
cause they are used to measure a lim-
EM
may be expressed in cal/g°C, kcal/kg°C.
ited range (96°F to 110°F) of tempera-
BTU/lb°F. J/kgk
ture.
C
• Platinum resistance therometer can be
used to measure temperature inside a
• Cal/g°C = kcal/kg°C = 4.2 × 103 j/
kgK.
AC NI
motor engine. • Molar Specific Heat : The amount of
heat required to raise the temperature
• The radiation therometers can measure
of 1 mole of substance through 1 kg is
temperature from a distance.
called molar specific heat. It is denoted
• Adiabatic demagnetisation can be used by C. Its unit is J/mol K. It is generally
to meausre temperatures very near to used for gases.
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Physics [77]
• Principle of Calorimetry : The amount • Latent heat is used for doing work in
of heat gained or lost when its tem- increasing the distance between the mol-
perature rises or falls by Dq is given by : ecules during the change of state. That
Q = mc Dq, where m is the mass of the is the latent heat increases the potential
substance. energy of molecules and their kinetic
energy remains constant, therefore, the
• According to the principle of calorim-
E
temperature also remains constant.
etry, when two bodies exchange heat :
Y
the heat lost = the heat gained. It is in • Sublimation : Direct conversion of solid
accordance with the law of conserva- to vapours is called sublimation.
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tion of energy.
• HoarFrost : Direct conversion of
EM
• Latent Heat : Heat required to change vapours to solid is called hoarfrost.
C
the state (from solid to liquid or from
liquid to gaseous, of one gram/kilo-
gram of substance at constant tem-
perature is called latent heat (symbol
• Melting : It is the process in which
solid is converted into lqiuid. The re-
verse is called freezing or solidifcation.
AC NI
L). Its unit is cal/g, kcal/kg or J/kg. • Boiling : It is the process of conversion
of liquid to gaseous state. The reverse is
• The amount heat absorbed or given out
called condensation or liquefaction.
during the change of state is given by :
Q = ML, where M is the mass of the • Melting and boiling occur at definite tem-
substance. peratures called melting point and boil-
ing or liquefaction.
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E
Y
An Electromagnetic radiation is an (5) They are composed of energy particles
electromagnetic wave (E.M.W.) that called Photons. Every photon has a fixed
AD L
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic frequency which does not change when
EM
fields. An accelerated charge (e.g. a photon travels through different
C
oscillating charge) produces an oscillating media. The velocity of the photon
electric as well as magnetic field in its changes in different media due to
neighbourhood. These oscillating fields act change in its wavelength. Photon is
as sources for each other and thereby electrically neutral does not have mass
AC NI
produce each other. It results an E.M.W. at rest. In fact, a photon does not exist
The accelerated charge reduces its energy at rest because a photon is an energy
that appears as energy of E.M.W. The particle of the E.M.W. which in turn is
electric-field, magnetic field and speed of a dynamic state of energy.
the E.M.W. are mutually perpendicular. It
(6) The E.M.W. shows all wave phenomena
gives transverse nature of the E.M.W. An
like light.
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E
and arc lamp.
Y
4. Visible Light 4×10–7 to 8×10–7 8×1014 to 4×1014 Excitation of valence
electrons.
5. Infra-Red 8×10–7 to 3×10–5 4×1014 to 1×1013 Excitation of atoms &
AD L
molecules
EM
6. Heat-Radiation 10–5 to 10–1 3×1013 to 3×109 Hot bodies
7. Microwaves 10–3 to 0.3 3×1011 to 1×109 Oscillating currents
C
in special vacuum tube.
8. Ultra-high frequency 1×10–1 to 1 3×109 to 3×108 Oscillating circuit
(UHF)
9. Very High Frequency 1 to 10 3×108 to 3×107 Oscillating circuit
(VHF)
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10. Radio-Frequencies 10 to 104 3×107 to 3×104 Oscillating circuit
11. Power frequencies 5×106 to 6×106 60 to 50 Weak Radiations from
a.c. circuit.
The overlapping in certain parts of above E.M. Spectrums shows that the correponding radiations can be produced by
two methods.
decelerate inside a metal target. They are (3) Ultraviolet Rays: They are produced
used - by the excitation of atoms, a spark and arc
S O
In Medical Diagnosis: e.g. for the de- radiations causes blindness and cancer. The
tection of fractures, foreign bodies, like ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
bullets, diseased, organs and stones in absorbs most of the ultraviolet rays emitted
by the sun. Only a small fraction of these
CH
E
taking infra-red absorption spectra,
for checking the mineral samples
Y
(6) Heat Radiations: They are
through the property of ultraviolet
produced by any hot bodies. They are
rays causing flourescence.
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used for heating purposes.
in burglar alarm.
EM
(7) Microwaves: They are produced by
(4) Visible Light: White-light emitted
C
oscillating electrical circuits. They are used:-
by the sun is visible light. It is composed of
seven colours. Except the visible light, all in micro wave ovens.
the remaining electromagnetic radiations in RADAR systems and in satellite com-
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are invisible. Besides the solar-radiations, munication.
there are a number of sources giving visible
light e.g. candle, electric-bulbs etc. (8) UHF, VHF and Radiowaves : They
are produced by the oscillating circuits.
(5) Infra-red rays: Infra-red rays are
They are used as carrier waves during the
emitted by the atoms and molecules of hot-
transmission of Radio-signals, TV-signals,
body. Infra-red rays are absorbed by the
FM-Radios, etc.
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E
warm at night. This phenomenon is called
as “Green House Effect”. pressure of 0.01 mm of mercury.
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The upper part of the atmosphere of
ELECTRONIC EMISSION
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the earth receives about 1.36 kilo joule of
EM
energy per second per unit area from the The phenomenon of emission of
sun. The earth’s surface receives 47% of electrons from the surface of a metal is
C
this energy emitted from the sun. The
energy crisis can be overcome by harnessing
this energy. A large number of devices have
called electronic emission.
(a) Thermionic Emission: It involves
emission of electrons due to appropriate
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been developed to harness the solar energy
directly. The commonly used devices are: heating of the metal surface. The devices
Solar cookers, solar furnaces, solar water like diode valve and triode valve are based
heaters, solar power plants, solar-cells etc. on the thermionic emission of electrons.
The diode valve is used as rectifier and
All of the above devices are pollution-
free and most of them are economical. triode valve is used as transistor and
amplifier in electrical circuits.
S O
E
electrons to provide high resolving power.It
holes in metallic sheets. has successfully been employed to investigate
Y
as photoelectric sorters; to sort out the structural details of bacteria, viruses, etc. It has
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materials of different shades. proved to be a powerful tool of investigation
for research in science, technology, metallurgy,
EM
to determine the opacity of solids and industry, medicine, etc.
liquids.
C
to control the temperature and chemi-
cal reactions.
X-RAYS
When highly energetic electrons are
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made to strike a metal target of high atomic
METALS SHOWING THE number like Tungsten and Platinum, the x-
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION rays are emitted.
Alkali Metals: Lithium, sodium, The device used to produce x-rays is
potassium, cesium, etc. show the known as an x-rays tube or Coolidge tube.
photoelectric effect with visible light.
S O
electron. Higher the intensity of light, more materials as barium platinocyanide. X-rays
is the no. of photons incident and hence, can ionise the gas.
more is the no. of photoelectrons emitted.
Higher the frequency of the photon incident, They can pass through small thicknesses
CH
higher is the kinetic energy of the photo of aluminium, woods, plastics, human-flesh
electron emitted. The photoelectric effect etc. They are stopped by materials of high
shows the particle nature of light i.e. light is density and high atomic number. Hence, x-
composed of energy-particles called photons. rays machines are used to inspect luggages
at the custom, security gates, airports, etc.
The particle nature is given as The frequent and excess exposure of x-rays
E = mc2 where E = energy, m = mass & may cause diseases like genetic-disorders;
c= speed of photons. cancer, etc. The screen of Computer, TV,
oscilloscopes, etc. are using a cathode-ray
The wave-nature is given as
tube in which a highly accelerated electrons
E = hv, where E = energy and v= strike the screen. It results in a small amount
frequency of photon h = Planck’s constant of x-rays. Hence, their screens are designed
Photons are electrically neutral and to absorb the x-rays.
have zero rest mass.
Physics [83]
ATOMIC PHYSICS
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
Every atom is composed of three kinds Hence, the size of the nucleus increases
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of fundamental particles viz. Electrons, with increase in the mass number.
Protons and Neutrons. Protons and
EM
Neutrons are in the atomic nucleus while NUCLEAR STABILITY
C
electrons revolve around the nucleus in
definite circular path called orbits.
Electrons are negative and have a definite
It depends upon the nuclear size and
neutron: proton ratio. As the nuclear radius
increases, nuclear stability decreases. Higher
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energy in a definite orbit. Protons are
positive while neutrons are neutral. the n/p ratio of a nucleus lower is its
stability. From Hydrogen (Atomic No=1)
When an electron changes its orbit, an to Bismuth (20983Bi - At .No. 83 & Mass No.
amount of energy is exchanged (lost or = 209) all nuclei are quite stable except
gained) in the form of radiations (infra- Technetium (43Tc) and Promethium (61 Pm).
red, visible, ultraviolet and even x-rays).
However, from atomic number 84
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protons and neutrons is equal to the mass Neptunium (93 Np) onwards are artificial
number. and do not exist in free state in nature.
The size of the nucleus is much smaller The force of attraction responsible for
CH
than that of the atom. The concept of binding the nucleons (protons, neutrons
nucleus, nuclear and atomic size were etc.) in the nucleus is nuclear force. As the
given by Rutherford. The concept of orbits nuclear size increases the nuclear force of
and energy of an electron in its orbit were attraction decreases. The nuclear force is
given by Neil Bohr. The motion of an the strongest force in nature.
electron in its orbit is similar to that of a
planet moving round the sun. MASS DEFECT
The electron in the orbit closest to the The total sum of masses of individual
nucleus has least energy and as the orbit nuclear particles (Nucleons) in a nucleus is
number increases away from the nucleus, greater than the rest of the actual rest mass
energy of the electrons also increases. of the nucleus. Their difference is known
Every nucleus of the atom has neutrons as mass defect. This mass defect gets
and protons. The volume of the nucleus is converted into energy which is called
directly proportional to its mass number. Nuclear-binding energy.
[84] General Science
Nuclear species called Nuclides are When a nucleus emits a beta-particle,
symbolised as where X= chemical the mass number of the daughter nucleus
remains unchanged but its atomic number
symbol of the species, Z= Atomic number=
increases by one unit. There is no effect on
Number of proton = Number of electrons,
the atomic and mass number due to gama-
A = Mass number = Sum of number of
emission.
protons and neutrons, A-Z= Number of
E
neutrons (N). Units of Radioactivity:
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1 Becquerel (Bq) =1 decay/ second
e.g. . Bi = Bismuth, 83 = Atomic no.
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= No. of proton 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7x 10 10 decays /second
EM
209 = Mass No. = Z+N = A 1 Rutherford (Rd) = 10 6 decays/second
C
209 - 83 = 126 = No. of neutrons.
Isotopes: They are a group of nuclides
having equal no. of protons.
HALF- LIFE TIME (T)
The time period during which half of
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the total initial number of radioactive atoms
● Isobars: They are a group of nuclides decays, is called as half-life time.
having equal mass no.
e.g. for = T= 5770 years.
● Isotones: They are a group of nuclides
having equal no. of neutrons. for Polonium, T= 3x10-7 sec.
RADIOACTIVITY
(where l = decay constant)
The property by virtue of which a heavy
nucleus of element disintegrates itself Average life time of a radioactive
substance is given as τ = 1.44 × T, where T
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Physics [85]
(1) a decay → Generally, such disintegration stops as
soon as the bombardment is over. However,
Uranium → Thorium + α-particle +
if the bombarded nucleus keeps on
Energy
disintegrating even after the bombardment
(2) β decay → is stopped, the phenomenon is called
induced radioactivity.
E
Thorium → Protactinium + b-particle +
Y
Energy e.g. Boron, when bombarded by α -
particle, continue to disintegrate further even
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(3) γ decay → after the bombardment is stopped, as follows :
EM
Sodium → Magnesium + β- particle +
gamma-particle.
C
ARTIFICIAL & INDUCED
RADIOACTIVITY
Boron + a particle → Nitrogen - 14 →
Nitrogen -13 + Neutron. Produced is a
radioactive nucleus produced by artificial
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radioactivity. Its half-life is 11 minutes.
The phenomenon of disintegration of
otherwise stable nuclei by bombarding
them with suitable projectiles is called Nitrogen → Carbon - 13 + positron.
artificial radioactivity.
S O
ABC OF RADIATION
Properties α -rays β -rays γ -rays
1. Similar to Helium nuclei Electrons E.M. Waves like X-rays
2. Symbols
IA R
3. Atomic No. 2 –1 0
4. Mass No. 4 0 0
5. Speed 1.4×107 m/s 33% to 99% of the Equal to the speed of
to 2.1×107m/s light light
6. Penetrating power Least and can be stopped Higher and can pass Highest & can pass
CH
E
projectiles e.g. neutron, proton, electron, ● Nuclear Chain Reaction : In a nuclear
alpha-particle, γ-ray etc. Neutron due to fission of Uranium three secondary
Y
mass and Zero charge is the best projectile. neutrons are released along with a huge
amount of energy. These three neutrons
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Representation of a nuclear reaction.
cause the fission of other three
EM
Target Nucleus +Projectile → Daughter Uranium-235 nuclei & produce 9-
Nucleus + Emitted - Particle
C
neutrons which in turn, can bring about
e.g. the fission of 9-Uranium -235 nuclei &
so on. This process multiplies so quickly
Nitrogen - 14 + - particle → Oxygen - (i.e. a few micro-seconds) that a
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17 + Proton tremendous energy is released in a
Above reaction is the 1st artificial fraction of time. Such a continuous
nuclear transmutation discovered by process is known as Chain Reaction. If
Rutherford in 1919. the chain reaction is controlled the
energy released is used for peaceful
A nuclear reaction may be of two types purposes like in Nuclear Reactor or
S O
(usually of atomic mass >230) into two ● Controlled Chain Reaction: If only one
comparatively small nuclei of middle weight neutron, out of 3- neutrons released in
along with the release of very large amount every fission of Uranium, is used to cause
CH
Physics [87]
a substance called a Moderator e.g. (c) to produce radioactive isotopes. These
graphite, deutrium or heavy water. The isotopes are used in medical science,
number of neutrons released is reduced industry and agricultural research.
by Control Rods e.g. Boron - rods or
(d) to produce neutron beam of high inten-
Cadmium rods.
sity which is used in the treatment of
● Nuclear Reactor : It converts nuclear cancer and nuclear research.
E
energy into heat. It is based on
Y
controlled nuclear fission. Indian Nuclear Reactors
Fuel: A fissionable material is used as a
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Our country has adopted a three- stage
fuel. e.g. (Plutonium), etc. strategy of nuclear power generation :
EM
Commonly is used as a fuel.
(a) The first stage aims in the use of natural
C
Coolant: It is used to absorb the heat
produced in the reactor core. e.g. water
and heavy water are used as Coolants at
uranium as a fuel, with heavy water as
moderator.
(b) The second stage involves the develop-
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ordinary temparature but at high
temperature, generally liquid sodium is ment of the fast breeder reactors. For
used as a coolant. this, the discharged fuel from the reac-
tors is reprocessed to obtain plutonium-
Shield: The whole reactor is protected
239, which is further used for the fast
with a concrete wall; so that radiations
breeder reactors.
emitted can be stopped.
S O
E
U.P., Tarapur in Maharastra and the biological system becomes disrupted.
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. The damaging effect of the nuclear
Y
radiations would depend upon - (i) dose of
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Nuclear Hazards radiations, (ii) rate of dose given, and (iii)
nature of the organism exposed.
EM
The nuclear radiations cause pollution
at three stages: The dose of radioactive (nuclear)
C
(a) When nuclear fuel is mined, processed
and enriched, it constantly emits nuclear
radiations.
radiations is measured in a unit called
Roentgen(R). The quantity of radiations
that produces 1.61x1012 pairs of ions in 1
AC NI
gm of air is equal to one Roentgen(R). In
(b) Accident can be caused due to leakage practice, milliroentgen is used as the
of nuclear reactions from reactors. Some- exposure unit or dosage unit. The radiation
times the nuclear reactor core may get absorbed per second is called dose rate or
faults resulting in vast radiations. Such exposure rate or radiation absorbed dose.
accidents have already been occurred,
one in USA at Three Mill Island and The safe limit of exposure to radiation
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steel vessels and is dumped deep into The phenomenon of combining two or
the earth. more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy
nucleus is called nuclear fusion. It results
Harmful effects of the nuclear in the release of tremendous amount of
radiations: energy. It requires very hight temperature
(a) They can change or damage the struc- (107K) & pressure which are not possible
ture of cells in the human body. on earth. Such conditions are available in
stars & hence, the nuclear fusion is a stellar
(b) They cause diseases like cancer, leuke-
phenomenon. It is the cause behind the
mia and blindness. stellar energy. In the biggest star i.e. sun,
(c) They cause genetic disorder in a hu- the nuclei of hydrogen fuse together to
man body. produce helium nucleus and a tremendous
amount of energy.
(d) They can cause sterility in the young
generation.
Physics [89]
brought together in less than a
APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE
microsecond. It results in a violent explosion
ISOTOPES causing destruction because the combined
In discovery of new sub-nuclear par- mass becomes super critical. At the critical
ticles. mass of a radioactive sample, a controlled
chain reaction occurs.
In discovery of new radioactive and
E
non-radioactive isotopes of elements.
Y
TRIVIA
In the radio-active and nuclear research.
AD L
In photoelectrical effect, the electron is
In agriculture- by using the tracer-tech-
assumed to be bound. That is, the en-
EM
nique the fertilizer consumption of
ergy of the incident photon is of the
plants can be measured by the help of
C
Geiger-Muller Counter (GM Counter).
G M Counter can detect the presence of
a radioactive isotope and can measure
order of the binding energy of the elec-
tron.
In Compton effect, the electron is as-
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its activity. sumed to be free. That is, the energy of
In industry- The tracer technique can the incident photon is much larger than
be applied by using a radioactive iso- the binding energy of the electron.
tope to study the wear of auto mobile- Einstein was awarded Nobel Prize for
engines. explaining the photoelectric effect.
S O
E
Efficiency of production fo X-rays is less
than 1%.
Y
For radioactive nuclei : .
The target in the X-ray tube should have
AD L
high atomic weight and high melting where n = number of neutrons and p =
EM
point. number of protons.
C
Absorption coefficient of X-rays is high- The quantisation of the enegy states of
est for lead. an atom was demonstrated by Frank
Hydrogen atom cannot emit X-rays. Hertz experiment. The experiment dem-
onstrated the existence of discrete en-
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Compton effect is observed with X-rays ergy levels in the atom.
and γ-rays.
The binding energy of the electron in
Electron microscope works on the wave the ground state of hydrogen is called
nature of moving electrons. rydberg, 1 rydberg = 13.6 eV.
Wavelength of the matter waves does The isotope 1H3 of hydrogen is unstable
S O
Physics [91]
The radioactive decay rate is not af-
fected by temperature or pressure.
Critical mass of fissionable uranium –
The first nuclear transmutation was 235 can be reduced by surrounding it
achieved by Rutherford. with neutron reflecting substances.
In the nuclear reactions, mass + energy The decay of artificial radioactive iso-
E
is conserved. topes is accompanied by positron de-
Y
cay.
The decay constant as well as half life
period are independent of the age of In the fission of 92U235 energy released is
AD L
the radioactive sample. 200 MeV.
EM
The radioactive substances are stored Enriched uranium is better fuel for the
C
in lead containers, because lead absorbs
the radioactive radiations.
The moderator of the nuclear reactor
reactor because it has greater propor-
tion of U-235.
The percentage of mass which changes
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should slow the neutrons without ab- into energy during fusion is of the or-
sorbing them. der of 0.7%.
In the sun and stars, the energy is In the fission of uranium, the percent-
released through natural fusion of age of mass converted into energy is
hydrogen into helium with carbon about 0.1%.
S O
Both photon and neutrino are chargeless Nuclear fusion requires very high tem-
perature.
CH
E
Enriched uranium is that in which the Both n as well as p type semiconduc-
Y
percentage of U-235 is more than 0.7%. tors are neutral.
The output of rectifier is DC mixed with
AD L
The fissionable material used in the
atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki in AC.
EM
1945 was Plutonium. The resistance of intrinsic semiconduc-
C
Thermal neutrons have kinetic energy
of the order of other gas molecules in
their surrounding.
tor decreases with the increase in tem-
perature.
Diode was discovered by Fleming.
AC NI
The density of nucleus is of the order The production of electromagnetic
of 1017 kg/m3. waves by an oscillating charge was pre-
dicted by Maxwell.
The thickness of pn junction is of the
Thermionic emission was discovered by
order of 10–6 cm.
Thomas Alva Edison.
S O
IA R
CH
Physics [93]
ASTRONOMY
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
Y
The branch of science which deals with SOLAR SYSTEM
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the study of position, composition, motion
and other related facts of the heavenly The sun has its own family, known as
EM
bodies, is called astronomy. The source of the Solar System. Solar system consists of
C
information about the heavenly bodies is the sun, its nine planets and other heavenly
electro magnetic waves radiated from bodies like asteroids, satellites (Moons),
them. It includes the two windows of the comets, meteors, etc.
AC NI
astronomy viz. The sun is at the centre and all other
(i) Optical Window of Astronomy: It members of system move around it in
involves the study of the heavenly bodies elliptical orbits due to the gravitational force
through visible radiations by the help of of attraction between them.
optical telescope. Sun
(ii) Radio Window of Astronomy: It It is the nearest star to us. It is heaviest
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involves the study of the heavenly bodies and largest member of the solar-system. Its
through radiowaves by the help of radio- mass is 1.98x 1030 kg and diameter is 1.392
telescope. x 10 9 m. It is about 109 times the diameter
of the earth. It rotates about its axis and
IA R
(i) Light Year (ly):- It is equal to the both in visible and in radiowaves regions.
distance travelled by light in vacuum in
The sun consists of a bright layer at the
one year. 1ly = 9.46 × 1015m centre called Photosphere that emits light.
(ii) Parsec (Parallactic Seconds):- The photosphere is surrounded by a hot-
gaseous layers called the chromosphere.
1 parsec = 3.1 × 1016m
The sun comprises different elements in
(iii)Astronomical unit (Au):- It is equal to
gaseous state. Hydrogen - 70%, Helium -
the distance between the earth and the
28%, other heavier elements Lithium to
sun.
Uranium - 2%. The temperature, density and
1A.U = 1.5 × 1011m pressure increase from the surface to the
centre of the sun. Temperature increases from
The universe is the limitless expanse of
6000K on the surface to 14x106 k at the
space around us consisting of the solar
centre and density increases from 10–4 kg/
system, stars, galaxies, etc.
m3 at the surface to 104 kg/m2 at the centre.
[94] General Science
Source of solar energy is due to energy Planets
released during the nuclear fusion. It involves There are eight planets in the solar
the conversion of a certain mass into energy. system. These planets are revolving around
The sun has been continously radiating energy the sun in elliptical path. They do not emit
at the rate of 46x1026 Joules per second for their own light but reflect some of the
the last several billion years without getting incident light of the sun. These planets in
E
cooler. The light emitted from the sun reaches the order of increasing distance from the
the earth in 8.3 minutes.
Y
sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Solar Constant(S): The amount of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Until
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radiant energy received per second per unit recently Pluto was recognised as the ninth
planet. However, Neptune and Pluto keep
EM
area of a perfectly black body surface at
right angles to the direction of the sun-rays on exchanging their distance in their
C
at the mean distance of the earth from the
sun is known as the solar constant.
Solar constant = 1388 Watt/m2 = 2 cal/
elliptical orbits in such a way that
sometimes Neptune is the farthest and
sometimes Pluto.
AC NI
(cm2 - minute). The mass of the earth is about 6x1024
kg. The planets Venus and Uranus rotate
Sun-Spots: Certain dark spots are
about their axis from the east to the west
observed in the photographs of the visible
whereas all the other planets rotate from
light disc of the sun. These dark-spots are
the west to the east. Venus and Uranus are
called sun-spots. They have relatively lower
called retrograde.
temperature (4500K) at the sun- surface.
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Their numbers vary with time. The (1) Mercury: It is the hottest, the
maximum sun spots activity occur smallest and the nearest to the sun amongst
regularly after every eleven years. This all planets. It is seen just before the sun
period is known as the sun-spot cycle. The rise, and after the sun-set. Its atmosphere
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sun-spots are also associated with high contains H, He, Ar and Ne-gases. The
magnetic fields (2000 to 3000 gause). temperature of its sun-facing side is 427° C
and the opposite dark side is at -270° C. It
Solar Flares: At the time of the
CH
Physics [95]
N2, 21% of O2 and traces of He, Ne, Kr, (6) Saturn: It is the second largest planet.
CO2 and water vapour. 71% surface of its It consists of H2 and He with traces of NH3
is covered with water. Moon is its natural and methane (CH4). It is recognised by a
satellite. system of revolving rings around it. The
rings have dust particles and ice. Its
(4) Mars: Its very thin layer of
temperature is about (-) 180°C. The largest
atmosphere contains 95% CO2, 2.7% N 2,
E
satellite is Titan (diameter = 5800 km).
1.6% Ar and traces of O2, CO and other
Y
gases. Its surface has craters of different (7) Uranus: It is made up of H2, He,
sizes. It is also known as “Red - Planet” NH3 and CH4. It appears green due to the
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because it appears red owing to the present large amount of CH4 and NH3 clouds in its
EM
of iron- oxide upto 16% of its soil. Its day- atmosphere. Its temperature is about (-)
temperature ranges from 21°C to 27°C but 127°C.
C
at night it becomes (-) 84°C. Phobos
(diameter =27 km) and Deimos (diameter
= 14 km) are its two satellites.
(8) Neptune: It is the 8th planet of the
sun. It has six satellites.
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Its surface has frozen methane (CH4). Its
(5) Jupiter: It is the largest planet. It is a
orbit crosses the orbit of Neptune. Its single
spinning ball of gases and liquids like
discovered satellite is Charon. It was treated
ammonia, hydrogen (NH3,H2) and helium
as the coldest and lightest planet of the sun.
He with no solid surface. Its temparature is
about (-) 140°C. No life is possible on it due Moon: It is the natural satellite of the
to ammonia clouds and intense emission of earth. Its period of revolution around the
S O
E
and high mountains on the surface of the When a comet is far away from the sun, it
moon. It does not have atmosphere and shows no tail. A comet appears after regular
Y
water. Its gravitational pull is 1/6th that intervals of time in the sky e.g. Halley’s
AD L
on the earth. Latest measurements showed comet has a time period of 76 years. It was
that the maximum temperature on the last seen in 1986 and is expected to be seen
EM
moon at day is 117°C and minimum again in 2062.
C
temperature at the night is - 171°C. Moon
Meteors: They are smaller pieces of
does not emit light by itself. It simply reflects
stones and metals which are produced due
light of the sun falling on it. The reflected
to breaking of comets while approaching
light on the Moon reaches the earth in
AC NI
the sun. When they enter the earth’s
1.28 seconds. Due to its rotation around atmosphere, they burn due to friction of
the earth, it looks different depending on the atmosphere and burn completely before
its position with respect to the sun and the they fall on the earth’s surface. They appear
earth. The age of the moon is the same as bright due to burning. Hence, they are
that of the earth i.e. about 4 billion years. called Fire balls or shooting stars.
Asteroids: The groups of small solid
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sun. Their orbits are highly elliptical which They are far away from the Sun e.g. Jupiter,
enable them to approach the Earth, Venus Saturn, Uranus, Neptune & Pluto.
and Mercury after regular intervals of time.
Albedo: The ratio of the sun’s energy
Their size varies from 50 m to 350 km in
reflected by a planet to that incident on it is
radius. They are believed to be the pieces of
called as albedo. It is also known as the
a much larger planet which broke up due
reflecting power of a planet. The clouds
to the gravitational pull of Jupiter. Ceres is
and atmosphere are good reflectors of light.
the largest known asteroid. Their
Higher the value of albedo of a planet,
composition is similar to that of Moon.
more is the possibility of atmosphere on
Comets: Comet is a heavenly body the planet. e.g. For Venus, albedo = 0.85 &
which is made of gases, ice and dust for Mercury, albedo =0.06 & for Moon,
particles and moves around the Sun in a albedo = 0.07. Hence, Venus has denser
long spindle shaped orbit. When a comet clouds and atmosphere but Mercury and
Physics [97]
Moon do not have any clouds and star (Sun), then the remaining mass (H2,
atmosphere. He & dust) formed disc shaped clouds
around the sun. These clouds were at very
Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet:
low temperature vis-a-vis the sun and hence
The possibility of existence of atmosphere
contracted due to gravitational pull and
on a planet depends upon the escape
condensed to form a small chunk of matter
velocity of that planet. Higher the value of
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known as planetesimal. There were larger
escape velocity, more is the possibility of
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number of planetesimals around the sun,
atmosphere on the planet. The escape
which attracted each other to form biger
velocity depends upon the acceleration due
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chunks of matters. These big chunks of
to gravity (g) and temperature of the planet.
matters continued to grow by attracting
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If the value of ‘g’ is more, the escape velocity
smaller pieces of matters by gravitational
is more. If the temperature of the planet is
C
high, the average velocity of the gas
molecules may achieve the escape velocity
and consequently, the gas molecules escape
pull. The matter was scattered in space in
all directions. They gave rise to planets and
satellites. The matters which could not
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participate in formation of planets and
out from the surface of the planet.
natural satellites collided with these formed
Thus, to have atmosphere on a planet, planets and satellites. It led to form deep
the planet must have lower surface craters on the surface of planets and
temperature, higher value of ‘g’ and higher satellites. These craters are visible on the
escape velocity. surface of moon and Mars.
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He and dust formed Nebulae. At the planets like Mercury and Venus and they
beginning, these clouds were at very low were rich in iron, silicon, magnesium and
temperature. These clouds collapsed slowly traces of other elements (ii) from the outer
planets like Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus and
CH
E
which a star is formed. The interstellar
ranged itself in between the core and
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the crust of the earth and formed the matters are in the form of clouds. When
mantle of earth. the clouds of gas-particles are illuminated
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by nearby stars, the clouds appear as bright
The process of reorganisation of molten
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nebulae whereas the clouds rich in dust
matter of the primitive earth into various appear as dark nebulae because they absorb
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layers of different densities is called
differentiation. At the time of
differentration, the water vapours and the
gases in the various minerals were released.
the radiation of the stars. The process of
the formation of star begins only if the
original clouds have a mass of at least 1000
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solar mass.
Later on, these water vapours were
condensed to give rain. The rain water Formation of Protostar (First Stage) :
filled the craters on the earth and thus, Initially, the interstellar matter is at very
oceans were formed. The various gases low temperature (–173°C). Due to the
released formed the atmosphere of the gravitational attraction the interstellar
earth. The changes occuring on the earth matter contracts and is compressed to such
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were fast in the begining now they are an extent that a huge ball of gases is formed.
slowing down. At present, these changes This gaseous ball is known as a protostar.
are responsible for the occurence of A protostar contains highly condensed
earthquakes, eruption of volcanoes and gases mainly H 2 & He. A cloud of
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making and raising of mountain ranges. intersteller matter takes about 105 years to
become a protostar. Protostar does not emit
STARS light and heat.
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Physics [99]
converted into a cluster of protostars and known as giant, super gaint or red-giant.
then into a cluster of stars i.e. a galaxy. This stage lasts for several million years
Inspite of a large attractive force of and at the end, the rate of production of
gravitation inside the star, it does not energy becomes so high that it explodes in
collapse because there is a high temperature the form of a Nova or Super Nova, throwing
that provides a high-pressure to counter out the major outer mass into interstellar
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balance the attractive force. This balance space. This is the death of a star. Depending
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continues for billions of years. upon the mass of left core of a star the
following heavenly bodies are formed:
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Formation of Red-giant (Third Stage) :
Due to continuous nuclear fusion of (a) White Dwarf : If the original mass
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hydrogen nuclei to form He-nuclei, the of a star is less than two times the mass of
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number of H-atoms decrease. It results in the sun, the gravitational compression
the decrease in pressure in the core of a leaves the core of the star, composed of
star. Hence, the inward force of attraction protons with electrons flying around in the
form of electron clouds. When this electron-
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increases in the core and the core contracts
rapidly but the outer layer expands cloud with stands the inward gravitational
outward. Thus the volume of a star becomes force, then a stable equilibrium is achieved.
very large. The outer layer gradually cools At this stage, the star is called a white
and appears red. This stage of a star is dwarf. It gradually cools finally ceasing to
Theories of Origin and Evolution of the Universe
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The Big Bang Theory : This theory was proposed by Le Maitre and Gammow. According to this theory,
at the beginning of the universe, the entire matter of the universe was once concentrated in an ex-
tremely dense and hot (1012k) fire ball. Then about 20 billion years ago a vast explosion (big-bang)
occurred. The matter was broken into pieces which were thrown out with high speed in all directions
forming stars and galaxies; which are still moving away from one another. The Hubble’s law agrees
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are constant.
Pulsating Theory : According to this theory the expansion and contraction of the universe occur alter-
nately i.e. the universe is pulsating. At present, the universe is expanding and after a certain amount of
expansion, it will begin contraction due to the gravitational pull. The alternate expansion and contrac-
tion of the universe gives rise to a pulsating universe.
emit radiations. Then it becomes a black- to form neutrons. Hence, the core contains
dwarf. The most famous white dwarf is neutrons only. It gives the birth of a neutron
Sirius-B close to the brightest star Sirius. star.
(b) Neutron Stars : If the original mass (c) Black Hole : If the original mass of a
of a star is between 2 to 5 times the mass of star is more than 5 times the mass of the
the sun, the recoil of supernova explosion sun, the recoil of supernova is extremely
is set up in the core. Now, the electrons are violent. Hence, the core collapses to have
forced into the nuclei and the result is an object which has a very high density
combination between electrons and protons and gravity. As a result any radiation or
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have shown that one of the components of The sun completes one revolution around
Cygnus XI is a black hole. the galactic centre in 220 millions years
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with a speed of 250 km/second.
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GALAXY Pulsars : They are neutron stars which
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A Galaxy consists of very large group emit radio signals at extremely regular
of stars, their families (i.e. planets etc.), intervals of time. Their pulsating radio
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dust and gases held together by the
attractive force of gravitation. A galaxy is
a building block of the universe. Total
signals are due to their high rotation and a
very large magnetic field.
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galaxies are about 100 billions and each CONSTELLATION (NAKSHATRAS)
galaxy has about 100 billion stars. Thus,
A constellation is a collection or group
there are about 1022 stars in the universe.
of a few stars. It forms a pattern which
Our solar system belongs to the galaxy
resembles the shape of an animal, object or
known as Milky Way galaxy (Akash
a human being. There are 88 known
Ganga). Another known galaxy is
constellations. They are visible in a definite
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E
wave-length increases or the apparent
a scorpio. It can be seen clearly from frequency decrease. This is known as Red-
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February to August in the Southern part of shift because the region of spectra has large
the sky. wavelength and smaller frequency. The
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(4) Orion, The Hunter (Vyadha or study of the spectral pattern of the galaxies
EM
Mirga) : Its shape is like that a hunter. The shows a red-shift. It means that most of the
C
two stars at the top row makes the right and galaxies are moving away from each other
left shoulder of the hunter. Three stars in the with enormous speed and the universe is
middle row form his belt and the two stars in continuously expanding.
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the bottom row form his feet. The faint stars Hubble’s Law : Hubble and Milton
below the belt are arranged in the shape of a studied the red-shift of various gallaxies
sword of the hunter. This constellation can and put forth the law. The Hubbles law
be seen clearly from October to April in the states that the recession velocity of a galaxy
southern part of the sky. is proportional to it distance from us i.e.
(5) Cassiopeia (Sarmistha) : It consists
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E
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The system of electronic communication signals). (ii) Frequency Modulation: It
involves the faithful transfer of messages results into frequency modulated wave
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in the form of electrical signal from one (FM-wave singals). (iii) Phase modulation:
EM
point to another point. Basic components It results into phase into modulated signal.
of a communication system include AM wave signals are mainly used for
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Transmitter, Transmission Channel &
Receiver. The information message is first
converted into electrical signal by a device
commercial broadcast of voice-signals. They
can be noisy because atmospheric
phenomena like lightning or man made
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called Transducer. This electrical signal is electrical signals affect this. AM-wave carrier
then transmitted by transmitter. An frequency ranges from approx. 0.5 to 2 MHz.
electronic signal in the Audio frequency
FM-signals are noise free and of better
range cannot be transmitted over a long
quality. They have large bandwidth and
distance because of lower value of audio
are preferred for transmission of music.
frequency range. Hence, low frequency
FM signals include—(i) FM radio (88 to
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Physics [103]
The digital communication involves the acts as a modulator & modem-I acts as a
quantization of the digitial data (0 and 1) demodulator.
by the help of a device called quantizer.
Modems that support a voice/data
Hence, it becomes relatively more error-
switch have an inbuilt microphone and
free and noise-free. It makes the digitial
speaker for voice communication. In voice
communication more reliable than the
mode, the modem acts as a regular
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analog-communication.
telephone while in data mode, the modem
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acts as a regular modem.
DEMODULATION
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The rate at which a modem can transmit
It is the reverse processs of modulation and receive data (message) is measured as
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that is carried out in a receiver to record Bits per second (bps). Higher data transfer
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the original information signal.
In an electronic communication system,
the transmitter modulates the information
rate can be achieved by data compression
which is performed by some specific modems.
The digital communications, computer
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signals and transmits them by an antenna & modem use a binary number system to
via transmission channels. The receiver deal with digital signals (data). Binary
receives the modulated transmission signals system involves two volues as 1 and 0 only.
and demodulates them to recover the 0 ® refers, open-circuit or No or space.
original information signals. A transmitter
1 ® refers to close circuit or yes or
performs data transmission and a receiver
mark.
performs data retrieval. In electronic
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MODEM
general, the no. of codes is given as N = 2n.
It connects one computer to another
When N = total no. of code-
across ordinary telephone lines. It can
combinations
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The communication channel is the Microwave signals in the range of VHF &
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physical medium between a transmitting UHF. These signals cannot be transmitted by
and a receiving stations through which the using ionosphere because the ionsosphere
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transmitted signals may propagate. can reflect the frequency upto 40MHz only.
Hence, these signals are transmitted from
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Types-(i) Space Communication
the transmitting antenna to the receiving
channel including satellite communication
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and (ii) line communication channels.
Space Communication : It involves the
antenna directly. Its range depends upon
the height of the transmitting antenna. Its
range can be increased (a) by using a no. of
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transmission of the message signals freely antennas called Repeaters in between the
in space by a transmitting antenna and transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.
receiving the signals by intercepting them (b) by increasing the height of the transmitting
with the help of receiving sets or antennas antenna. This height can be maximised by
at the other end. locating the transmitter on a satellite.
The space communication channel
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
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involves:
(i) Ground wave communication (ii) Sky It involves those frequency signals
wave communication (iii) Space or which can pass through the ionosphere
Tropospheric or surface wave without being reflected by the ionosphere.
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Physics [105]
For global comunication, three satellites are For ground water surveys.
parked 120° apart from each other in the
In the field of spying, to lcoate the
geo-stationary orbit.
position and movements of the enemy.
Remote-Sensing : It is a technique
which is used to observe and measure the T.V. REMOTE CONTROL
characteristics of the object or phenomenon
E
at a distance without being in physical The Remote Control used in TV and
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contact with it. Its working is related with music system is an electronic device. It
the measurement of some kind of signals consists of an integrated circuit (I.C.) and
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emitted, transmitted or reflected from an other components like a diode, a transistor,
EM
object in order to determine certain physical a capacitor, etc. When a key on the remote
properties of the object, like its temperature is pressed, it translates it into infrared
C
location, size, colour nature, etc. The remote
sensing uses, electromagnetic techniques
that covers the entire electromagnetic
signals which are received by the electronic
circuit of the TV and required operations
are performed.
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spectrum. Any photography is a kind of Line Communication : In order to
remote sensing. RADAR, SONAR, Satellite interconnect (i) a transmitter to an antenna,
with sensors, etc. are other examples of (ii) a transmitter to a receiver (iii) a receiver
remote sensing. to an antenna some specific wires are
Satellite remote sensing systems provide required. These wires are known as
the data critical to weather-prediction, transmission-lines. Some of them are as
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To estimate the damage being done by Coaxial cable system is better than
the floods. parallel twisted pair wire-lines because of
greater available band-width, lower energy
To locate the place where underground losses and much lower cross-walk.
nuclear explosion has been carried out.
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microwave, co-axial cables and latest, the ment industry etc. are also some of the uses
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optical fibre cables. The microwave link is of lasers.
more noisy than the coaxial link. The optical
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fibre link are free from noise & energy MICROWAVE DEVICE
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losses.
(1) Radar (Radio Detetection &
C LASER
(Light Amplification by stimulated
Ranging) : RADAR system detects the
objects like aeroplanes and ships. Its
antenna transmits microwave (frequency
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emission of radiation): Laser is a process greater than 1000 MHz) signals which are
by which a coherent, hightly intense mono reflected from the object. Knowing the time
chromatic and almost perfectly parallel interval between the transmission and
beam of light is obtained. The term ‘Laser’ reception of the signals, the distance of the
is also used for the beam of light obtained object is measured.
this way.
(2) Microwave Oven : It bakes food
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Use of Lasers : Lasers are used in : using microwaves. These microwaves are
produced in the oven at a high frequency
Microsurgery : For delicate organs e.g.
of about 2450 MHz by means of a
retina, cervical tumours, tissues, etc.
Magnetron. Since the metals block the
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Engineering : Tiny welds are made with microwaves, hence, most microwave ovens
precision using powerful laser beams. are made of glass. Microwaves produced
Industry : To drill holes in diamonds are directly absorbed by the food-material
without heating the surroundings. The
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Physics [107]
ELECTRO CHRONICLE
MAGNETISM IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
E
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electron or a proton. Electric charge is
ELECTROSTATICS always conserved when some electrons are
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Electrostatics deals with the study of transferred from one body to the other, the
EM
electric charges at rest. Electric charges at body giving electrons becomes slightly
lighter and the body gaining electrons
C
rest are produced either by friction between
two insulating bodies which are rubbed
against each other or by electrical induction
between a charged body and an earthed
becomes slightly heavier.
COULOMB’S LAW
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uncharged body.
The electric forces between the two
When two insulating bodies are rubbed point charges is directly poportional to the
against each other, electrons are transferred product of the charges and inversely
from one body to the other. Electrons are proportional to the square of distance
negatively charged particles. Hence, the between the charges. The electric force may
body giving electrons becomes positively be attractive or repulsive depending upon
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charged while the body gaining electrons the nature of the two charges. The
becomes negatively charged. Electric coulombic force (electric-force) is much
charges are of two types only viz. positive stronger than the force of gravitation. An
and negative. Like charges repel and unlike uncharged body can be charged by placing
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E
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING OR industrial works.
Y
ELECTROSTATIC SCREENING Atmospheric Electricity : Earth is a
Protecting a certain region of space good conductor of electricity. Its electric
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from external electric fields is known as potential is ‘0’ Volt everywhere at the
earth’s surface. When a positively charged
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electrostatic shielding.
body comes in contact with the earth,
C
A hollow conductor stores charge only
at its surface. Hence, electric field remains
outside only, and inside the hollow electric
field is zero. Such a space having zero
electrons flow from earth to the body
whereas when a negatively charged body
comes in contact with earth, electrons flow
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from the body to the earth. Lower
electric field is known as Faraday’s Cage. atmosphere is a poor conductor of electricity
Therefore, to protect delicate instruments but its conductivity increases with increase
from external electric fields, they are kept in height. Ionosphere is a very good
inside a hollow conductor. In a thundersto- conductor. This is primarily due to
rm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to ionization of particles of air by cosmic ray
be inside a car or a bus than to be in the particles having energies to the order of
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ends is a good receiver of charge also. A very high potential difference (107 to 108v)
lightning conductor placed at the top of a between the lower negatively charged level
building has a number of sharp spikes at of cloud and the earth’s surface. It causes
its two ends. Upper end is free in air to the electric breakdown of air. Consequently
catch electric charge produced due to the intervening air gets ionised and
lightning and the lower end sprays charge conducts charge from the cloud to the earth
into the ground. Thus it provides a safety in the form of a lightning flash. Each flash
to the building. lasts for 2×10–3 seconds and desposits about
Electroscope : The device is used to 20 coulomb charge on earth. All the world
detect the presence of electric charge and over, there occur about 40000
type of charge on a body. Its most common thunderstorms per day.
type is gold leaves electroscope. It can
In recent years, many important
measure potential-difference as well.
industrial applications of electrostatics have
Capacitor or Condenser : A device been developed. Some of them are:
Physics [109]
(1) In prevention of pollution of atmosphere (2) In designing electrostatic generators like
by electrostatic precipitation of fly ash. Van de Graaff generator.
E
conductor is known as metallic conduction. electrolytic conduction.
2. Metallic conduction is due to the movement Electrolytic conduction is due to the movement
Y
of electrons in the metallic conductor. of positive and negative ions in the electrolyte.
3. The chemical properties of the metallic conductors The chemical properties of the electrolyte
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do not change due to metallic conduction. change due to electrolytic conduction.
4. The metallic conductor is not The electrolyte decomposes due to electrolytic
EM
decomposed due to metallic conduction conduction.
but it is only heated up.
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Conductors
Conductor & Insulator
Semi Conductors Insulators
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(1) They are good conductors of (1) They are poor conductors (1) They are bad conductors
electricity. of electricity. of electricity.
(2) They have higher density of free (2) They have lower density of free (2) They do not have carriers
electrons as carriers of charge. electrons & holes as carriers of of charge.
charge.
(3) They have very high (3) They have relatively lower (3) They have very low
conductivity. conductivity. conductivity.
(4) Conductivity decreases with rise (4) Conductivity increases with rise (4) Conductivity increases
in temperature. in temperature. with temperature.
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(3) In electrostatic spraying of paints, etc. works both on d.c. and a.c. Joule
powders etc. heating effect is irreversible. It means if
the direction of current in a resistor is
(4) In understanding volcanic lightning
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work.
Ohm’s Law
Y
In series grouping of bulbs, the bulb of
higher wattage will give less bright light The current flowing through a
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and will have smaller resistance and po- conductor is directly proportional to the
tential difference across it. If one bulb potential difference across the ends of the
EM
gets fused the other bulbs will not work. conductor provided the temperature and
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CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Potential : The amount of work
other physical conditions of the conductor
remain the same.
Potential difference (V) ∝ Electric
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done in bringing unit positive charge at a current (I)
point is called as potential at that point. or, pot. diff. (V) = constant (R) × Electric
Electric potential = work done/charge =
current (I)
Joule/coulomb = volt. Unit of electric
potential is volt (v). or
Potential difference (p.d.). It is equal to
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Physics [111]
V = Potential difference across
Conductivity (K) conductor.
E
When two or more resistances are heat produced due to the flow of current is
Y
arranged in series i.e. in a common path of electrical energy consumed in a given
flow of current, the net resistance is equal electrical circuit. Thus, the net
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to the sum of individual resistance. Hence,
Electrical energy = I2Rt = VIT =
EM
in series, the net resistance becomes larger.
For two resistances R1 & R2 : Rs = R1 + R2 >
R1 or R2.
C
When two or more resistances are
arranged in parallel i.e., between two
Electrical power
= I2R =VI
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common points of two different paths of Unit of electrical energy is Joule (J) and
flow of current, the reciprocal of the net that of power is watt (w). Horse-power is
resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals another unit of power. 1 Horse-power
of individual resistances. Hence, in parallel, (H.P.) = 746 watt. The practical commercial
the net resistance becomes smaller. For two unit of energy is kilowatt hour (KWH).
1 KWH = 1000 × 60 × 60 = 3.6 × 106
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E
alloy of tin (63%) & lead (37%). It has high deposited at negative electrode (cathode)
Y
resistance and low melting point. It is and the anion gets deposited at the positive
connected in series with the electrical electrode (anode). This phenomenon is
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installations. All of a sudden, if strong known as electrolysis. Electrolysis is
explained by the Faraday’s laws of
EM
current flows, the fuse wire melts away,
causing the breakage in the circuit, thereby electrolysis. Faraday constant (F) = 96500
C
saving the main installations from being
damaged. Thus, it is capable of saving costly
appliances.
coulomb/gram equivalent = charge on one
mole of electrons. Electrolysis involves direct
current (d.c.) only and not a.c.
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Power Cell Chemsitry
Cell Electrodes Electrolyte Depolariser EM For Voltage
Voltaic Copper and Zinc Dilute solution of Absent and the cell 1.08 Volt
cell rods H2SO4 (sulphuric suffers from polarisation
acid)
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Leclanche cell Carbon and zinc rods Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.45 volt
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(NH4Cl) (MnO2)
Dry cell Carbon rod and zinc Ammonium chloride Manganese dioxide 1.5 Volt
pot (NH4Cl) (MnO2). ZnCl2 being
hygroscopic absorbs
CH
water produced.
Lead-Acid A set of perforated dilute (20%) H2SO4 lead oxide (PbO2) 2.2 volt
Accumulator lead plates with lead Solution with specific
(PbO2) in holes as gravity 1.25. when the
positive and a set of specific gravity of
lead rods as negative H2SO4 solution
decreases to 1.18 the
cell requires recharging
Physics [113]
Applications of Electrolysis : Extraction of Metals from the Ores :
Metals like sodium, aluminium, magne-
Electroplating : The process of deposit-
sium, calcium, zinc, copper etc. are ex-
ing a layer of precious metal like gold,
tracted from their ores by electrolsysis.
silver, nickel and chromium over cheap
metals like iron and copper by electroly- Purification of Metals : It is carried out
sis is called as electroplating. The pre- by using impure metal as the anode,
E
cious metal is taken as anode and cheap pure metal as the cathode and a double
Y
metal as cathode. The electroplating pre- salt of the pure metal as electrolytes
vents corrosion (rusting) and makes the when a current is passed through the
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cheap metals attractive. electrolyte solution, pure metal gets
EM
deposited at the cathode. This methode
Anodising : It is the process of coating
is used to purify blister copper.
C
aluminium with its oxide electrochemi-
cally to protect it against corrosion. In
dilute sulphuric acid as electrolyte, the
aluminium article is made the anode.
Production of Oxygen and Hydrogen :
Oxygen and hydrogen are manufac-
tured commercially by the electrolysis
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To give the surface of the article beauti- of acidulated water.
ful colours, dyes are mixed in the elec- Manufacture of Chemicals : By the
trolyte. electrolysis of sodium chloride solution,
Electrotyping : It involves the prepara- caustic soda is prepared.
tion of exact copies of metallic type Medical Applications : Electrolysis is
used in the printing work and the en- used for nerve stimulation especially for
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graved blocks on the metals by the pro- polio, for removing unwanted hairs on
cess of electrolysis. A sheet of wax is any part of the body etc.
first pressed against the type set or block.
The impression obtained on wax is made
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ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
conducting by coating it with graphite
powder. Then it is copper-plated by the It converts chemical energy stored in
process of electrolysis. The sheet so ob- the electrolyte into electical energy by
chemical reaction.
CH
E
ments.
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Silver Oxide Cells : EMF = 1.62 volt. Galvanometer : It is based on the
magnetic effect of current. When a coil
Life and uses similar to that of mercury
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cells. having electric current is suspended in a
uniform magnetic field, it gets deflected.
EM
Lithium Cells : Life : upto 10 years. This forms the basis of galvanometer. A
C
Used in quartz watches, mobiles, etc. galvanometer connected in any part of an
Alkali Cells : They are very cheap and electric circuit indicates the flow of current.
environmentally safe. Life shorter. Use It is used to construct devices like Ammeter
similar to other button cell EMF = 1.5 V and Voltmeter.
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Battery : An arrangement of a no. of Ammeter : It measures the amount of
cells in series to provide higher voltage of electric current in any part of circuit in
direct current (d.c.) is called a battery. series.
Voltameter or Electrolytic Cells : An Voltmeter : It measures potential
arrangement consisting of identical
difference across a circuit in parallel.
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Physics [115]
For a given electrical installation, when and is used to produce alternating current
an electrical appliance of high wattage by an a.c. generator.
is switched on it draws more current.
Electric Motor : It converts electrical
Consequently, the voltage across the
energy into mechanical energy. It is based
nearby appliance of lower wattage is
on the fact when a current carrying coil is
lowered for a moment until it is estab- placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
E
lished by the transmission grid. e.g (i) torque that causes rotation of the coils.
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When a car-engine starts, the car light Electric motors are used to operate many
gets dimmer for a moment (ii) Light appliances like fans, coolers, mixers,
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from a bathroon bulb gets dimmer for a geysers, refrigerators washing machines etc.
moment when the geyser is switched
EM
on. Motor Starter : When a large electric
C
motor is switched on, its initial current is
When a metallic wire is carrying an very high and that can damage its circuit.
electeric current, it is not charged be- Hence, the initial higher current should be
cause the total no. of electrons and that reduced. A motor starter has a large variable
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of protons in any section of the wire
resistance. When an electric motor starts,
remains the same. Hence net charge on
the wire is zero. the motor starter automatically goes in to
reduce high current and comes out after
Potentiometer : It is an electrical device switching off the motor. Thus it regulates
used to compare emfs and internal an electric motor at start and stop.
resistence of the two cells.
Choke-Coil : It regulates alternating
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Thus, it provides a safety to the device or (i) Direct Current (D.C.) generator : it
the ciruit. produces D.C.
Electromagnetic Induction : Whenever (ii) Alternating current (A.C.) generator :
the magnetic flux linked with a closed it produce A.C.
metallic-loop changes, an amount of emf is
induced in the loop. The induced emf Both the generators work on a common
causes flow of induced current in the loop. principle. When a metallic coil rotates in a
This phenomenon is known as magnetic field, an induced em.f. is produced
electromagnetic induction. It can be carried in the coil. However, their constructions
out by (i) moving a magnet towards or are a bit different.
away from the loop (ii) moving a loop Transformer : It converts higher
towards or away from the magnet (iii) alternating current at lower alternating
rotating a loop in front of a magnet. This voltage into lower alternating current at
effect forms the basis of serveral devices higher alternating voltage and vice-versa.
[116] General Science
It is of two types viz (i) Step-up with a turbine. In case of a hydroelectricity
transformer : It converts higher a.c. at lower plant, the potential energy of water stored
a.c. voltage into lower a.c. at higher a.c. in a dam is converted into kinetic energy of
voltage. It is used at the power station (ii) the falling water which in turn is converted
step-down transformer : It converts lower into the kinetic energy of the armature of
a.c. at higher a.c. voltage supplied by power the generator. This kinetic energy finally
station into higher a.c. at lower a.c. voltage appears as electrical energy known as
E
to be used for domestic purposes. It is used hydro electricity. At a thermo-electric plant,
Y
at the colonies. Transformer works on the the function of the falling water is done by
principle of mutual induction, a form of hot-steam coming from boiling water. It
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electromagnetic induction. requires heat energy produced by burning
EM
Inverter : It converts D.C. into A.C. For the fuel like coal & petroleum or heat
domestic purposes it is specially designed produced by nuclear reactor.
C
to convert D.C. from a battery to A.C. & to
charge the battery. When the mains supply
is available, it charges the battery (converts
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
AC NI
A.C. into D.C.) whereas in absence of the The electric power is supplied to the
mains supply, it automotically switches on houses or factories through undergound
the A.C., converted from D.C. supplied by cables or overhead wires on poles. A single
the battery. Thus it fulfils electric supply phase electric line system comprises three
during the power break down. wires, namely phase wire or line wire,
Loudspeaker : It converts electrical neutral- wire and earth-wire. These wires
energy first into mechenical energy and coming from power substation are
S O
then into sound energy. It works on the connected to an electric meter in a house
fact that when a current carrying coil is or a factory. An electric fuse is placed in
placed in a magnetic field, the coil the path of the phase wire before it is
experiences force. This force causes connected to the electric-meter. This fuse is
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Physics [117]
connection gives equal potential difference hence it is connected with the green or
across each appliance in a circuit. This yellow wire. The remaining two pins are
system is complex and expensive. connected with red or brown (live) wire
(ii) Ring System: In this system the and black or blue (neutral) wire. The earth
three wires namely live, neutral & earth, pin being thicker cannot be inserted in the
start from the main fuse and return to the live of the socket even by mistake.
E
main fuse ofter connecting various Sockets: A socket has three holes. The
Y
appliances. Each appliance has a fuse. So top bigger hole is for the earth, the lower
if a fuse melts due to short circuiting, then right hole is for the live wire and the left
AD L
only that appliances is switched off. Other hole is for the neutral wire.
EM
appliance remain unaffected and continue
Switches: An electric switch, is always
to work. This system is easy to install and
cheaper.
C
Earthing: It is usually a copper wire
whose one end is connected with metal
connected across the live wire. If a switch
is connected in the neutral wire, the socket
remains live even when the switch is in the
off position. It can cause a shock from the
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casing of an electric appliance. The other element of a heater or other appliance even
end of the wire is connected to the copper when the appliance is not in use.
plate which is buried deep inside the earth.
When the live wire touches the metal casing The insulation on the wire should be of
of an electric-appliance, it can cause electric high strength so that it may not melt easily
shock on touching the appliance. But in when wires are heated due to a large
current flowing through them. Wires
S O
E
Each magnet has two equal and opposite costly wrist watches from external
Y
magnetic poles viz. North pole and South- magnetic fields by enclosing them in a soft
pole lying at its ends.
iron core.
AD L
When an iron bar is magnetised, the
EM
spins are aligned parallel to the field. Hence,
CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
It we cut a magnet, we get smaller
magnets again, instead of an isolated north (1) Diamagnetic Substances : They are
weakly repelled by an external magnetic
S O
Physics [119]
The ferromagnetic materials used for Geographic Meridian q = Magnetic
coating magnetic tapes in a cassette player declination.
or for building memory stores in a
computer are ferrites. Most common
ferrites used are MFe2O4 where M= Mn,
Fe, Co and Ni.
E
Y
EARTH’S MAGNETISM
AD L
Earth acts as a huge magnet. Its
magnetic south pole is at its geographic
EM
north and is located in North-Canada ,
C
longitude 96° west and latitude 70.5° North.
Its magnetic north pole is at the geographic
south and is located in Antarctica,
d = Magnetic dip.
H = Horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field (BE).
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longitude 84° east and latitude 70.5° south.
V = Vertical component of BE.
Geographic Meridian : An imaginary
vertical plane passing along the axis of When a compass is used by mariners
and others at a place, the magnetic needle
rotation of the earth at a place is known as
of the compass sets itself along the
geographic meridian at that place.
horizontal component of the earth’s
Magnetic Meridian : An imaginary magnetic field in the magnetic meridian.
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vertical plane passing along the axis of a By knowing the angle of dip and magnetic
freely suspeneded magnet at a place is declination, the location of the place can
known as magnetic meridian at the place. be determined.
Magnetic Declination (q) : The angle
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E
(iii)When we draw field lines of a magnet, zero.
Y
we get neutral points. At these points The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
the net magnetic field due to the magnet
AD L
should be infinity.
is completely neutralized by the
EM
horizontal component of the earth’s The resistance of an ideal ammeter
magnetic field. should be zero.
C TRIVIA
Energy is dissipated inside a cell due to
internal resistance.
AC NI
In the gases, the charge carriers are The potential across a cell in closed
electrons and + VE ions. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.
Filament of 100 W lamp is thinner than
that of 200 W lamp. Larger the current drawn from a cell,
When two lamps of different wattage smaller is the potential difference across it.
are connected in series, the lamp of Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
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cell is 1.45 V.
at low temperature are called super-
conductors. Acid accumulator is most likely to be
The material of the heating element of damaged due to short circuiting.
an electric heater should have high re- Fast charging does not cause sulphation
sistivity and high melting point. of acid accumulator, but fast discharg-
The heat generated in a wire is doubled ing does it.
when both the radius and length of the Thermocouple should not be used to
wire are doubled. measure temperature above the neu-
If a heater boils 1 kg water in time T1 tral temperature.
and another heater boils the same wa-
And if they are connected in parallel,
ter in time T2, then both connected to-
the time taken to boil the same amount
gether in series will boil the same water
of water will be T1T2/(T1 + T2).
time T1 + T2.
Physics [121]
The fuse wire is made of an alloy of lead The potential across a cell in closed
and tin. circuit is less than the emf due to its
internal resistance.
The resistance in electricity is analo-
gous to friction in mechanics. Larger the current drawn from a cell,
smaller is the potential difference across it.
The change in the dimensions of a con-
E
ductor has no effect on its conductivity, Energy dissipated by the cell = Elt,
Y
although conductance may change. where E = emf, I = current, t = time.
The quantity in electricity that is ana- Energy dissipated in the external circuit
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logues to temperature in heat is poten- of a cell = VIt, where V = potential drop
EM
tial. across the cell.
C
The current capacity increases, when The emf of voilaic cell is 1.08 V, that of
the cells are connected in series. Daniel cell is 1.12 V and that of Leclanche
cell is 1.45 V.
The internal resistance of an ideal cell is
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zero. Acid accumulator is most likely to be
damaged due to short circuiting.
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter
should be infinity. Fast charging does not cause sulphation
of acid accumulator, but fast discharg-
The resistance of an ideal ammeter
ing does it.
should be zero.
Thermocouple should not be used to
S O
IA R
CH
E
Y
LAWS OF MOTION gravitational unit of force on cgs sys-
tem is gram weight or gram force.
AD L
Newton’s three laws of motion form
1N = 105 dyne,
EM
the basis of mechanics: According to
1st law, a body continues to be in its 1g wt. = 980 dyne.
C
state of rest or of uniform motion along
a straight line, unless it is acted upon
by some external force to change the
According to the principle of conserva-
tion of linear moment, the vector sum
of linear momentum of all the bodies in
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state. The law defines force and is also
an isolated system is conserved, and is
called law of inertia.
not affected due to their mutual action
According to 2nd law, the rate of change and reaction. An isolated system is that
of linear momentum of a body is directly on which no external force is acting.
proportional to the external force applied Flight of rockets, jet planes, recoiling of
on the body, and this change takes place a gun etc, are explained on the basis of
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in the direction of the applied force. This this principle. Newton’s 3rd law of mo-
law gives us a measure of force. tion can also be derived from this prin-
According to third law, to every action, ciple and vice-versa.
there is always an equal and opposite Apparent weight of man in an eleva-
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by itself, its state of rest or its state of the lift is accelerating upwards and (-
uniform motion along a straight line. a), when the lift is accelerating down-
Inertia is obviously of three types : wards. When lift is moving uniformly
(i) Inertia of rest (ii) Inertia of motion, (upwards/downwards), a = 0, W’ =
(iii) Inertia of direction. mg = real weight.
Physics [123]
A frame of reference in which Newton’s inertial frame of references. Such a frame
laws of motion hold good is called an is unaccelerated frame of reference.
Energy Equivalence
S.No. Particle Mass Energy equivalent
1. Electron or positron 9.1 × 10-31kg 0.53 MeV
2. Neutron or proton 1 amu = 1.67 × 10-37kg 931 MeV
E
3. Alpha particle 6.68 × 10–27kg 3724 MeV
Y
GRAVITATION is zero at the centre of the earth. The
value of g on the surface of earth is 9.8
AD L
Gravitation is the name given to the ms –2.
EM
force of attraction acting between any
The acceleration due to gravity (g) is
two bodies of the universle.
C
Newton’s Law of Gravitation: It states
that the gravitational force of attraction
acting between two bodies of the uni-
related with gravitational constant (G)
by the relation g where M and R
are the mass and radius of the earth.
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verse is directly proportional to the prod-
becomes zero at the centre of earth.
uct of their masses and is inversely pro-
portional to the square of the distance Gravitational Field: It is the space around
between them i.e, = Gm1m2/r2; where a material body in which its gravitational
G is the universal gravitational constant. pull can be experienced by other bodies.
The strength of gravitational field at a
Gravitational Constant (G): It is equal
point is the measure of gravitational in-
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E
When the satellite is orbiting close to
Y
Gravitational potential energy of a body,
at a point in the gravitational field of the surface of earth i.e., H < < R, then
AD L
another body is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing the given body
EM
from infinity to that point without ac-
C
celeration.
Gravitational potential energy = gravi-
tational potential × mass of body.
(ii) Time period of Satellite (T) : It is
the time taken by satellite to com-
plete one revolution around the
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earth.
Inertial mass of a body is defined as the
force required to produce unit accel- Geostationary Satellite: A satellite
eration in the body. which revolves around the earth with
the same angular speed in the same
Gravitational mass of a body is defined direction as is done by the earth around
as the gravitational pull experienced by its axis is called geostationary or geo-
the body in a gravitational field of unit
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synchronous satellite.
intensity.
The height of geostationary satellite is =
Inertial mass of a body is identical to the 36000 km and its orbital velocity =
gravitational mass of that body. The main 3.1kms –1.
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presence of other bodies near it. graphical north and south poles of earth
one per orbit.
Satellite : A satellite is a body which is
revolving continously in an orbit around Escape Velocity: The escape velocity
a comparatively much large body. on earth is defined as the minimum
velocity with which a body has to be
(i) Orbital velocity of a satellite is the projected vertically upwards from the
velocity required to put the satellite surface of earth (or any other planet) so
into given orbit around earth. Or- that it just crosses the gravitational field
bital velocity of satellite, when it is of earth (or of that planet) and never
revolving around earth at height h returns on its own. Escape velocity ve is
is given by given by.
Physics [125]
For earth, the value of escape velocity is (ii) Kepler’s Second Law (Law of
11.2 kms–1. Area): The radius vector drawn
from the sun to a planet sweeps out
For a point close to the earth’s surface,
equal areas in equal intervals of time
the escape velocity are related as
i.e, the areal velocity of the planet
around the sun is constant.
E
Weightlessness: It is a situation in (iii) Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Pe-
Y
which the effective weight of the body riod) : The square of the time pe-
becomes zero. riod of revolution of a planet around
AD L
the sun is directly proportional to
Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion:
EM
the cube of semi-major axis of the
(i) Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbit): elliptical orbit i. e., T2 µ R3.
C
Every planet revolves around the
sun in an elliptical orbit. The sun is
situated at one focus of the ellipse.
where R is the semi major axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet around the
sun.
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Conservative and Non-conservative Force
S. Conservative Forces Non Conservative Forces
1. Work done by/against such forces in 1. Work done by/against such forces in
displacing a particle does not depend upon displacing a particle depends upon the path
the path along which particle is displaced. along which particle is displaced.
2. Work done by/against such forces in 2. Work done by/against such forces in
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displacing a particle around a closed path is displacing a particle around a closed path is
zero. NOT zero.
3. K.E. of particle remains constant 3. K.E. of particle changes.
E
Deforming Force : It is that force which change in configuration of the deformed
Y
when applied, changes the body due to a deforming force on it to
configuration of the body. the original configuration of the body
AD L
i.e.,
Elasticity : It is the property of the body
EM
by virtue of which the body regains its
C
original configuration (length, volume
or shape) when the deforming forces are
removed.
Strain can be of three types :
(i) Longitudinal strain
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Stress : The internal restoring force (ii) Volumetric strain
acting per unit area of a deformed body
is called stress i.e., (iii) Shearing stream
opposite to the external deforming force that the stress is directly proportional
applied, when there is no permanent to strain within the elastic limit.
change in the configuration of the body.
Thus, Modulus of Elasticity or Coefficient of
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is Nm–2 and c.g.s unit is dyne/cm2. Its Modulus of elasticity is of three types :
Physics [127]
is defined as the ratio of normal elastic after effect. It is least for quartz
stress to the volumetric strain within or phosphor bronze.
the elastic limit i.e., Elastic-Fatigue : It is the property of
the elastic body by virtue of which its
behviour becomes less elastic under the
action of repeated alternating deform-
E
(iii) Modulus of Rigidity (η) : It is de- ing forces.
fined as the ratio of tangential stress to
Y
Breaking force = breaking stress × area
the shearing strain, within the elastic of cross section of the wire.
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limit i.e., Breaking stress is fixed for a material
EM
but breaking force will vary, depend-
ing on area of cross-section of the wire.
C
Where Shearing strain is defined as the
angle through which a line perpendicu-
lar to the fixed face gets rotated under
Elastic Potential Energy in a Stretched
Wire: Elastic potential energy per unit
volume of the stretched wire is,
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the effect of a tangential force acting on
the opposite face of the body.
The S.I. units of modulus of elasticity of
Y or K or η is Nm–2 or Pa and c.g.s. unit
is dyne/cm2. The dimensional formula
= [M1L–1T–2]. Thrust: The total normal force exerted
S O
E
when a body is immersed partly on (i) Excess of pressure inside a liquid
Y
wholly in a liquid at rest it loses some of drop.
its weight, which is equal to the weight p = 2 S/R
AD L
of the liquid displaced by the immersed (ii) Excess of pressure inside a soap
part of the body. Observed weight of the bubble,
EM
body in a liquid = true weighh - weight p = 4 S/R
C
of liquid displaced.
Law of Floatation: It states that a body
will float in a liquid if weight of the
where S is the surface tension and R is
the radius of the drop or bubble.
Angle of Contact : The angle of contact
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liquid displaced by the immersed part between a liquid and a solid is defined
of the body is atleast equal to or greater as the angle enclosed between the
than the weight of the body. tangents to the liquid surface and the
Molecular Range : It is the maximum solid surface inside the liquid, both the
distance upto which a molecule can tangents being drawn at the point of
exert some measurable attraction on contact of the liquid with the solid. The
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other molecules. The order of molecular value of angle of contact is less than 90°
range is = 10–9m in solids and liquids. for a liquid which wets the solid surface
Sphere of Influence : It is a sphere and is greater than 90° if a liquid does
not wet the solid surface.
drawn with molecule as centre and
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Physics [129]
Viscosity : Viscosity is the property of called a laminar flow. In this flow, one
a fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which layer slides over the other layer of liquid.
an internal frictional force or viscous The velocity of liquid flow is always less
drag comes into play when the fluid is than the critical velocity of the liquid.
in motion and opposes the relative mo- Turbulent Flow : It is that flow of liquid,
tion of its different layers. The coeffi- in which a liquid moves with a velocity
E
cient of viscosity of liquid is defined as greater than its critical velocity. The mo-
Y
the tangential force (= backward vis- tion of the particles of liquid becomes
cous drag) required to maintain a unit
disorderly or irregular.
AD L
velocity gradient between two layers of
fluid each of unit area. Critical Velocity : It is that velocity of
EM
liquid flow, upto which the flow of liq-
Viscous drag F acting between two lay-
C
uid is a streamlined and above which
ers of liquid each of area A, moving
its flow becomes turbulent.
with velocity gradient dv/dx is given
by Reynold’s Number : It is pure num-
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F = – ηΑdv/dx ber which determines the nature of
flow of liquid through a pipe. Quanti-
where η is the coefficient of viscosity, and
tatively, Reynold’s number NR is given
its c.g.s unit is poise or dyne cm–2 sec.
by
Stoke’s Law : It states that the back-
ward dragging force F acting on a small
spherical body of radius r, moving
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The Viscosity of Liquid decreases with the tube. For streamline or laminar flow,
increase in Temperature : The viscos- the value of NR is less than 2000 and for
ity of gases increases with the increas turbulent flow the value of NR is more
in temperature. With the increase in than 3000. For NR in between 2000 to
CH
E
and = velocity head.
Y
If temperature of a body of mass m
rises by ∆T, then Q = m L, where L is
If the liquid is flowing through a hori-
AD L
latent heat of the body.
zontal tube, then h is constant.
EM
Bernoulli’s Theorem states that Temperature on Celcius Scale: Fahr-
enheit scale, Reumer scale and Kelvin
C = a constant
The Bernoulli’s Theorem, also states that
scale are related as:
AC NI
in a stream line flow of an ideal liquid
through a horizontal tube, the velocity
increases where pressure decreases and
vice-versa. Various Thermometers used for mea-
suring unknown temperatures are :
Torricelli’s Theorem : It states that the Jolly’s constant volume air thermom-
velocity of efflux i.e., the velocity with
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as α
h is the depth of orifice below the free
surface of liquid. Thermal capacity of a body is the
amount of heat required to raise its tem-
HEAT perature through one degree ∆Q = mc.
From here, we may define specific heat
The ratio of work done (W) to the of a body as the heat capacity per unit
amount of heat produced (Q) is always mass of the body.
Physics [131]
When two substances at different tem- The value of gas constant r for different
perature are mixed together they ex- gases is different.
change heat. If we assume that no heat
Ideal Gas or Perfect Gas: It is that gas
is lost to the surroundings, then ac-
which strictly obeys gas laws. for such
cording to principle of calorimetry,
a gas, the size of the moelcules of a gas
Heat lost = Heat gained. is zero and there is no force of attrac-
E
Specific Heat of Gases : Specific heat tion or repulsion amongst its molecules.
Y
of a gas is the amount of heat required Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of
to raise the temperature of one gram of
AD L
Gases:
gas through 1°C. As the gas can be
EM
(i) A gas consists of a very large number
heated under different conditions, and
different amounts of heat is required in of molecules which are perfectly elas-
C
each case, therefore, a gas does not pos-
sess one single value of specific heat.
Out of many values of specific heat of a
tic spheres and are identical in all
respects for a given gas and are dif-
ferent for different gases.
AC NI
gas, two are important. These are called (ii) The molecules of a gas are in a state of
two principal specific heats of a gas : continous, rapid and random motion.
1. Specific heat of a constant volume (cv) (iii) The volume occupied by the molecules
2. Specific heat of a constant pressure (cp) is negligible in comparison to the vol-
ume of the gas.
Boyle’s Law: It states that the volume
V of the given mass of a gas is inversely (iv) The molecules do not exert any force
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PV = K a constant.
themselves and with the walls of the
Charle’s Law: It states that the pres- vessel are perfectly elastic.
sure remaining constant, the volume of
the given mass of a gas is directly pro- (vi) Molecular density is uniform through-
CH
E
Depolariser CuSO4 Manganese Manganese
solution dioxide dioxide ment of the principle of conservation of
Y
energy as applied to heat energy. Ac-
Average K.E. per molecule of a gas cording to this law
AD L
. It is independent of the dQ = dU + dW
EM
mass of the gas but depends upon the
where dQ is the small amount of heat
temperature of the gas.
C
Absolute Zero : It is that temperature
at which the root mean square velocity
of the gas molecules reduces to zero.
energy given to a system, dU is small
increase in internal energy of the sys-
tem and dW is the small external work
done by the system.
AC NI
Thermodynamical System : An assem- Thermodynamical Operations : Iso-
bly of extremely large number of par- thermal Changes are the changes in
ticles (such as gas molecules in a con- pressure and volume of the system
tainer) is called a thermodynamical sys- when temperature is kept constant. Free
tem. Such a system has a certain value exchange of heat between the system
of pressure P, volume V and tempera- and the surroundings is allowed. The
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ture T and heat content Q. These are container must be perfectly conducting
called Thermodynamical parameters. and the changes must be brought about
slowly.
The equation of state of gaseous phase
IA R
Physics [133]
According to Kelvin, it is impossible to high temperature T 1 °K and Q 2 is
derive a continuous supply of work by amount of heat energy rejected to the
cooling a body to a temperature lower sink at constant low temperature T2°K.
than that of the coldest of its surround-
A Refrigerator or a Heat pump absorbs
ings.
heat Q2 from a sink at lower tempera-
Heat Engines : A heat engine is a de- ture T2°K. The sink is the substance to
E
vice which converts heat energy into
Y
Cell Chemistry
mechanical energy. Efficiency of a heat
In charged Lead Accumulator Alkali Accumulator
engine is the ratio of useful work done
AD L
Positive Perforated lead Perforated steel
(W) by the engine per cycle to the heat electrode plates coated with plate coated with
EM
energy absorbed from the source (Q1) PbO2 Ni(OH)4
Negative Perforated lead Perforated steel
per cycle.
C
electrode plates coated with plate coated with Fe
pure lead
Electrolyte Dil. H2SO4 20% solution of
KOH + 1% LiOH
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where Q2 is the heat rejected to the sink be cooled. Heat absorbed from the sink
Power of a steam engine = 2 PLAN is rejected to the source (i.e., surround-
(watt) ing air) at high temperature T1°K. Elec-
tric energy W has to be supplied for this
where P is the pres- purpose Q1 = Q2 + W.
sure of steam measured in Nm–2, L is Coefficient of performance (C.O.P.) of
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half the length of the stroke in metre, a refrigerator is the ratio of the heat
A is area of cross section of the piston absorbed from the sink (Q2) to the elec-
in m2 and N is number of strokes per tric energy supplied (W) for this pur-
second. pose per cycle i.e.,
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where Q1 is heat energy absorbed from where A is area of hot face, ∆x is dis-
the source maintained at a constant tance between the hot and cold faces,
E
All liquids and gases are heated by con- tion and other related facts of heavenly
Y
vection. Heat comes to us from the sun bodies.
AD L
by radiation. Windows of Astronomy : The visible
light and radio waves coming from the
EM
Wien’s Displacement Law : It states
that the wavelength (λm) correspond- heavenly bodies are two windows to
C
ing to which energy emitted by a per-
fectly black body is maximum is in-
versely proportional to the temperature
study about the sun, stars i.e., about
the universe, hence called windows of
the astronomy.
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(T) of the black body i.e., Universe : The limitless expanse of
space around us consisting of solar sys-
where b is a constant of proportionality tem, stars, galaxies etc. is called uni-
and is called Wien’s constant. Its value verse.
is b = 2.898 × 10–3 mK.
Main constitutents of universe are: (i)
Stefan’s Law : It states that the total Solar system (ii) Stars (iii) Galaxies.
amount of energy radiated per second
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per unit area of a perfectly black body Solar System : It is the name given to
is directly proportional to the fourth the family of sun. Our solar system con-
power of the absolute temperature of sists of sun, nine planets (Mercury, Ve-
the body i.e., E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4 where σ nus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Ura-
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is called Stefan’s constant. Its value is σ nus, Neptune, Pluto) orbiting around
= 5.67 × 10–8 watt m–2K–4 the sun, satellites (or moons) orbiting
around the planets, asteroids, comets
In case a perfectly black body at tem-
CH
and meteroids.
perature T is placed in an enclosure at
temperature T0, then net amount of en- Direction and time period of revolu-
ergy radiated per second per unit area by tion of a planet about its axis: The
the black body is given by E = σ (T4 - T04 ) sense of rotation of all the planets (except
If the body and enclosure are not per- for Venus and Uranus) is normally from
fectly black and have relative emissiv- west to east. For Venus and Uranus, the
ity ∈ we, may rewrite. sense of rotation is east to west and is
called retrograde. Our earth rotates about
its north axis to south axis from west to
Newton’s Law of Cooling : It states east in 23 hrs. and 58.1 minutes.
that the rate of loss of heat of a liquid is Surface Temperature of a Planet : It
directly proportional to difference in can be estimated by two methods.
temperature of the liquid and the sur-
(i) Using Stefan’s law, i.e, E = s T4
Physics [135]
where E is the thermal energy emit- (i) There should be suitable tempera-
ted per second per unit area of the ture range as required for the life to
planet and T is its surface tempera- exist on a planet.
ture, s is the Stefan’s constant.
(ii) There should be proper atmosphere
(ii) Using Wien’s Displacement law. free from poisonous gases.
λmT = b.
E
(iii) There should be plenty of water.
where λm is the wavelength correspond-
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These conditions donot exist on any
ing to maximum intensity of radiation other planet except our earth.
emitted from the black body at tem-
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Hence, the life is not possible on
perature T and b is the Wien’s con- any other planet except earth.
EM
stant.
Sun : It is the nearest star that we can
C
Existence of Atmosphere on a Planet :
The existence of atmosphere on a planet
can be decided by two factors :
see. It is the heaviest body of our solar
system. It is also known as yellow dwarf
star.
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(i) Acceleration due to gravity; and (i) The composition of the material of
(ii) Surface temperature of the planet. the sun is 78% hydrogen, about 21%
helium and remaining 2% all other
The planets like Mercury, Mars and heavier elements from lithium to
Pluto have large value of acceleration uranium. The temperature at the
due to gravity but they have high tem- centre of the sun is about 14 × 106K
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perature also. With the increase in tem- and on the surface is 6000 0K. The
perature, the average velocity of the density of the material of the sun at
gas molecules increases and becomes the surface is about 10–4kg m–3 and
more than their escape velocities. Due at the centre is 104 kg m–3.
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E
are seven classes of stellar spectra de- a white dwarf is produced. When it
Y
noted by letters O,B, A, F, G, K and M. ceases to emit light, it becomes black
dwarf.
Our sun belongs to G class star.
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Birth of a Star : When the interstellar (ii) If the original mass of a star is be-
EM
dust and gas particles come closer to tween 2 to 5 times the mass of the
sun, neutron star is produced.
C
form a cloud due to gravitational force
of attraction between them, the birth of (iii) If the original mass of a star is more
a star begins if the original cloud has a than 5 times the solar mass, the
mass of at least one thousand solar black hole is produced.
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masses. As the particles of cloud come
closer, the gravitational attraction in- Milky Way or Akash Ganga : It is the
creases. As the contraction of the cloud name of the galaxy to which our earth
continues, the pressure and tempera- belongs. The milky way is the glowing
ture of the cloud continues, the pres- belt of the sky formed by the combined
sure and temperature inside the cloud light of a very large number of stars. It
rise. At a certain stage, the cloud breaks is called milky way or Akash Ganga
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up into large number of fragments of because the light from the various stars
smaller size and each fragment contin- together gives the impression of a stream
of milk flowing across the sky.
ues to shrink and its temperature con-
tinues to rise. When the temperature of Milky way is a spiral galaxy. Its mass is
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light energy from its surface and it be- large distance from our solar system
comes a star. and are further receding away with a
speed of 0.9 times the speed of light.
Death of a Star : In each born star,
during the fusion process, the hydrogen Pulsars : These are radio sources which
is converted into helium. When the con- emit radio signals at extremely regular
tent of hydrogen of a star decreases to a intervals of time. Their origin is due to
certain proportion, the core begins to neutron star.
contract while the outer regions expand. Hubble’s Law : It states that the red
As a result, the surface temperature of shift (z) is directly proportional to the
star drops and the star becomes giant or distance (r) of the galaxy from us i.e., z
supergiant star. At the end, this star α r but
produces energy at a very high rate to
such an extent that it explodes in the
form of nova or supernova, throwing
Physics [137]
Pulse modulation is a system in which
continous wave forms are sampled at
regular intervals. Information regard-
where H is called Hubble’s constant. ing the signal is transmitted only at the
The quantity (l/H) has the dimensions sampling times together with any syn-
of time. Hubble’s law helps us to esti- chronizing pulses that may be required.
mate the age and evolution of the uni-
E
The analog pulse modulation is of two
verse. The value of Hubble’s constant is types : pulse amplitude modulation
Y
16 Km-s-1 per million light year. (PAM) and pulse time modulation
(PTM).
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY The digital pulse modulation is also of
EM
two types : pulse code modulation
All modes of long distance communi- (PCM) and pulse delta modulation
C
cation have been superceded by com-
munication through electrical signals,
as they can be transmitted at extremely
(PDM).
Demodulation is the reverse process of
modulation which is performed in a
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high speeds (–3 × 108 m/s). receiver to recover the original modu-
A basic communication system consists lating signal. Tuned frequency receiver
of information source, transmitter, re- (TRF) and superheterodyne receives are
ceiver and the link between transmitter commonly used for demodulation.
and receiver. Data transmission is through a modu-
Modulation is the process of super-im- lator and data retrieval is through a
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E
mitter antenna can reach the receiver earth’s surface, at which a sky wave of
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antenna by following any of the fol- a fixed frequency, but more than criti-
lowing modes of propagation : cal frequency is sent back to the earth.
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(i) Ground wave or surface wave Fading : It is the variation in the strength
EM
propagation. of a signal at a receiver due to interfer-
ence of waves. Fading is more at high
C
(ii) Sky wave propagation.
(iii) Space wave propagation.
The radiowaves which travel through
frequencies.
Space Wave Propagation : The space
waves are the radio waves of very high
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atmosphere following the surface of the frequency (i.e., between 30 MHz to 300
earth are known as ground waves or MHz or more). The space waves can
surface waves. The maximum range of travel through atmosphere from trans-
ground or surface wave propagation mitter antenna to receiver antenna ei-
depends on (i) the frequency of the ra- ther directly or after reflection from
dio waves; and (ii) power of the trans- ground in the earth’s troposphere
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mitter. The ground wave propagation region. The space wave propagation is
is suitable for low and medium fre- also known as line of sight propagation.
quency (i.e. upto 2MHz only). The range of space wave propagation
The radiowaves of frequency ranging can be increased by using repeaters at
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from 2 MHz to 30 MHz are called sky suitable distances from each other on the
waves. They can propagate through at- surface of the earth. The space wave
mosphere and are reflected back by the propagation is utilizing radio waves of
very high frequency (between 30 MHz
CH
Physics [139]
Remote Sensing : It is a technique which surrounded by a cladding of material
is used to observe and measure the char- of refractive index slightly less than that
acteristics of the object with respect to of core and a protective jacket of insu-
its location, size, colour, nature, etc. It lating material. There are three types of
is related with measuring some kind of optical fibre configurations:
energy which is emitted, transmitted or (i) Single mode step-index fibre.
E
reflected from the object. Remote sens-
(ii) Multi-mode step-index fibre.
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ing systems provide us the data critical
to weather prediction, agriculture fore- (iii) Multi-mode graded-index fibre.
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casting, resource exploration and envi- Laser: Laser stands for light amplifica-
ronmental monitoring. The Indian re-
EM
tion by stimulated emission of radiation.
mote sensing satellites are IRS-1A, IRS The working of laser is based on stimu-
C
1B and IRS-1C.
Most commonly used wire communication
lines are :
lated emission of radiation. The follow-
ing types of laser are used:
(i) Gas lasers (ii) Liquid lasers (iii) Solid
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(i) Parallel wire line, (balanced lines) lasers (iv) Semiconductor lasers.
(ii) Twisted pair wire lines; and Light Modulation: It is achieved by two
ways :
(iii) Co-axial wire lines (unbalanced
lines). (i) Direct modulation (ii) Indirect or ex-
ternal modulation. Direct modulation
Energy is dissipated in a transmission
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E
part of a hollow sphere whose outer
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For example : Greased paper, butter pa-
per, ground glass, paraffin wax, etc. part is silvered and the inner part is
reflecting surface.
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Opaque Medium : A medium through
Convex Mirror : Convex mirror is a part
EM
which light cannot pass .
of a hollow sphere whose outer part is
C
For Examples : Wood, stone, brick, iron, reflecting surface and inner part is sil-
etc. vered.
Ray of Light : A line drawn in the direc- Centre of Curvature : The centre of hol-
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tion of propagation of light is called ray low sphere of which the spherical mir-
of light. ror forms a part is called centre of curva-
Reflection of Light : The phenomenon ture. It is denoted by C.
of returning of light in the same medium Radius of Curvature : The radius of
after striking a surface is called reflec- hollow sphere of which the spherical
tion of light. mirror forms a part is called radius of
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Reflector : A surface which reflects the Aperture : The part of the spherical mir-
light falling on it is called a reflector or a ror exposed to the incident light is called
reflecting surface. the aperture of the mirror.
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Laws of Reflection : The reflection of Principal Axis : A line joining the cen-
light from a surface obeys certain laws tre of curvature (C) and pole (P) of a
called laws of reflection. spherical mirror and extended on either
side is called principal axis.
(i) Incident angle is equal to the reflected
angle i.e. ∠i = ∠r. Principal Focus : A point on the princi-
pal axis of a spherical mirror where the
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and nor- rays of light parallel to the principal axis
mal to the reflecting surface lie in the
meet after reflection from the mirror is
same plane.
called principal focus. It is denoted by F.
Lateral Inversion : The exchange of the Focal Plane: A plane normal or perpen-
right and left side of an object and its dicular to the principal axis and passing
image is known as lateral inversion.
through the principal focus (F) of the
Number of images formed by two plane spherical mirror is called focal plane.
Physics [141]
Focal Length: The distance between the light in vacuum or air to the velocity of
pole (P) and principal focus (F) of the light in the medium.
spherical mirror is called the focal length
Principle of Reversibility of Light :
of the mirror.
‘If the path of a ray of light is reversed
Sign Conventions:
after suffering a number of refractions
E
(1) All types of distance are measured from and reflections, then it retraces its path’.
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the pole of a spherical mirror. This is known as principle of reversibility
of light.
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
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incident light are taken positive. Dis-
EM
tance measured in the direction oppo-
site to that of the incident light are
C
taken as negative.
(3) The upward distances perpendicular
to the principal axis are taken as posi-
Total Internal Reflection : The phe-
nomenon of reflection of total light when
light travelling in a denser medium falls
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tive, while the downward distances on the surface separating the rarer me-
perpendicular to the principal axis are dium and the denser medium at an angle
taken as negative. greater than the critical angle is called
total internal reflection.
Mirror Formula: The relation between
u, v, and focal length (f) of the spherical Condition for Total Internal Reflec-
mirror is known as mirror formula. tion :
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Optical Centre : A point in a lens through Second Principal Focal Length : The
Y
which rays of light passes undeviated. It is distance between the optical centre and
denoted by C. the second principal focus is called sec-
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ond principal focal length. It is denoted
Principal Focus : A point in the principal
EM
by f2.
axis where all rays of light parallel to the
C
principal axis meet or appear to meet
after passing through the lens is called
principal focus of the lens.
Sign Conventions :
(1) All distances are measured from the
optical centre of a lens.
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Focal Length : The distance between the
(2) Distance measured in the direction of
principal focus and optical centre of a
the propagation of incident ray of light
lens is known as focal length of the lens.
are taken as positive, while distance
It is denoted by f.
measured in a direction opposite to the
Principal Foci : A beam of light may fall direction of incident ray of light are
on either side of a lens. Therefore, a lens taken as negative.
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Physics [143]
Microscope & Telescope
Compound Microscope Astronomical Telescope
1. It is used to observe tiny objects. It is used to observe large and distant
objects.
2. The focal length of the objective The focal length of objective lens is
lens is small. large.
E
3. The focal length of the eyepiece is The focal length of eyepiece is small.
large.
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4. The second focal point of objective The second focal point of objective
lens and first focal point of eye- lens coincides with the first focal
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piece are separated by the point of the eye-piece.
distance equal to tube length
EM
of the microscope.
C
Polychromatic Light : A light consisting
of more than two colours or more than
two wavelengths is known as polychro-
Example : Yellow, Magenta and Cyan.
Complimentary Colours : Any two
colours are said to be a pair of compli-
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matic light.
mentary colours if these produce white
For example, White light. light when mixed together.
Spectrum : A band of seven colours of Primary Pigments : Yellow, Cyan and
white light is known as spectrum. Magenta are the examples of primary
pigments.
Pure Spectrum : A spectrum in which
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various colours of white light occupy dis- Secondary Pigments : When a pair of
tinct positions without overlapping each primary pigments are mixed together,
other on the screen is called pure spectrum. we get a new pigment known as sec-
ondary pigment.
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reflects one or more colours is called pig- charge is called electric potential.
ment.
Unit of Potential : S.I. unit of potential
Primary Colours : The colours which is volt.
are never obtained by mixing two or
Potential is a scalar quantity.
more colours are called primary colours.
Potential Difference : Potential differ-
Example : Red, Blue and Green.
ence between two points is defined as
Secondary Colours : When any two the work done in moving a unit positive
primary colours are mixed, then a new charge from one point to another point.
colour is formed. This new colour is
Potential difference is a scalar quantity.
known as secondary colour. Thus, the
colour obtained by mixing two primary Equipotential Surface : A surface whose
colours are known as secondary colour. every point has the same potential is
known as equipotential surface.
E
Ampere (A) : Electric current through a Unit of Resistivity :
Y
conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one In CGS system, unit of resistivity is ohm-
coulomb charge flows through any cross-
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cm.
section of the conductor in one second.
EM
In SI system, unit of resistivity is ohm-
Electric current is a scalar quantity. metre.
C
Ohm’s Law : This law states that, ‘the
electric current flowing in a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential dif-
Conductance : Conductance of a con-
ductor is the ability to pass charge or
current through it.
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ference across the ends of the conduc-
tor, provided the temperature and other Joule’s Law of Heating :
physical conditions of the conductor re- The amount of heat produced in a con-
mains the same’. ductor is
Resistance (R) : Resistance of a conduc- (i) directly proportional to the square
tor is the ability of the conductor to op- of the electric current flowing
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Physics [145]
Practical unit of power is horse power Cation : When an atom loses electron or
(h.p.) electrons, it becomes positively charged ion
known as cation.
1 h.p. = 746 w
Electrolytic Cell or Voltameter : A ves-
Commercial Unit of Energy : kilowatt-
sel containing electrolyte and electrodes
hour (kWH)
in which electrolysis takes place is called
E
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106J voltameter.
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Electrolysis : The process by which a When an electrolyte in a solid state is
substance is decomposed by the passage
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dissolved in water, it decomposes into
of electric current through it is called ions as the force of attraction between
EM
electrolysis.
ions decrease by a factor of in water.
C
Electrolytes : Substances which in mol-
ten state or in aqueous solution conduct
electricity by decomposing into negative
Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis :
1st Law : The mass of any substance
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and positive ions are called electrolytes.
liberated at an electrode is directly pro-
Strong Electrolytes : Substances which portional to the charge flowing through
in molten state or in aqueous solution the electrolyte.
completely decompose into negative and
i.e., m ∝ q or m = Zq or m = Zlt
positive ions are called strong electro-
lytes. 2nd Law : If same amount of charge
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E
tential difference between two electrodes monium chloride solution, MnO2 acts as
Y
when current is drawn from the cell. depolarizer, E.M.F. of Leclanche cell =
1.5V.
AD L
Internal Resistance of a Cell is the re-
sistance offered by a cell to the flow of Dry cell is the modified and portable
EM
current through it. form of a Leclanche cell.
C
Types of Electrochemical Cells: (i) Pri-
mary cells (ii) Secondary cells.
Primary Cell converts chemical energy
Primary cells cannot be re-charged while
secondary cells can be re-charged.
Magnetic Field : The space around a
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into electrical energy by irreversible current carrying conductor in which its
chemical reactions. magnetic effect can be experienced is
called magnetic field.
Secondary Cell : A cell in which electri-
cal energy is stored in the form of chemi- Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule : If a cork
cal energy and then chemical energy is screw is driven in the direction of cur-
obtained in the form of electrical energy rent passing through the wire, then the
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by reversible chemical reactions is called motion of the thumb shows the direction
a secondary cell. of the magnetic field.
Internal resistance of a primary cell is Right Hand Thumb Rule : If a current
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Voltaic cell suffers from two defects: (i) Solenoid: A solenoid is a coil of many
local action (ii) polarization turns of an insulated wire closely wound
in the shape of a cylinder.
The value of e.m.f. of voltaic cell = 1.08
V. Uniform Magnetic Field : Magnetic field
is said to be uniform if its magnitude is
Polarization is the process of formation equal and direction is same at every point
of hydrogen bubbles on the electrode of in the space.
a cell, causing the e.m.f. of the cell to
drop and internal resistance of the cell Electromagnets : When a soft iron bar is
to increase. placed inside a solenoid carrying cur-
rent, it becomes a magnet as long as
Polarization can be removed by a sub- current passes through the solenoid.
stance known as depolarizer, MnO2 and
Physics [147]
Such magnets are known as electromag- Joule’s Law of Heating : It states that
nets. the amount of heat produced in a con-
ductor is directly proportional to the-
Electromagnetic Induction : Whenever
magnetic flux linked with a circuit (i) square of the current flowing
changes, an induced e.m.f. is set up across through the conductor.
the circuit. This effect is known as elec-
E
(ii) resistance of the conductor and
tromagnetic induction.
Y
(iii) time for which the current is passed.
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic In-
Electric Power: It is defined as the rate
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duction :
at which work is done in maintaining
EM
First Law : Whenever magnetic flux
the current in electric circuit.
linked with a circuit changes, induced
C
e.m.f. is produced across it. This induced
e.m.f. last so long as the change in mag-
netic flux continues.
Electric power, P = VI = I2R = V2/R
watt or joule/second-
Electric Energy : The electric energy
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Second Law : The magnitude of the consumed in a circuit is defined as the
induced e.m.f. produced in the circuit is total work done in maintaining the cur-
directly proportional to the rate of change rent in an electric circuit for a given
of magnetic flux linked with it. time.
Lenz’s law of Electromagnetic Induc- Electric energy = Vlt = Pt = I2 Rt = V2t/
tion : According to this law, the direc- R
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E
anode. Second Law : When same amount of
Y
Cathode : The electrode connected to charge is made to pass through any num-
the negative terminal of the battery i.e., ber of electrolytes, the masses of the sub-
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the electrode at lower potential, is called stances liberated or deposited at the elec-
EM
cathode. trodes are proportional to their chemical
C
Ions : The charged constitutents of the
electrolyte which are liberated on pass-
ing current are called ions.
equivalents i.e., where m1, m2 are
the masses of the substances liberated or
deposited on electrodes during electroly-
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Anions : The ions which carry negative sis and E1 and E2 are their chemical
charge and move towards the anode
equivalents.
during electrolysis are called anions.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis also
Cations : The ions which carry positive
states that E.C.E. of a substance is di-
charge and move towards the cathode
rectly proportional to the chemical
during electrolysis are called cations.
equivalent i.e., z ∝ E.
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Physics [149]
Secondary cell is that cell in which the Neutral Temperature : It is that tem-
electrical energy is first stored up as chemi- perature of hot junction for which the
cal energy and when current is drawn thermo e.m.f produced in a thermo-
from the cell, the stored chemical energy couple is maximum. Neutral tempera-
is converted intro electrical energy. The ture depends upon the nature of the
chemical reaction is reversible in this cell. material of a thermocouple but is inde-
E
These cells are also known as storage pendent of the temperature of the cold
Y
cells or accumulators. Examples are Acid junction.
or Lead accumulator and Alkali or Edison
Temperature of Inversion : It is that
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cell.
temperature of hot junction at which
EM
Seebeck Effect : It is the phenomenon the thermo e.m.f. produced in a thermo
of generation of an electric current in a couple becomes zero and just beyond, it
C
thermocouple by keeping its two junc-
tions at different temperatures.
Seebeck found that the magnitude and
reverses its direction. The value of tem-
perature of inversion depends upon: (i)
the temperature of the cold junction;
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and (ii) the nature of materials forming
direction of thermo e.m.f. developed in
a thermocouple.
a thermocouple depends upon: (i) the
nature of metals forming a thermo- Sources of energy : Renewable sources
couple; and (ii) difference in and Non-renewable sources.
temeprature of the two junctions.
Solar energy is the energy emitted by
Seeback effect is a reversible effect. It
the sun in the form of heat and light.
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different metals joined at their ends to Wavelength range of visible light is from
have two junctions in a circuit is called 0.4 micron to 0.7 micron.
a thermocouple. Red light has the longest wavelength
CH
Seeback Series : Seeback, from his ex- and violet light has the shortest wave-
perimental investigations, arranged a length.
number of metals in a series known as Infra-red rays are emitted by all hot bod-
Seeback series. Some of the metals, in ies.
this series, in the order Seeback arranged
them are bismuth, nickel, platinum, sil- Infra-red rays are absorbed by CO2 and
ver, gold, copper, lead, zinc, iron and water vapours in the atmosphere of the
antimony. earth.
Direction of thermo-electric current in Ultra-violet rays are harmful radiations
copper-iron thermocouple is from cop- and cause diseases like cancer and leu-
per to iron through hot junction. In Sb- kemia.
Bi, thermocouple, the direction of Ultra-violet rays are absorbed by ozone
thermo-electric current is from Sb to Bi layer of atmosphere.
through cold junction.
[150] General Science
Light is a stream of packets of energy Mass Number (A) of an atom is the sum
called photons. of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of the atom i.e. A = Z + N.
Energy of each photon, E = hv
Isotopes : The atoms of an element hav-
Solar energy is harnessed by solar de- ing same atomic number (Z) but differ-
vices like solar cooker, solar furnance, ent mass numbers (A) are known as iso-
E
solar cell, etc. topes of the element.
Y
Nuclear fusion reactions are the source All isotopes of an element have the same
chemical properties.
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of energy of the Sun.
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spon-
EM
Nuclear fusion reactions occur at about
10 7°C. taneous emission of invisible radiations
C
German physicist Hans Bethe in 1939,
predicted that nuclear fusion of hydro-
gen nuclei in the Sun is the source of
by heavy elements.
Radioactivity was discovered by Henri
Becquerel.
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energy of the Sun. The radiations emitted by radioactive
Atom consists of three particles namely elements are alpha particles (2He4), beta
proton (1H1), neutron (on1) and electron particles (–1e0) and gamma rays (γ). These
( –1e 0). radiations are very harmful to the living
organisms.
Nucleus of an atom contains protons
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and neutrons and hence is positively Gamma rays have the highest penetrat-
charged. ing power than the other two radia-
tions.
Electrons move around the nucleus in cir-
cular orbits. Radio Isotopes are the isotopes of radio-
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active elements.
Number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons Nuclear forces keep the nucleons inside
revolving around it, so atom is electri- the nucleus. Small nuclei are stable and
CH
Physics [151]
Nuclear reactor is a device to carry out ter and graphite are the examples of
controlled chain reaction. moderator.
Nuclear fission reaction starts when U- Cadmium rods are used to increase or
235 absorbs a slow neutron. decrease the nuclear fission reactions in
the nuclear reactor.
Moderator is a substance used to slow
E
down fast moving neutrons. Heavy wa-
Y
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EM
C
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CH