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Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Year 2018
Analog Electronics
(Course Code: EE314)
Lecture 1: Introduction & Semiconductor
Basics
Course Instructor: Shree Prakash
Tiwari
Email: sptiwari@iitj.ac.in
Webpage: http://home.iitj.ac.in/~sptiwari/
Note: The information provided in the slides are taken form text books for microelectronics
(including Sedra & Smith, B. Razavi), and various other resources from internet, for
teaching/academic use only 1
What is this class all about?
• Basic semiconductor device physics and
analog integrated circuits.
• What will you learn?
What will you learn?
– Electrical behavior and applications of transistors
– Analog integrated circuit analysis and design
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Course Description
• The first course of electronics “Introduction to Electronics” was
to provide an overall flavor of electronics to the 3rd semester
students of all the B.Tech. streams.
• Next
Next course
course “Digital
Digital Logic and Design
Logic and Design” was to provide an
was to provide an
overall flavor of Digital Electronics.
• Analog Electronics is a course primarily for electrical
engineering students to provide an in‐depth understanding of
electronic circuit design and analysis.
• The primary goal of this course will be to develop an
understanding of how electronic circuits work.
d d fh l k
• Specific topics to be covered include differential and multistage
amplifiers, feedback, output stages, a selection of analog
integrated circuit topics
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Books
• Razavi, B., Fundamentals of Microelectronics, Wiley India
Private Private Ltd. , 2013, 2nd Edition
• Gayakwad, R. A., Op‐Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits,
Prentice‐Hall
Prentice Hall, 2002, 4th Edition
2002 4th Edition
• Sedra, A. S., Smith, K. C., and Chandorkar, A. N.,
Microelectronic Circuits: International Version, Oxford
University Press, 2013, 6th Edition.
• Razavi, B., Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits,
McGraw‐Hill Education, 2016, 2nd Edition
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Evaluation
• Midterm Exam 1 20%
• Midterm Exam 2 20%
• Final Exam 40%
• Quizzes/Assignments /Attendance 20%
Introduction
Co‐recipient of
Nobel prize
in physics in 2000
First Point contact
Transistor (1947 Bell
Transistor (1947, Bell First IC, Developed
Labs) with Germanium Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley (Seated) @ Bell independently by
semiconductor, and J. Kilby (Texas Instruments) and
two gold contacts Laboratories, 1948. The Nobel
prize was given in 1956. R. Noyce, J. Hoerni (Fairchild
separated by 50 Semiconductor), 1958.
micron.
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Evolution of Electronic Devices
1959: Planar Technology
• Developed at Fairchild
Semiconductor
• Planar Technology (Jean
gy (
Hoerni): base region is diffused
into collector (substrate) and
emitter region into the base
• Integrated Wiring (Robert
Noyce): By covering the planar
Noyce): By covering the planar
transistor with an oxide, a layer
of aluminium can be used on
top to wire the device(s)
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1961: First Commercial Planar ICs
• Based on the planar process by
Hoerni and Noyce, Fairchild
developed family of logic chips
p y g p
called resistors‐transistor
logic(RTL)
• Example shown is flip flop with
4 bipolar transistors and five
resistors
it
From 4 Transistors to 300‐mm Wafers
Batch Fabrication
10
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The Ever Shrinking Transistor
Using 45 nm technology, ≈ 400 transistors fit on a red blood cell!
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Integrated Circuits
2018 14 nm
CMOS
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What is a Semiconductor?
• Low resistivity => “conductor”
• High resistivity => “insulator”
y
• Intermediate resistivity => “semiconductor”
– conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators
– generally crystalline in structure for IC devices
• In recent years, however, non‐crystalline semiconductors have
become commercially very important
polycrystalline amorphous crystalline
Semiconductor Materials
Phosphorus
(P)
Gallium
(Ga)
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Dopants for Extrinsic Semiconductors
Adding small amounts of suitable impurity atom can drastically alter
number of electrons and holes in a semiconductor !
Addition of a group V element impurity to Silicon should increase
electrons while addition of group III element impurity should
increase number of holes
Silicon
• Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
• Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form
covalent bonds with four of its nearest neighbors.
• When temperature goes up, electrons can become
free to move about the Si lattice.
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Crystalline Silicon
Electronic Properties of Si
Silicon is a semiconductor material.
– Pure Si has a relatively high electrical resistivity at room temperature.
There are 2 types of mobile charge‐carriers in Si:
– Conduction electrons are negatively charged;
– Holes are positively charged.
The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons & holes in a
semiconductor can be modulated in several ways:
1. by adding special impurity atoms ( dopants )
2. byy applying
pp y g an electric field
3. by changing the temperature
4. by irradiation
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Electron‐Hole Pair Generation
• When a conduction electron is thermally generated,
a “hole” is also generated.
• A hole is associated with a positive charge, and is
free to move about the Si lattice as well.
Crystalline Silicon
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Carrier Concentrations in Intrinsic Si
• The “band‐gap energy” Eg is the amount of energy
needed to remove an electron from a covalent bond.
• The concentration of conduction electrons in intrinsic
silicon, ni, depends exponentially on Eg and the
absolute temperature (T):
Eg
ni 5.2 1015 T 3 / 2 exp electrons / cm 3
2 kT
Doping (N type)
• Si can be “doped” with other elements to change its
electrical properties.
• For example, if Si is doped with phosphorus (P), each
P atom can contribute a conduction electron so that
P atom can contribute a conduction electron, so that
the Si lattice has more electrons than holes, i.e. it
becomes “N type”:
Notation:
n = conduction electron
concentration
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Doping (P type)
• If Si is doped with Boron (B), each B atom can
contribute a hole, so that the Si lattice has more
holes than electrons, i.e. it becomes “P type”:
Notation:
p = hole concentration
Summary of Charge Carriers
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Electron and Hole Concentrations
• Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the product
of the conduction‐electron density and the hole
density is ALWAYS equal to the square of ni:
density is ALWAYS equal to the square of n
np ni
2
N‐type material P‐type material
n ND p NA
2 2
ni n
p n i
ND NA
Terminology
donor: impurity atom that increases n
acceptor: impurity atom that increases p
N‐type material: contains more electrons than holes
P‐type material: contains more holes than electrons
majority carrier: the most abundant carrier
minority carrier: the least abundant carrier
minority carrier: the least abundant carrier
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Summary
• The band gap energy is the energy required to free an
electron from a covalent bond.
– Eg for Si at 300K = 1.12eV
for Si at 300K 1 12eV
• In a pure Si crystal, conduction electrons and holes are
formed in pairs.
– Holes can be considered as positively charged mobile particles
which exist inside a semiconductor.
– Both holes and electrons can conduct current.
• Substitutional dopants in Si:
– Group‐V elements (donors) contribute conduction electrons
– Group‐III elements (acceptors) contribute holes
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