Nicol Prism

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When a ray of light enters from one medium to another medium, it deviates from its path either toward or away from the normal obeying Snell’s law. If medium is isotropic,
refraction takes place only in one direction, whereas in case of anisotropic medium, Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 discovered that the refraction is not confined to single
direction. He found that when a ray of ordinary light is incident on calcite or quartz crystals, it splits up into two polarized refracted rays. This phenomenon is called double
refraction and crystal is known as doubly refracting crystals. The phenomenon of double refraction can be explained by a simple experiment. Mark an ink dot on a piece of paper
and place a calcite crystal over this dot. Two images of ink mark will be observed. On rotating the calcite crystal either clockwise or anti-clockwise, it is found that one image
rotates with the rotation of crystal and other image remains stationary as shown in Figure 6.7. The stationary image is known as ordinary image and rotating image is known as
extraordinary image. The refracted ray which produces ordinary image is known as 0-ray i.e., ordinary rays and obey ordinary laws of refraction, and the refracted ray which
produces extraordinary image is known as extraordinary ray (E-ray) and does not obeys ordinary laws of refraction

Consider a narrow beam of light PQ incident on a calcite crystal making an angle i with the normal, it is refracted along two directions QR and QS at angles r 1 and r 2
respectively, as shown in Figure 6.7(b). These two rays finally emerges as 0-ray and E-ray which are parallel to each other as well as parallel to direction of incident beam.

For O –ray , µO =sin i/sin r l

For E-ray , µE =sin I /sinr2

As r1 < r2 there µ o > µ o < µE. This is because

µ =sin i /sin r = Velocity of light in air / Velocity of light in medium vair/vmed

Birefringence: The difference between refractive index for 0-Ray and E-Ray is called birefringence i.e.,

µ0 = µE = birefringence

Thus in case of calcite crystal the velocity 0-ray is less than that of E-Ray i.e., in crystal of calcite extraordinary ray travels faster than that of ordinary ray. Further it has been
found that, for 0-ray, the refractive index is same for all angle of incidence whereas for E-ray, the refractive index is different for different angle of incidence. Thus 0-ray travels
with same speed in all direction whereas E-ray travels with different speed in different directions.

It has been observed that both 0-ray and E-ray are plane polarised. The vibrations of ordinary ray are perpendicular to principal section of the crystal and vibrations of
extraordinary

ray are along the principal section of the crystal.

(a) Geometry of Calcite Crystal

The calcite crystal, also known as Iceland spar (CaC03) is a colourless crystal, transparent to visible as well as to ultraviolet light. It is available in different shapes and can be
easily reduced to rhombohedron bounded by six parallelograms with angle 102° and 78° as shown in Figure 6.8(a). At comers A and Hall the faces make equal obtuse angles,
are known as blunt corners. A line passing through one of the blunt comers and is equally inclined to all the three edges meeting over there gives the direction of optic axis. Any
line parallel to this line is also known as optic axis.

A line joining two opposite blunt comers is not an optic axis, but only in case of cubic

crystal where all the three edges are equal, a line joining two opposite blunt comers will be an
optic axis.

Note:

(1) When a ray of light is incident along optic axis, then it is not doubly refracted, because in this case both 0-ray and E-ray travels along the same direction with same
velocities.

(ii) When a ray of light incident perpendicular to optic axis is not doubly refracted because in this case 0-ray and E-ray travels along the same direction but with different
velocities.

(b) Principal Section of the Crystal

A plane containing optic axis and perpendicular to the opposite faces of the crystal is called principal section of the crystal. As there are six faces in a crystal so for every point,
there

are three principal sections passing through any point inside the crystal, one corresponding to each pair of opposite faces. A principal section always cuts the surface of calcite
crystal in

parallelogram with angles 109° and 71°.

(c) Principal Plane of the Crystal

For ordinary ray, principal plane is the plane drawn through optic axis and ordinary

ray and for extraordinary ray, principal plane is the plane drawn through optic axjs and extraordinary ray. The ordinary ray always lie in the plane of incidence, whereas for
extraordinary ray this is not generally true. The incidence plane of two rays do not coincide . but in particular case, when the plane of incidence is a principal section then
principal section of crystal and principal planes of ordinary and extraordinary rays coincide.

(d) Types of Crystal

Uniaxial Crystals: Those crystals in which there is a single direCtion called optic axis along which 0-rays and £-rays are transmitted with same velocity and along any other
direction they have different velocities are called uniaxial crystal e.g., calcite, quartz, tourmaline etc.

Biaxial Crystals: Those crystals in which there are two directions along which 0-rays and £-rays are transmitted with same velocity (i.e., they have more than one optic axis) are
called biaxial crystals e.g., borax, mica, topaz etc.
William Nicol in 1928 invented an optical device used for producing and analysing plane

polarised light. The device was named as Nicol prism after his name.

Principal: It is based on the phenomenon of double refraction. i.e., when a ray of light is passed through calcite crystal, it splits up into two rays (i) the ordinary rays which is
plane polarised with its vibrations perpendicular to direction of the principal axis of the crystal

(ii)E -ray which is also plane polarised with its vibrations parallel to direction of principal axis of the crystal. In order to have a plane polarised beam one of the two rays has to be
eliminated. In Nicol prism, ordinary ray has been eliminated by total internal reflection and ray emerging through the crystal is only extraordinary ray which is plane polarised .

0
Construction: Nicol prism is prepared by taking a crystal ADEGFHBC whose length is three times its breadth and having ABCD as principal section with angle LABC = 71 as
shown in Figure 6.11. The end faces AB and CD are cut in such a way that they make angles 68° and 12° instead of 71° and 109° as shown in Figure 6.11.

FIGURE6.11

The resulting crystal is then cut into two pieces along the plane A’C’ passing through

opposite blunt comers and perpendicular to principal section. The cut surfaces are ground

and polished optically flat and then cemented together with the layer of Canada Balsam. The

Canada Balsam is a transparent liquid having refractive index midway between the refractive

indices of crystal of 0-ray and £-ray. For sodium light the refractive indices are

µO = 1.65837 =1.66

µB=1.55

µE =1.4864 =1.48

Thus Canada Balsam is optically denser than calcite of E-ray and rarer from 0-ray. The sides of crystal are coated lamp Black and enclosed in a brass tube. The ends are kept
open for

incidence and emergence of light.

 Working: When ray SM of unpolarised light is incident on face A’B, it splits into two refracted rays viz O-ray and E-ray. The ordinary ray goes from calcite to Canada Balsam is
travelling from optically denser medium to rarer medium can be totally internally refracted and extraordinary ray is travelling from optically rarer to denser medium is transmitted.
The
critical angle for ordinary ray will be

sin C =µo = 1.55/1.66 = 0.933

C= 690

The angle of incidence on Canada Balsam depends upon the angle which A’B makes with blunt edge BC’ and also on breadth of length ratio of the crystal. This was the only
reason that length of crystal is chosen thrice of breadth and natural angle 71 o is reduced to 68°. Because by doing so, 0-ray falls on Canada Balsam layer at an angle greater
than critical angle C so it is totally internally reflected and absorbed, whereas E-ray is transmitted. The transmitted extraordinary ray is plane polarised having vibrations parallel
to principal section of the Nicol

prism. Thus, Nicol prism act as a polariser.

Drawbacks of Nicol Prism

1. Nicol prism can act as polariser effectively only if incident beam is slightly convergent or slightly divergent and fails, ‘if incident beam is highly converrgent or divergent.

1. If angle of incidence of incident ray S0M at the crystal surface is increased, the angle of incidence at the Canada Balsam surface decreases. If angle SMS0 is greater
than 14°, the angle of incidence at the Canada Balsam surface is less than 69° and ordinary ray is also transmitted through the Nicol prism. Hence emergent ray from the
Nicol will be mixture of 0-ray and E-ray i.e., will not be plane polarised.

1. The refractive index of calcite crystal is different for different direction of E-ray, being minimum when it is travelling at right angle to optic and maximum when it travelling
along optic axis.

Because along optic axis E-ray and 0-ray travels with same speed for intermediate angles it is between 1.486 and 1.658. For a particular value of angle of incidence of ray
SEM,µE may be more than µB and E-ray will also be totally internally reflected and no light emerges from the Nicol.

Thus a nicol can polarize light if it is confined within an angle of 14° on either side of SM.