Polarisation

Ibe phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference. diffraction are common to both transverse waves and iot
Waves. But the transverse nature of light waves is demonstrated only by the
phenomenon of polarisatlo.
Palarization :Alight wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as unpolarized light.
Dalarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane.
The process of tiantfoming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.

Light waves coming out of tourmaline crystal Ahave their vibrations in only one direction, perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. These waves are said to be polarised, Since the vibrations are restricted to only one plane paralel to tne
axis of the crystal, the light is said to be plane polarised. The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations into a particular
plane is known as polarisation.
In an unpolarised light, the vibrations in all directions be made up of two
may be supposed to
mutually perpendicular vibrations. These are represented by double arrows and dots. Thevibrations in the plane of he
paper are represented by double arrows, while the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper are represented oy
dots.
Polarisation by reflection
The simplest method of producing plane polarised light is by reflection. Malus, discovered that when a beam of ordinary
light is reflected from the surface of transparent medium like glass or water, it gets polarised. The degree of polarisa
varies with angle of incidence. Consider a beam of unpolarised light AB, incident at any angle on the reflecting glass
surface XY. Vibrations in AB which are parallel to the plane of the diagram are shown by arrows. The vibrations which are
perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and parallel to the reflecting surface as shown by dots. A part of the light 1s
reflected along BC, and the rest is refracted along BD, On examining the reflected beam with an analyser, it is found that
the ray is partially plane polarised. beam is completely plane
When the light is allowed to be incident at a particular angle. (for glass it is 57.5') the reflectedcalled the polarising angle
polarised. The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam is completely plane polarised is
(i).
Brewster's law
reflectors and found a simple relation between the
Sir David Brewster conducted a series of experiments with different been observed experimentally that the reflected and
angle of polarisation and the refractive index of the medium. It has
angle.
refracted rays are at right angles to each other, when the light is incident at polarising
From Fig, i, +90° +r= 180° cdett

r= 90° - i,
From Snell's law, sin i, / sin r =
Here u is the refractive index of the medium (glass)
Substituting for r, we get,
sin i, / sin (90° - i) =p
So, sin i,/ cos i, =!
Thus, = tani, medium
numerically equal to the refractive index of the
The tangent of the polarising angle is
sini, ’r=90 -i, ’ rti, =90
sinp ’ sinr = cosi, = sin(90 -i,)
sin r cosi,
Double refraction

usually splits up into two

fa)
unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal, it ordinary ray (O-ray)
travels undeviated is known as the
ray of
Bartholinus discovered that when a figure. The beam which not obey Snell's law, is
shown in the which in general, does
linearly polarised beams asrefraction. On the other hand, the second beam
The appearance of two
images is
and obeys Snell's laws of (e-ray). Hence, two images of a single object are formed. exhibited by several other crystals like
known as extra-ordinary ray refraction of light beam. This phenomenon is also images will be seen in figure.
due to phenomenon of
double acalcite crystal, two
an ink dot on a sheet of paper is viewed through around the first. The stationary image is
quartz, mica etc. When while the other rotates The other
rotating the crystal, one image remains stationary,
ordinary refracted rays which obey the laws of refraction. refraction.
On (0), produced by the do not obey the laws of
known as the ordinary image (E), produced by the extraordinary refracted rays whichdirections and the extra ordinary ray
image is extraordinary image the
velocity in all
ordinary ray travels with samesource inside a refracting crystal produces spherical
Inside a double refracting crystal
along different directions. A pointcorresponding to extraordinary ray. Inside the crystal
travels with different velocities wavefront is called optic axis. The
Wavefront corresponding to ordinary ray and elliptical with same velocity. This direction
in which both the rays travel refraction along this direction. A substance (like calcite,
there is a particular direction and there is no double
retractive index is same for both ravs different direction is called anisotropic
substance.
in
quartz) which exhibits different properties
I52 Engineering Physics

The angle of incidence of the

plane polarized is called the angleunpolarized lioht for which the
of polarization (i.). For glass, reflected beam is completely
when the angle of incidence of the i,, = 57.5°. We can show
unpolarized lieht beam is equal to ip, then the reflected that
and
reTacted rays are at right angles to each other. Further, the
medium, refractive index of the glass
=tan , (5.7)
5.3.3 Plane Polarized Light Using
Piles of Plates
The piles of plates consists of several glass plates,
of 32.5° to the axis of tube generally 15 to 20, arranged at an inclination
(Figure 5.8)
Plane polarized (o-ray)

Unpolarized

light Plane
polarized
(e-ray)
Figure 5.8 Piles of plates.
When unpolarized light fall on the piles of plates at an angle of incidence of 57.5°, the
reflected as well as the refracted beams are plane polarized.

5.3.4 Double Refraction

If abeam of unpolarized light is incident upon crystals like quartz or
calcite, the beam upon
entering the crystal gets split into two components, namely extraordinary ray (e-ray) and
ordinary ray (o-ray). Both e-ray and o-ray are plane polarized. The planes of vibrations in these
two plane polarized lights are mutually perpendicular (Figure 5.9). The crystal exhibiting this
phenomenon is known as double refracting crystal.

e-ray
0-ray

Calcite
Figure 5.9 Double refraction.

The o-ray obeys the ordinary laws of refraction while the e-ray does
not. Both rays travels
with the same velocity along the optic axis direction while they move with
along the other directions.
different yelocities
 Wave Optics 153
In crystals like quartz, ice, etc. the
the direction perpendicular to the optic velocity of o-ray is gre ater than the velocity of
axis. Such tyne of crystals are known e-ray along
However, incrystals like calcite, tourmaline. ctc. the vice yersa effcct is as positive crysais.
called negative crystals. noted. These crystals are

5.3.5 Elliptically and Circularly Polarized

Light
When two plane polarized light waves are superimposed on each other, under certain
the resultant light vector may rotate. When the conditions
magnitude of the light vector remains Constant
while its orientation changes its state continuously, i.e. when thc tip of the light vector
traceS he
geometry of a circle, the light so produced is known as circularly polarized light. However, when
both the magnitude and its orientation
continuously
changes such that the tip of the light vector traces an Plane polarized light
ellipse, then the light is called elliptically polarized
light. Quartz
Let us allow a plane polarized light to fall on a Optic axis crystal
calcite crystal (Figure 5.10) in a normal direction
with the crystal cut with its faces parallel to its optic
axis. As it enters the crystal, the plane polarized 0-ray
light gets split into e-ray and o-ray. Both these rays
travel along the same direction with different ce-ray
velocities. As the velocity of e-ray is faster than that
of the o-ray, when these two rays emerge out of the
crystal a phase difference 8 is introduced between
Figure 5.10
them, depending on the thickness tof the crystal.
Theory
Let P= A sin or be the incident plane polarized light on the
calcite crystal making an angle with the direction of the
optic axis as shown in Figure 5.11.
A
This plane polarized light is resolved into two A sin 0
components: A cos 0 along the direction of the optic axis
RE and A sin along the direction mutually perpendicular
to the optic axis, RO. R Acos6 E
As aphase shift S is introduced between the two rays
Components of plane
upon emerging from the crystal of thickness , the igure 5.11 polarized light
equations representing e-ray and o-ray are:
X =A cos sin (ot + S) for e-ray (5.8)
y=A sin sin CoN for o-ray (5.9)
Let A cos = aand A sin = b.
Equations (5.8) and (5.9) reduce to
= sin (at + 8)
(5.10)
I54 Engineering Physics

= Sin ot (5.11)
Expanding the right-hand side of Bq. (5.10) and using Eq. (5.11), we have
1/2

cos &
= sin & (5.12)
a

Squaring and rearranging Eq. (5.12),

2xy cos + y = sin8 (5.13)
a' ab

Equation (5.13) is the most general equation of an ellipse.

Special cases
Case (i) When 8=0, sinÕ=0 and cos &=1
From Eq. (5.13),
2xy = 0
ab

or

b
i.e. y=-* (5.14)

Expression (5.14) is anequation of straight line. Thus, the emergent ray is plane polarized with
vibrations in the same plane as that of the incident light (Figure 5.12a).
Case (ii) When 8= I, cOS &= -1 and sin 8 = 0
Equation (5.13) reduces to

+
2xy = 0
b ab

i.e. y=-x
(S.15)
This is also an equation for a straight line with a negative slope. Thus the emergent ray willalso
be plane polarized with the direction of vibration making an angle 20= 2 tan-'(bla) with that of
the incident ray (Figure 5.12b).
Case (iüi) When =r/2 and a= b
Equation (5.13) becomes
|x+y²=a?
(5.16)
 circularly polarized. It is clear nat u
Thisis an equation of acircle. Thus the emergent ray is amplitudes and a phase difference of
egual
resultant of two plane polarized light beams with
rI2 is circularly polarized light (Figure 5.12c)
Case (iv) When Õ= t2 and a # b, cos 8 =0, sin &=1.
From Eq. (5.13), we have
(5.17)
l
Thus, the emergent light is elliptically polarized as long as a #b
This isan equation of an ellipse. unequal
seen that the resultant of two plane polarized light beams with
(Figure 5.12d) It is elliptically polarized light.
amplitude and phase difference of r/2 is an
S= 2 , 5r/2
S= d2, 512 when a#b
when a=b
S= 0

(c) (d)
(a) (b)
polarized lights.
Figure 5.12 Various types of

5.3.6 Retarding Plates

crystal so as to produce a definite value of path difference
refracting
A plate cut from a double and o-rays is known as the
retarding plate.
the e-
(or phase difference) between
from a double refracting crystal with its face parallel to the
Generally, a retarding plate is cut namely (i) quarter wave plate and (ii) half
retarding plates,
opticaxis. There are two types of
wave plate.

Quarter wave plate (QWP) direction

polarized light falls on a calcite or quartz crystal in a normal
We know that when a plane the e-ray
crystal.
and the o-ray are produced inside the of the
to the refracting surface,
(see Figure 5.10) velocities and emerge out of the crystal.
If the thickness
These rays travel with different difference of N4)
is such that it introduces a phase difference of n/2 (path
calcite crystal t plate.
e-rays then the crystal is known as quarter wave
between o- and
refractive indices of o-Tay ande-ray respectively, then path difference
If u, and l, are the difference
rays for negative crystal = (lo -Me). [For positive crystals, the path
between the two
(le - l ) . When this path ditference is equal to A/4, the condition for
betweene- and o-rays =
quarter wave plate is met.
Thus, for aquarter wave plate
(uo-He)t= N4 (5.18)
156 Engineering Physics

We can also show that if the thickness of the plate is such that (u., - u.)t= (2n + 1)2/4 where
n is an integer, the plate still acts as a
quarter wave plate.
The quarter wave plates are used in the production of circularly and cliptically polarized
lights. If the angle of incidence of the plane polarizcd light is 45° with the optic axis, the emergent
light is circularly polarized. On the other hand, if the incident plane polarized light meets the
optic axis at an angle not equal to 45°, then the emergent ray is elliptically polar1zed.
Half wave plate (HWP)
Adoubly refracting crystal piece of thickness /cut with its optic axis parallel to the refracting
taces and capable of introducing a phase difference of (path difference of N2) between the
0-ray and the e-ray is known as a half wave plate.
lt o and ue are the refractive indices of the o-ray and the e-ray respectively, then for neganve
uniaxial crystals, the path difference is (uo- L); when this path difference is equal to Zwe
get a half wave plate, i.e.

(H, -4)t = W2 (5.19)

We can also show that if the thickness of the plate is such that (L, -L)t = (2n + 1)4/2, where
n is an integer, the plate still acts as a half wave plate.
When a plane polarized light falls on a half wave plate such that the incidence angle is 45"
with the optic axis, then a path difference of /2 is introduced between the e- and o-rays. The
emergent light is hence plane polarized but its direction of polarization is rotated through 90°
with respect to the incident light.

5.3.7 Production of Plane, Circular and Elliptically Polarized Light

Plane polarized light
The plane polarized light will be generally produced using Nicol prism.
Nicolprism is a calcite crystal and designed in such a way that when a beam of unpolarized
light is incident upon it, then it transmits only the e-ray plane polarized light. This phenomenon
was discovered by William Nicol in 1828. We know that when a beam of light falls on a calcite
crystal it splits into two components, namely e- and o-rays. In Nicolprism the o-ray is eliminated
by total internal reflections while the e-ray emerges out as plane polarized light.
A calcite crystal whose length is equal to three times its breadth is taken (Figure 5.13). Its
end faces PQ andRS are ground in such a way that the angles along the principal section become
68° and 112° instead of 71° and 109° respectively. (A plane containing an optic axis
and
perpendicular to the face of the crystal is called the principal plane or principal section for that
face.) The crystal is cut into two halves along PR and after polishing it is held back to the
previous position using a cement known as canada balsam whose refractive index 1.55 is in
between =1.658 and L, =1.486 for sodium light. Thus, when unpolarized light falls on the
face PO, it produces both e-ray and o-ray. When the o-ray
passes from a portion of the crvstal
into the layer of canada balsam, it passes from a denser medium to the
rarer medium. When the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the 0-ray is totally
eliminated by absorption by black paints on the sides PS and QP of the internally reflected and
Nicol prism. The e-ray.
 thhaving plane
em Ellipticaly e When Circularly
polarized
Figure light
polarized
When light light thWhen
0°, incident Nicol
and polarized from this 5.
unequal 45°
unpolarized unpolarized Unpolarized Unpolarized
Unpolarized they and light
14 prism
Light
light QWP planeplane shows
combine 90°, light
amplitudes. is is
polarized
polarized the used
then fallslight the light
Figure prismNicol to the passes Figure prismNicol basic as 71
on circularly is
formWhen plan a lightlight
passed an 68° P
5.15 QWP
through 5.14 arrangement optical
they
ellipticallypolarized makes falls
Productionpolarized
light Plane such polarized. through Figure
emerge a normally Production polarizedPlane light device
thatNicol an
polarized light angle for 5.13
out the the for
of wil prism, on of the
elliptically of
vibration ofNicol
acircularly producing Nicol
45°
quarter production 0-ray
QWP lightQWP, beplane OWP
split with prism, prism.
as a in Canada
balsam
polarized toplane the wave polarized plane
shown path inpolarized plane of
45° 45° = R
differencee-ray optic plate circularly polarized
light. inpolarized light
and axipolarized light.
Figure s such
o-ray
of is of
polarized
light
Elliptically light polarized
light polarized light
5.15. 14produced. QWP, that Circularly polarized
inside light and
light)(plane
C-ray
exists makes the
the is
When vibration light. analyzing
between the an emergentobtained.
QWP. angle
this in it.
 another extinguished analyzer. unpolarized
as twice. intensity
in
variation
is cxtinguishment in polarized
5.18.plane
when
used
it rotation
for
oneanalyzer
OCcursof variation
5.17a), Figure However.
on occurs No is
light. is
rotating light
in elliptically
Light fall QWP remains
(Figure variation
similarin
is no extinguishment emergent
to light
polarized is shown
allowed a a
analyzer.
Polarized there
withlight,
the QWP it A a the
5.17b), Unpolarized a light, as
Analyzer-A if
light.
polarized
andplane
analyzer,
intensity
unpolarized light. analyzer,distinguish
used the
is the polarized the
(Polarizer-P) (b)
polarized 5.18a),
Elliptically polarizer on analyzer
(Figure is of
is in
polarizer rotating falls
extinguished. QWP rotating plate rotation
variation QWP Unpolarized To (Figure
plane wave
5.16. plane the from rotating
light
circularly analyzer.
polarized to one
prism a the athrough
partially QWP
quarter
and Figure Plane light the
of respect with light polarized every
no be
Detectionof a through Extinguishment ofDetection rotating
Circular,Nicol show
viewed with cannot
polarized twice
Occursof
a
a on for
without analyzer
rotation viewed
With
in one
for light,
falls
coming andpasses
also circularly twice
a illustrated Polarizer-P
it a polarized
noted.
by 5.16 once is lightanalyzer, with lightextinguishes
produced lightwillcircularly
light
5.17 is
light
Plane, light
Figurerotated light polarized Figure light is observed
polarized
Eliptically polarized
light
polarized When unpolarized minima
as Unpolarized
the rotating A polarizedplane
Plane
polarized(Analyzer-A)
lightlight light is unpolarized
distinguish light
polarized
Physics of
I58
Engineering then
analyzer polarized
Circularly 5.17. alsopartially
elliptically
light
Detection plane Plane (a) and
polarized twice, circularlyFigure awith eliptically
is
maxima
light this
intowhen QWP the and
the
prism Whencompletely An to Thus,
converted
However, However, polarized
Circularly of from
Whennolarized
in
intensity. light intensity
between
plane a shown When
5.3.8 When light. light
Nicol
A
 Wave Optics 159
partially plane polarized light is incident on QWP (Figure 5.18b), the emergent beam is
partially plane polarized. Thus, when this is examined with a notating analyzer the still
varies between maxima and minima (not zero). intensily

QWP Partially plane Partially plane

polarized polarized No
Extinguishment extinguishment
Occurs twice 0ccurs for
Elliptically for every one rotation
Plane rotation of
polarized polarized QWP A of analyzcr
light light analyzer
(a) (b)

Figure 5.18 Detection of elliptically polarized light.

5.3.9 Analysis of the Given Beam of Light

Suppose a ray of light is coming through a slit and we want to identify the nature of polarization
associated with it. That is to say whether the incoming light is (i) unpolarized. (ii) partially plane
polarized, (ii) plane polarized, (iv) circularly polarized or (v) elliptically polarized. Using a
Nicol prism (analyzer) and a QWP, the status of polarization can be identified as follows.
Case (i) When the light is investigated by a rotating analyzer and if the intensity changes from
max-zero-max-zero-max, then the light is plane polarized.
Case (ii) When the analyzer is rotated once and if the intensity of light remains uniform, then
the incoming light may be either circularly polarized or unpolarized. To distinguish circularly
polarized light from unpolarized light, the incoming light is allowed to go through a QWP before
falling on the rotating analyzer (see Figure 5.17).
In case of circularly polarized light on passing through a QWP it becomes plane
and hence with the rotating analyzer the extinguishment occurs twice. However,
polarized
unpolarized
light on passing through a QWP produces only unpolarized light and this when inspected with
arotating analyzer willgive no variation in intensity of light.
Case (iii) When the incoming light is allowed to go through the rotating
changes through maxima-minima (but not zero). The incoming light analyzer, the intensity
may then be cither
elliptically or partially plane polarized light.
To distinguish elliptically polarized light from partially
lieht is allowed to fall initially on a QWP (see Figure 5.18)plane polarized light, the incoming
before being investigated using a
rotating analyzer.
If the incoming light is elliptically polarized light, then on
becomes plane polarized light. When this light is studied with a rotatingpassing through a QWP it
analyzer, the intensity
of light shows two maxima and two extinguishments.
On the other hand., if the incoming light rays are partially plane
aOWP. it sillretains its partially plane polarized state. polarized, on passing through
When viewed
two maxima and two minima (not zero) in intensity variation are noted. through a rotating analyzer.
The entire details are shown in Figure 5.19.
 Incidant light
Inidat light on ratatine Nicol
ptism
Case -i)
Case ii) Cse -ii)
Intensity changes
And varÄzhes Intensity does
Dot chamge Intensity changgs bt can't
be extinguished completely
Reult

Plare polarized Either cioulsdy Either elliptically polised

polarised
ra mixtue of plsne polarised
or npolarised
md npolaised light
Original Original
besm ben

Incidnt on a qrter Waye Icident on a qtarter wAVe

plate md malyzed by plate amd malysed bry
sotating a Nicol paism Totating a Nicol prism

Intensity Intensity Intensity Intensity

hamgas
and
does
chamgas doæs
VTish
Visbes vanish
VaTishe Completaly
Restít: Result:
Ciulady Unpolarised Resjlt: Ressje:
polarized Eliptically
polaried
Mixtue
plame
of
polarised

unpolarised