03 VMA-Intro To Valve History PDF

AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
VALVE INDUSTRY
A broad overview of the industry
to help newcomers better understand
the world of industrial valves
AN EDUCATION PROGRAM SPONSORED BY:
The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

and
The Valve Manufacturers Association
An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 1

SECTION TOPICS
SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

• Definition and functions
• Major valve types
• Market segments
• Special service valves
SECTION 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Timeline of major valve events
• Technological changes
• Manufacturing changes
SECTION 3: VALVE PERFORMANCE
• Standards organizations
• Pressure and class ratings
• Testing requirements

SECTION TOPICS
SECTION 4: VALVE COMPONENTS

• Body materials
• Valve trim materials
• Seals, gaskets and packings
• Valve actuation
SECTION 5: SUMMARY/RESOURCES
• Review of topics discussed
• Glossary of terms
• Additional resources from VMA
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES
• Separate attachment (PDF)

In this section, you will learn about:

• The functions valves perform in a piping
system
• The major market segments the valve
industry serves

What is a valve?
A device that regulates the flow of
gases, liquids or loose materials
through an aperture, such as a pipe,
by opening, closing or obstructing a
port or passageway

How do valves regulate flow?

• Isolates flow: on/off functions
• Controls flow: volume functions
• Checks flow: directional
functions

Isolating valves
• Isolating valves also called “block valves”
• Possible valve choices for isolating service
– Gate
– Ball
– Butterfly
– Plug

Control and regulating valves

• Control valves are prime examples
• Possible valve choices for control and
regulating
– Globe
– Butterfly
– Ball
– Plug

Check
• Swing check most common
• Many globe valves can be made “stop check”
or non-return types

Safety and pressure relief valves

• Special on/off valves
• Designed to:
– Open and relieve excess pressure
– Re-close after normal conditions are restored
– Function when normal operating controls fail
• Not designed to control normal operating
pressure
• Most critical valve in pressurized systems
• Referred to as PRVs

Basic valve types

• Gate
• Globe
• Ball
• Check
• Butterfly
• Plug

Gate valves
• Mature design
• Simple construction with few
moving parts
• Not recommended for throttling
service
• Relatively easy and inexpensive
to manufacture
• Easy to repair
• Heavy design compared to
butterfly and ball valves

Globe valves
• Primarily a regulating or throttling valve
• Basic design over 150 years old
• Called a globe due to round body shape
• Poor flow path; much fluid friction
• Generally not made in very large sizes
• Usually a unidirectional installation
• May be made in stop-check
configuration
• Low repair cost
Check valves
• Also called non-return
• Allow flow in one direction only
• Types: swing, piston, ball, double-disc and “silent”
• Metal-seated checks leak,
especially swing type
• Require careful sizing,
installation and placement
• Low repair cost

Ball valves
• Relatively new valve style (since 1950)
• May be resilient or metal seated
• Can be used for blocking or regulating flow
• Two main designs: floating and trunnion
• Resilient seated typically
– Use Teflon for seat material
– Have lower maximum temperature rating of
about 450o F
• Compact design
• Moderate repair cost
Plug valves
• Oldest valve design, developed 2000 years ago!
• Available either lubricated or lined
• Can be used for blocking or regulating flow
• Lubricated types used for hydrocarbon service
• Lined types popular in chemical
industry
• In some cases replaced by ball
and butterfly designs
• Moderately expensive to repair

Butterfly valves
• Center-hinged swinging disc
• Low pressure and low temperature designs are
resilient seated, usually rubber lined
• Can be used for blocking or regulating
• High performance types are
metal seated
• Often double and triple “offset”
to reduce closure torque
• Relatively expensive to repair

What do valves regulate?

• Media
– Gases
– Liquids
– Loose materials

Where do valves regulate flow?

…Just about everywhere!

Market segments
• Municipal water and wastewater
• Home plumbing systems
• Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)
• Fire protection
• General industry
• Power
• Oil, gas and refining

Municipal water and wastewater

• Fresh water and sewerage media
• Materials: cast and ductile iron
• Valve sizes: 6" to 84"
• Operating conditions:
ambient, low pressure

Home plumbing
• Material: brass
• Primarily installed in:
– Sinks and faucets
– Hose bibs
– Furnaces
– Hot water heating systems

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning

• Commercial buildings
• Materials: iron, steel
and bronze
• Valve sizes: ½" to 24"
low ambient to
environments 200° F

Fire protection
• Commercial buildings, including high rise
• Materials: iron and steel
environments

General industry
• Examples
– Automated assembly lines
– Hydraulic equipment
– Compressed air
• Valve sizes: ¼" to 2"
environments, except
for hydraulics

Power – fossil fuel plants

• Steam generating plants
• Materials: carbon steel to low alloy
high temperatures,
high pressure

Power – nuclear plants

• Extreme quality assurance requirements
– Total traceability of materials and
processes
– Extremely high integrity castings
• ASME “N Stamp” required for
manufacture of nuclear valves
• Stainless steels commonly used
• Cobalt-based hard-facings (Stellite)
cannot be used

Oil, gas and refining

• Largest variety of materials and types
• Materials: steel through super alloy
• Valve types: all
• Valve sizes: ½" through 48"
• Operating conditions: cryogenic to
1000° F, low to high pressures
• Media: water to hydrofluoric acid

Special service/special valves

• Cryogenic (below -150° F): extended bonnets
• Slurry: knife gates popular
• Hydrogen: high integrity castings
• Strong acid: corrosion-resistant alloys
• Sour service, hydrogen sulfide
(H2S): limits on material hardness
• Oxygen: all oil and grease must
be removed
• Hazardous media: extra QA (quality
assurance) and NDE (non-destructive
examination)
SECTION 2: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

• Events that brought about major changes in
valve design and manufacturing during the last
two centuries
• The advances made in valve technology
between 1900 and the 21st century

Valve history timeline

• Roman Empire (first valves) – 25 AD
• James Watt (steam engine) – 1775
• World War II – 1939
• Jack Kilby (integrated circuit) – 1959
25 AD 1775 1959
0 2000
1939

Roman Empire: 25 AD
• Built the first valves
• Used valve and piping
designs for a variety of
water service applications
Roman Plug Valve 25 AD

Steam power: 1775

• Demand for larger and higher
pressure valves
• Development of large
integrated valve plants
120" Valve Circa 1915

Valve technology: 1800-1900

• Steam industry drove
virtually all valve designs.
• Materials: brass and
bronze, then cast iron
• Globe valves were
predominate.
• “High pressure” in 1890
was 200 psi.
1892 Valve Patent

World War II
• Enormous need for additional piping and valves
• Demand for 100-octane aviation fuel
Integrated Valve Plant Circa 1947 Assembling Valves During WW II


• Valve design requirements driven by:
– Steam until WWII
– High octane fuel in 1940s
• Birth of steel valve, 1900-1910
• Pressure-seal bonnets, 1940-1945
• Teflon enabled the modern floating ball valve
• New corrosion-resistant valve materials

Technology revolution: mid-20th century

• Advancing digital technology
• Emerging nuclear market
Pneumatic Positioner Nuclear Power Plant


• Smart valves and fieldbus control
• New designs
– Triple-offset butterfly valves
– Metal-seated ball valves
• Improved materials
– High Cr/Mo alloys: C5, C12, C12A
– Super alloys
• Advances in welding technology
– Hard facing overlays
– Extended-life seating surfaces

21st century changes

• Technical
– Digital control systems
– Improved fugitive emissions control
• Manufacturing
– China and the Far East
– Commodity valves
become cheaper

Technical changes
• New and improved
high-temperature alloys
• Advanced computer
control and actuation State-of-the-Art Butterfly Valve
• Bigger valves becoming

more common
• Sharper focus on
fugitive emissions
Network-integrated Control System

Manufacturing changes
• Through the 1970s, United States was world
leader in valve manufacturing
• Most commodity steel valves now made or
cast in China or India
Chinese Investment Casting

Foundry

Chinese manufacturing
Chinese Furnace Casting Cleaning
Modern Chinese
Valve Plant


• Organizations responsible for establishing
standards for valve manufacturing
• Differences between American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) class ratings and
water, oil and gas (WOG) ratings
• Valve testing procedures

Valve standards organizations

• American Petroleum Institute (API)
• Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• American Waterworks Association (AWWA)
• Instrument Society of America (ISA)
• NACE International (originally National Association
of Corrosion Engineers)

API
• American Petroleum Institute
• Covers refinery, chemical and petrochemical
industry

API standards
• API 6D, Pipeline Valves
• API 594, Check Valves
• API 598, Valve Testing & Inspection
• API 600, Gate Valves
• API 602, Compact Steel Gate Valves
• API 607, Fire Testing Requirements
• API 608, Ball Valves
• API 609, Butterfly Valves
• API RP 591, Valve Qualification
• API RP 621, Valve Repair
MSS
• Manufacturers Standardization Society of the
Valve and Fitting Industry
• Oldest U.S. standards organization
• 78 valve and fitting standards,
including:
– SP-25, Marking System for Valves
– SP-45, Bypass & Drain Connections
– SP-91, Guidelines for Manual
Operation of Valves

ASME
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers
• Standards include:
– B16.5, Pipe Flanges
– B16.10, Valve end-to-end dimensions
– B16.25, Buttweld ends
– B16.34, Valves, Threaded, Flanged and Buttwelding

ASME B16.34
• Contains pressure temperature ratings for
different materials
• Non-destructive testing procedures
• NDE acceptance criteria
• Many useful tables and
important data

ISO
• International Organization for Standardization
• Many valve standards parallel to U.S. standards
• Some joint ISO and API standards
– ISO 6364, Valves for Cryogenic Service
– ISO 5208, Valve Testing

Pressure relief valve (PRV) standards

• ASME – American Society of Mechanical
Engineers
– Section I: Power Boilers
– Section III: Nuclear
– Section IV: Heating Boilers
– Section VIII: Pressure Vessels
• National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel
Inspectors
– Certifies PRV OEMs and repair facilities

Boiler and pressure vessel safety valves

• Regulated by the ASME Fired Pressure Vessels
(B&PV) Code
• Designated as ASME Section I Safety Valves
ASME Section I Safety Valves Symbol

Pressure ratings: methods

• Specifications:
– Class ratings
– WOG (water, oil and gas) ratings
• ASME Class ratings
– Very similar to class ratings for
flanges; often the same
• WOG (water, oil and gas) ratings
– Valve’s working pressure typically up to 100º F
(same definition as cold working pressure [CWP]
for class ratings)
Class ratings
• Example: ASME Class 150 is defined as a
“dimensionless number indirectly related to the
pressure-retaining ability as the function of
temperature of the component.”
• The class defines the maximum allowable
working pressure at a specific temperature for
a specific material.
• Classes primarily derived from ASME B16.34

Class ratings (continued)

• Often shown as spreadsheet table with:
– Pressure classes on top
– Temperature on side
– Single table for each specific material group
• Common steel class ratings: 150, 300, 600, 900,
1500, 2500 & 4500 (also Class 800 only for small
forged valves – for API-602 standard)
• Class “number” formerly referred to the rated
pressure at 750° F except for Class 150

Sample class ratings table

Sample ASME pressure standards

• Maximum working pressures listed by media
in ASME B16.34
• For example, a Class 150 valve, WCB
material, can be used safely on services up
to 800° F.
• At ambient temperature, the maximum
working pressure of that valve is 285 psig.
• At 800° F, the maximum working pressure of
that same valve is only 80 psig.

WOG ratings
• Usually defined by only two points
– Pressure at 100° F
– Pressure at the highest allowable temperature of
the materials used (often a PTFE seat or seal)
• Often portrayed on graph or chart, appearing
as a “straight line” rating

Sample WOG ratings graph

• WOG ratings
common for:
– Ball valves
– Other soft-seated
valves

Testing requirements
• All ASME and API standard valves inspected
and tested
• Vary by:
– Product type
– Size
– Pressure class
• Common test media
– Water
– Air
Testing a Linear Actuated Valve

Testing requirements (continued)

• Shell (body integrity) test
– 150% of rated maximum
cold working pressure
(CWP)
• Seat (leakage) test
– 90 psi (air) or 110% of
the rated maximum CWP
(water)
Testing Class 800 Valves

Typical valve test requirement

• 12" Class 300 WCB gate valve (to API-600)
• Test requirement – API-598
• ASME B16.34 300 Class CWP (working
pressure @ ambient) = 740 psig
Pressure (psi) Duration (sec.)
Shell test 1125 120
Seat test 90 (air) 120
Backseat test 825 60
HP seat test option 825 120

Control valve seating and shut-off

requirements
• Control valves are usually tested to
standards that differ from other valve types.
• The joint Fluid Control Institute (FCI)/
American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
document ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991 is usually
applied.

TABLE I
Leakage Class Maximum Seat Leakage Test Procedure
Class I See Paragraph 4.2.1 None

(See 4.2.1)
Class II 0.5% of rated valve capacity Type A

(See 4.2.2) (See 5.1)
Class III 0.1% of rated valve capacity Type A

(See 4.2.3) (See 5.1)
Class IV 0.01% of rated valve capacity Type A

(See 4.2.4) (See 5.1)
Class V 5 x 10 ml per minute of water per inch of orifice Type B

(See 4.2.5) diameter per psi differential (See 5.2)
(5 x 10-12 m3 per second of water per mm of orifice
diameter per bar differential).
Class VI Leakage per Paragraph 5.3.4 as expressed in ml per minute Type C

(See 4.2.6) versus port diameter (See 5.3)


• The types of materials used in valve manufacturing
• Materials commonly used to manufacture valve
pressure containing parts
• Four non-pressure-containing parts used on valves
• Two major categories of valve trim material
• The difference between gasket seals and packing
seals

And you will learn:

• How to identify three types of valve gaskets
• About the types of common end connectors that
are used on valves
• The most common problems with installed
valves
• What conditions to consider when selecting a
valve’s gasket material and packing material

Bonnet designs
• Screwed or threaded
• Union bonnet
• Bolted bonnet, flat gasket
• Bolted, ring-type joint
• Welded
• Pressure seal

Screwed or threaded
• Oldest commercial design
• Usually on bronze valves
• Used on some hydraulic valves
• Not allowed in most refineries
and petrochemical plant process
service

Bolted bonnet, flat gasket

• Most popular current design
• Utilizes a minimum of four bolts
• Adaptable to many gasket types
• Not used much for pressure
classes above 1500
• Higher pressure classes (above
Class 1500) have gone to
pressure seal type bonnets

Bolted ring joint type

• Similar to regular bolted bonnet
• Uses a carbon steel ring gasket softer than the
body and bonnet material if possible
• Useful for higher pressures and temperatures
than flat gasket bolted bonnets

Pressure seal bonnet

• Invented in early 1940s
• Much lighter than bolted bonnet
• Employs a soft wedge-shaped
carbon steel ring, sometimes plated
with silver
• Newest designs use a stainless-
steel-contained graphite filler
• Not for pressure classes below 600
• Require internal pressure to
energize seal Pressure Seal Ring

Welded bonnet
• Used in sizes through 24” before pressure seals
were invented
• Commonly used on API 602 valves ½" through 2"
• Used in combination with a
bolted bonnet as a “lip seal”
• Excellent for fugitive emissions
containment

Common end connections

• Threaded (½" to 2")
• Socket weld (½" to 2")
• Buttweld (generally above 2")
• Flanged (generally above 2")
– Raised face
– Flat face
– Ring-type joint

Common end connection – examples
Flanged Ends Flanged Ends Flanged Ends Welded Ends

Raised Face Ring Type Joint Flat Face Buttweld

Other end connections

• Raised face tongue and groove
• Brazed ends
• Mechanical clamping
– Grayloc
– Victaulic
– Sanitary

Valve components and materials

• Valve materials
– Pressure-containing parts
– Non-pressure-containing parts
– Valve trim
– Seals: gaskets, packing

Pressure-containing parts
• Valve body materials
• Require material rating and class rating for
pressure
• Popular pressure-containing materials
– Bronze
– Cast and ductile iron
– Carbon steel
– Low alloy steel (up to 9 Cr)
– Stainless steels
– Exotic, high and super alloys

Bronze
• Oldest valve material
• Maximum temperature 500º F
• Relatively cheap to
manufacture
• Low pressure and temperature
only
• Good corrosion resistance
• Typically not repaired

Cast and ductile iron

• Developed in 1850s
• Brittle and limited to lower pressures
• Maximum temperature 450º F
• Not suitable for very low or
cryogenic temperatures
• Not easily welded
• Typically not repaired,
except largest sizes

Carbon steel
• Industrial valve workhorse material
• WCC, WCB, A105
• Temperatures from -20° F to 1000° F
• Ductile
• Strong
• Relatively easy to cast
• Moderate cost
• Easy to weld

Low alloy steel

• Up to 9 Cr maximum
• Maximum temperature 1200° F
• Cast grades: WC6, WC9, C5, C9,
• Forged grades: F11, F22, F5, F9,
• Most require PWHT (post-weld heat treatment)
when welded

Stainless steels
• Corrosion resistant, “stainless,” with chrome
content above 10%
• Austenitic: 304, 316, 317, 321, 347
• Highly resistant to most chemicals
• Excellent for cryogenic applications
• Easy to machine and weld
• Precipitation hardening grades
(PH) much stronger
(i.e., 17-4 PH)

Exotic – high and super alloys

• Highly resistant to volatile chemicals at high
temperatures and pressures
• Monel, titanium, Hastelloy and Inconel
• Very expensive
• Often difficult to machine and weld

Non-pressure-containing parts
• Yoke
• Mounting pads
• Miscellaneous
• Trim: components affecting valve closure
– Seat
– Closure element (disc, ball, etc.)
– Stem

Trim materials – selection considerations

• Process fluids • Other
– Erosiveness – Pressure drop
– Corrosiveness – Temperature
– Solids – Flow
– Other fluid characteristics – Velocity
• Valve action
– On-off
– Throttling
– Emergency

Valve trim materials

• Soft seated: elastomeric polymers such as
EPDM and plastic polymers such as Teflon
– Advantage: tight seating closure
– Disadvantages: wide temperature range and
easily damaged
• Metal seated: bronze, stainless and hard
facings
– Advantages: high temp and not easily damaged
– Disadvantage: harder to get bubble-tight closure

Metal-seated valve trims

• Defined by API
• Examples for gate and globe valves:
– Trim 8 13 CR stem & disc with
Stellite 6 HF seat
– Trim 5 13 CR stem with Stellite 6
HF disc & seat
– Trim 10 316 SS stem, disc & seat
– Trim 12 316 SS stem & disc with
Stellite 6 HF seat
– Trim 16 316 SS stem with Stellite 6
HF disc & seat

Valve seals
• Gaskets
– Between non-moving valve components
– Typically between outer pressure-containing
parts
• Packings
– Between one non-moving component and one
moving component
– Typically between some part of outer shell and
an operating component, such as stem

Valve gasket seals

Gasket Locations
Globe Valve Ball Valve

Types of valve gasket

• Crush gaskets
– Flat graphite/steel laminate sheet
– Oval corrugated soft metal
– Flat Teflon (PTFE) or reinforced formulations
• Controlled compression gaskets
– Spiral wound, typically stainless steel with PTFE
or graphite
• Pressure energized, or assisted, gaskets
– Typically soft iron or graphite elastomers

Gasket selection considerations

• Service conditions
– Handles max and/or min temperature of the fluid
– Handles the (possibly) corrosive nature of the fluid
• Appropriate joint design
• Appropriately smooth seating surface
• Proper installation
• Proper maintenance

Valve packings
Packing Locations
Compression Packing O-Ring Packing

Valve packing materials

• Historically
– Braided fiber materials
– Asbestos until about 1985
• Graphite or Teflon most common today
– Graphite for higher temperature
services
– Teflon (PTFE) for more corrosive
services; requires temperature
de-rating of the valve to about
450º F even at low pressure

Packing selection considerations

• Service conditions
– Handles max and/or min temperature of the fluid
– Handles the (possibly) corrosive nature of the fluid
• Valve design
– Smooth stuffing boxes
– Extremely smooth stem surfaces
– Straight and concentric stems
– Operation without undue torque
• Proper installation
• Proper maintenance
Fugitive emissions
• Increased scrutiny on emissions control today,
especially volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Requirements vary from a maximum of 50 ppm
VOCs to 250 ppm
• Valve designs require type testing
and qualification
• U.S. and international testing
standards are not equal

How to control fugitive emissions

• Bellows seal best design, but expensive
• Live-loaded packing sometimes helpful
• Easier to contain fugitive emissions with
quarter-turn valves
• Low fugitive emissions success requires:
– Proper packing construction and material
– Smooth and straight stem
– Smooth stuffing box

Valve actuation
• Manual (requires operator)
– Lever or gear used
• Automated (no operator)
– Needs a power source:
• Electricity, pneumatic pressure
or hydraulic
• Which are available?
• What is the environment?

Manual valve actuation

• Manual gears
– Help reduce opening and closing operating torques
to easily manageable amounts, usually a maximum
of 70-100 ft/lbs.
• Bevel gears
– Used for rising stem valves such as gates and globes
• Worm gears
– Used for quarter-turn valves such as ball, plug and
butterfly valves

Automatic valve actuation

• Uses
– Frequently operated valves
– Control or regulating operations
– Valves in hazardous locations
– Valves in remote locations
– Difficult to operate valves
• Automatic actuator types
– Pneumatic powered
– Hydraulic powered
– Electric powered

Valve repair
• Factored into the total cost of ownership
• Fewer valves repaired today due to low cost of
new commodity valves
• Valves below 12" Class 150 and
6" Class 300 usually scrapped
unless alloy material
• Some valves expensive to repair
– Triple offset butterfly
– Metal seated ball

Common valve problems

• Leakage
– Casting leaks, due to poor casting quality
– Leaking gaskets, due to improper joint adjustment
– Leaking packing, due to improper compression
adjustment, stem scratched, or lack of sealant
– Seating damage, due to incorrect trim materials or
in-line trash from construction
• Operation
– Incorrect valve sizing
– Component breakage

Valve selection questions

• What is the fluid?
• What is the temperature and pressure?
• Will I need to block flow, regulate it, or stop
back-flow?
• Will the valve be operated often?
• How much room do I have to install the valve?
• Will I need to service it often?
• What is my budget?

You have learned about…

1. The functions valves perform in a piping system
2. The most common valve types
3. Major market segments served by the valve
industry
4. Organizations responsible for establishing
standards for valve manufacturing
5. ASME class ratings and WOG ratings
6. Valve test medias: air and water


7. Three types of valve components: pressure-
containing, non-pressure-containing parts
and seals
8. Materials commonly used for valve bodies
9. Non-pressure-containing parts; yoke, mounting
pads and trim
10. Soft-seated and metal-seated valve trim
11. Crush gaskets, controlled compression gaskets
and pressure energized gaskets


12. Raised face, ring joint and flat face flanged ends,
and butt-weld connections
13. The distinct functions of gaskets and packing seals
14. Selection of valve gasket and packing material
15. Fugitive emissions and how to control them
16. Actuation: manual and automated
17. Leakage and operation problems in installed valves
18. Valve selection questions

Glossary of terms a-co

Actuator – A device that applies force to Blowdown – The difference between the set
operate valve; provides force or torque. pressure and the closing pressure of a
ANSI – American National Standards Institute pressure relief valve, expressed either as a
percentage of the set pressure, or in pressure
AOV – Air-operated valve units. Also, to discharge fluid through a safety
API – American Petroleum Institute relief valve by opening the valve.
ASME – American Society of Mechanical Bonnet – A component sitting on top of the
Engineers body of a valve that contains valve stems and
Automated valve – A valve that is powered by bushings.
a source other than a human operator. Buttweld – Weld in which adjoining edges
AWWA – American Water Works Association, are parallel and facing each other.
which establishes and maintains valve Cavitation – The result of vapor bubbles
standards for the waterworks industry. collapsing and releasing energy and noise
Bleed – To drain or depressurize a valve into a flow system.
Block and bleed – A valve configuration in Check valve – A valve that allow media to
which flow through a valve is blocked while the flow in only one direction.
valve is bled through another small port. Cr – Chromium
Cock – A device, such as a faucet or valve,
for regulating the flow of a liquid.

Glossary of terms co-id

Control valve – A valve that regulates the ESD – Electrostatic discharge
flow of media. Ferrous – Characteristic of relating to or
Cryogenic – Characteristic of temperature containing iron.
below -150° F. Flange connection – A connection mated by
Cv – The flow coefficient; the amount of means of bolts inserted through holes in the
material that can pass through a fixed area at flange face.
a certain differential pressure Gasket – A seal between non-moving valve
DCS – Distributed control system components.
Diaphragm – A thin, flexible elastomer or gpm – Acronym for gallons per minute.
metal sheet through which forces or HART – Hybrid signal containing
pressures are applied characteristics of both analog and digital
Disc – Closure member in a valve signals.
Ductile – Capable of being drawn out into HPBV – High-performance butterfly valve
wire or thread HVAC – Heating, ventilating and air
Eccentric plug – A half plug design used in conditioning
valves Hydraulic device – A device that is moved or
Elastomeric – Characteristics resembling worked by liquid pressure.
those of rubber I.D. or ID – Inside diameter

Glossary of terms is-pi

ISA – International Society of Automation Offset design – A design in which a valve
ISO – International Organization for controller is installed off geometric center of the
Standardization valve.
Isolating valve – A valve that turns the flow of Operator – A person who applies force to
media on and off. operate a valve.
Lift and turn – Hybrid of linear and rotary OS&Y – Outside screw and yoke
valve actions Overpressure – The pressure increase over
LNG – Acronym for liquid nitrogen gas. the set pressure of a pressure relief valve. Also,
the amount of pressure in a media flow system
Media – The gases, liquids or loose materials that is over the set pressure of the pressure
that flow through an aperture, such as a pipe relief valve.
MOV – Motorized valve P1 – Inlet pressure, expressed in pound-force
MSS – Manufacturers Standardization Society per square inch
NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers P2 – Outlet pressure, expressed in pound-force
Association per square inch
NRS – Non-rising stem Packing – A seal between moving valve
components
O.D or OD – Outside diameter
Pig – A cleaning or inspection device used in
media flow systems.

Glossary of terms pn-s

Pneumatic device – A device that is moved or RS – Rising stems.
worked by air pressure. Safety relief valve – A pressure relief valve
PRV – Pressure relief valve. for liquid or vapor/gas service
psi – Pounds per square inch. Safety valve – A pressure relief valve for
psig – Pound-force per square inch gauge. vapor/gas service
PTFE – Refers to Teflon PTFE, short for Seat – The fixed surface on which a valve
polytetrafluoroethylene. rests or against which it presses
Q – Required media flow, expressed in gallons Set pressure – The inlet gauge pressure at
per minute. which the pressure relief valve is set to open
QA – Quality assurance Severe service – A valve application in which

the valve will be exposed to excessive
Relief valve – A pressure relief valve for liquid conditions such as temperature, vibration or
service corrosion.
Relieving pressure – The sum of the set sg – Specific gravity
pressure and overpressure pressure relief valve
Slurry – A watery mixture of insoluble matter
Resilient – Capable of withstanding shock (as mud, lime or plaster of paris)
without permanent deformation or rupture;
tending to recover from or adjust easily to
misfortune or change.

Glossary of terms t-w

Trim – Valve components that make up the Valve seal – General term used to refer to
actual closure elements of the valve or that valve gaskets and valve packings
control the closure and are surrounded by the Vena contracta – A point in a flow system at
media inside the valve. which the maximum velocity is obtained.
Trunnion – A pin or pivot on which something VOC – Volatile organic compounds.
can be rotated or tilted
WOG – Water, oil, gas
TT – Total torque Worm – A self-locking type of gear
Valve – Device that regulates the flow of
gases, liquids or loose materials through an
aperture, such as a pipe, by opening, closing,
or obstructing a port or passageway.

Additional resources
• Next Valve Basics Seminar & Exhibition
– Oct. 28, 2010: Baton Rouge, LA
• Back to Basics article compilation
• Valve Magazine (print & digital)
– Free subscription
– Order past issues and articles
• Coming later in 2010: Valve Basics in a Box™
– A complete Valves & Actuators 101 program for
onsite education; watch VMA.org for details!

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE VALVE INDUSTRY
was developed by Greg Johnson, Chairman of the
VMA Education & Training Committee, and
President, United Valve, Houston, TX. VMA would
also like to acknowledge the contributions of the
entire VMA Education & Training Committee
whose efforts made this program possible.
For additional information on VMA’s Education & Training
program and other educational products for sale, please
visit VMA.org.
© 2010 Valve Manufacturers Association
AN EDUCATION PROGRAM SPONSORED BY:
The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

and
The Valve Manufacturers Association

An Introduction to the Valve Industry: Supplemental Notes June 16, 2010
Slide 1 This program serves as an introduction to the industrial valve industry and is designed
to inform newcomers to the industry about basic concepts such as valve types and
components, materials, design, history and standards.
Slide 6 Valves perform three basic functions:

Isolating service: These are sometimes called block valves and are used in on/off
service.
Isolating valves are designed to operate in either the full open or full closed position.
In critical applications these valves are often motor-operated.
Controlling and regulating: Usually control valves, these can be; globe, ball, butterfly
or plug types and used to regulate the amount of flow in a line.
Control and regulating valves regulate the flow in a line. They are designed to
operate in the less-than-full-open position. The oldest and still most popular regulating
valve design is the globe. Gate valves should never be used for throttling or regulating
unless the flow velocity is very low. High velocity flow in a gate valve used for regulating
can quickly destroy the seating surfaces and result in leakage when fully closed.
Check or non-return: These valves allow free flow in one direction only and block the
flow from returning in the opposite direction.
Check valves are the one-way street controllers of the valve industry.
Slide 7 Isolating or block valves are the no, no-go decision makers in the valve industry. There
is no grey area when it comes to block valves. They are designed to be either open or
closed, just like most light switches are used to turn lights on or off. The most common
type of isolating valve is the gate valve, but other types have made inroads, especially
over the past 25 years or so.
Slide 8 The control valve is required in every process plant or facility where the rate of flow has
to be controlled. For effective flow regulation the flow rate should be proportional to the
amount of closure of the stem. However certain control applications require flow rates
that are not proportional with the percentage of closure of the stem, such as a quick
opening response. The most accurate flow control is performed by control or regulating
valves operated by a controller and an actuator, rather than by manual operation.
Slide 9 Check or non-return valves only allow flow in one direction. They are marked with a
flow arrow on the exterior surface to ensure they are installed in the proper orientation.
Many pieces of process equipment—including pumps, turbines and boilers—are
protected by check valves. Unless they have soft, elastomer seating inserts, check
valves will leak to some degree. In most cases, unless soft-seated, they should not be
counted on for absolute shut-off.
© 2010 Valve Manufacturers of America 1

Slide 10 Safety & relief valves are the ―silent sentinels‖ of the piping system. Relief valves are
used for liquid service, safety valves for vapor service and safety relief valves for
liquid or vapor/gas service.
Slide 12 Basic gate valve design has not changed much over the past 100 years or so. Although
other valve types, such as the metal-seated ball valve, have threatened its existence,
the venerable gate valve is still produced in vast numbers all over the world. Gate
valves can be manufactured in sizes from ½‖ through 144‖. Most gate valves are made
from castings, but forged and fabricated valves are also common. Some of the largest
gate valves in the world are parallel disc types used in giant dam and waterworks
projects.
Slide 13 The globe valve was the principal valve type during the 19th century. As other valve
types matured over the next 75 years or so, globe valve usage began to be reserved
only for flow control and regulation applications. Home faucets and outside water
spigots are both usually globe-type valves. Percentage-wise, there are more globe-type
―control valves‖ than any other type.
Slide 14 Check valves run the gamut from being able to fit in the palm of your hand size to large
waterworks valves that you can walk through. Check valves are used in tandem with a
gate valve in many situations, even for backflow control, because metal-seated check
valves usually have high allowable leakage rates. Check valve sizing and application
issues account for a high percentage of in-plant refinery valve problems. The proper
sizing of check valves is critical to optimize their performance.
Slide 15 The invention of Teflon led to the creation of the floating ball valve. Virtually unknown
before World War II, the ball valve exploded on the PVF (piping/valves/fittings) scene in
the 1950s and 60s. Floating ball types are usually 12‖ and smaller, while trunnion-
mounted types can be built in very large sizes.
Slide 16 At one time plug valves were a primary choice for refinery service, but other valve types
have taken over in many of those applications. Today sleeved plug valves are used in
many harsh chemical applications. Cu/Ni (copper-nickel) all-metal plug valves are often
used in HF (hydrofluoric) alkylation processes. The control of distributed natural gas is
still handled to a great extent by lubricated plug valves.
Slide 17 Butterfly valves have come a long way from their early days as rubber-lined water
service block valves. Today, double- and triple-offset, metal-seated butterfly valves are
used in some of industry’s toughest applications. The offset design is popular because
of the decreased opening and closing torque required to operate the valve, compared
to non-offset types.
Slide 18 Valves are used to regulate fluids from the thinnest gases to heavy slurries full of
suspended solids. Valves can be manufactured of hundreds of different materials and
alloys to handle the harshest service conditions.

Slide 19 Valves are used in many industry segments, and they are all around us. From the
plumbing in our house, to refineries and power plants, they all contain valves.
Slide 20 Most valve professionals are familiar with their own segment or segments of the valve
industry. But the entire valve industry is very broad shouldered, with very diverse
segments that feature products oftentimes totally different from the segment with which
we are most familiar.
Slide 21 Municipal water and wastewater service uses millions of basic valves, from fire
hydrants (a form of globe valve) to huge 16’ butterfly valves on giant water delivery
aqueducts… and everything in between. Since the temperatures and pressures are
relatively low, these valves are usually manufactured out of cast or ductile iron and
occasionally bronze. The seating in these valves is often a resilient rubber, so they hold
very well. The primary valve organization for the waterworks industry is the American
Water Works Association (AWWA), which establishes and maintains valve standards
for the waterworks industry.
This is a 60” resilient-seated butterfly valve on one of the main water intake lines
running from Lake Michigan to the Chicago water purification system.
Slide 22 In home plumbing applications, the common hose bib or faucet is actually a globe
valve. There are many other globe valves throughout houses all over the country. Every
bathroom faucet is a globe valve. Hot water systems and furnaces also contain gate,
globe and regulating valves.
Slide 23 Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems use a number of valves,
especially in large buildings. Valve sizes range from ½‖ through 24‖ and virtually all
types of valves are found. Chilled and hot water systems in skyscrapers may contain
valves rated up to class 600 to handle the high lift required to reach the top floors and
maintain pressure.
Slide 24 Fire protection sprinkler systems primarily contain ductile iron gate valves, although
other valve types are beginning to be used as well. The pressures required to pipe
water to the upper floors of tall buildings usually dictate that cast steel valves be used
instead of cast or ductile iron.
Shown here is a set of ductile iron valves on a typical automatic sprinkler system. The
check, gate and globe valves are ductile iron and bronze.
Slide 25 Automated assembly lines and compressed air systems are just some of the general
industry valve applications. These are usually small valves, ½‖ to 2‖, but pressure
ratings can be very low for compressed air to nearly 10,000 psi for hydraulic systems.

Slide 26 For the first 100 years of the valve industry, steam power and generation drove nearly
all of its product enhancements and improvements. Steam generation is still an
important user of critical valve components. High-temperature and high-pressure
applications now dictate the use of 9 Cr (chromium) materials such as ASTM A216
grades C12 and C12A. The primary domain of the pressure seal bonnet is in high-
temperature, high-pressure steam service.
A typical power plant has a multitude of valve service conditions and hundreds of
valves, from the smallest forged-steel types to large pressure seal gate valves. With
today’s cycle type generating plants, the stress on valves is great, and they must be
designed to handle the rough operating conditions. Most power plant valves are
buttweld end types, so they must be repaired in place, which is more costly than
removing them and sending to a repair shop.
Slide 27 The unique environment of nuclear power facilities requires that everything used in
their construction meet critical quality assurance standards and specifications. Since
failure is not an option in this service, the valves must be perfect in every way, from
defect-free castings to ultra-reliable control systems.
Slide 28 Oil refining and petrochemical service is the cafeteria of valve selection. Valves of
virtually every type and material can be found in these plants with their maze of piping.
Operating temperatures range from cryogenic to 1000o F. Corrosives such as hydrogen
sulfide and hydrofluoric acid, which require special valve materials, can be found in
these facilities as well.
Slide 29 Special service applications require valves that are either specially built or are
processed in unique ways. For instance, in cryogenic service (below -150o F) requires
bonnet extensions so the packing will not freeze and render the valve inoperable. And
in oxygen service, valves must be completely free of all oils and greases.
Slide 32 The first valves were manufactured by the Romans over 2000 years ago. They were
primarily used in domestic plumbing systems. Interestingly, the chemical analysis of
these ancient valves is extremely close to today’s ASTM B61 and B62 bronzes.
Another interesting fact is that the name of the valve builder was not stamped on the
valve or the plumbing components. If a name was stamped on the valves it was the
owner of the house where the piping was installed.
The early Roman valve and piping designs were used in a variety of water service
applications. These initial basic plug valve designs would not change much in the
coming 2000 years. Like other scientific developments, the Dark Ages also inhibited the
growth of flow control technology and it wasn’t until the birth of the steam-powered
Industrial Revolution that valve designs began to change and develop. The 1800s
would see huge developments in valve design.

Slide 33 After a half century of growth spurred on by the steam industry, valves became a
commodity and America’s capability to meet the demands of larger and higher pressure
valves was met by the construction of large integrated valve plants throughout the
Northeast and Midwest. The control of higher pressure and temperature steam
continued to drive most valve developments through the first decades of the 20th
century. It took World War II and its industrial growth to fuel new developments in the
valve industry.
Slide 34 Until the late 1800s valves were predominately low pressure designs of 200 psi or less
and primarily made of bronze and cast iron. Most of the major valve manufacturers
(Crane, Lunkenheimer, Powell and Jenkins) attained their first valve patents during this
period. Virtually all of them were versions of bronze globe valves! During this period
there were dozens of valve patents issued each year—some good, some bad and
some ugly.
Slide 35 World War II created a huge need for additional piping components, including valves.
During the war, a young man-depleted workforce was augmented by women and the
retention of older workers.
One of the key drivers of valve technology during this period was the quest for 100
octane fuel for aircraft. Prior to the late 1930s, 80- to 90-octane was the best that could
be obtained through conventional refining processes. The perfection of the ―cracking‖
processes helped the United States to leap ahead of the rest of the world in this regard.
The cracking units and affiliated process equipment created the need for valves that
had not been invented or perfected yet. The U.S. valve companies met that need and
more. It is said that the 100-octane fuel used to power the RAF during the later stages
of the Battle of Britain helped defeat German air power. And U.S. industry, including the
valve manufacturers, played a big part.
This 160-acre Crane valve plant was located in southwest Chicago in the mid-1940s.
The plant was integrated, meaning it poured its own castings and assembled, tested
and shipped the final product. The Crane plant was so large that it had its own railroad
with over five miles of railroad tracks. Today the site is a parking lot for semi-trucks and
trailers at the nearby BNSF railroad yard.
Slide 36 The age of the steel valve dawned with the birth of the 20th century. As steam
pressures and temperatures began to rise, industry began the shift from bronze and
iron to carbon steel for these tough applications.
Slide 37 The nuclear industry was a huge driver of both valve technology and valve
manufacturing quality systems development. The digital age was manifested in the
valve industry as well, particularly in the control valve industry with sophisticated control
capabilities and fieldbus systems.

Slide 38 Although most valve designs were quite mature during the second half of the 20th
century, the butterfly and infant ball valve types continued to evolve. The double- and
triple-offset butterfly designs were developed during this period. The metal-seated high
performance butterfly also continued to evolve and take market share away from
traditional gate valves. Welding technology advanced to the point that the Cr/Mo alloys
could be effectively welded, which led to a huge increase in buttweld end valve
designs.
Advances in welding technology also helped drive valve manufacturing to new levels.
The common use of hard facing overlays, such as Stellite #6, created seating surfaces
that would last much longer than previous hard materials such as 410 stainless steel.
Slide 39 Digital control systems have had a huge and beneficial impact on the valve industry.
With the dawn of a new century came a growing environmental consciousness that was
manifested in the industrial sector by increased concern for volatile organic compound
(VOC) emissions. This concern has resulted in new fugitive emissions control
measures to be instituted for valves to help eliminate them as a possible leak source.
The shift of valve manufacturing to the least expensive countries has been nearly
complete for all valves, save for some highly engineered products. There have been
concerns over quality from ―low-cost countries‖ such as China and India, but increasing
scrutiny by valve users and the resulting corrective actions by offshore manufacturers
will hopefully correct the problems.
Slide 40 The new century created new valve challenges and creative valve solutions. High-
temperature alloys, such as C12A, a 9 Cr alloy, were improved and additional
information was published on their fabrication and use. Computers and digital
communication became common place in control valve applications and on motorized
valves (called MOVs). Engineers seeking greater plant throughput are designing larger
and larger process lines that require the valve designer to counter with new and larger
valves.
Fugitive emissions control concerns, which started first in California, have now migrated
across the country. This has required valve manufacturers to concentrate on emissions
containment in packing and seals. The new threshold of containment is now less than
100 parts per million.
A large-diameter fabricated butterfly valve made out of 304H stainless steel for use in
high temperature flue gas service is shown here. It is hydraulically controlled.

Slide 41 The United States was the leader in valve manufacturing through the first six to seven
decades of the 20th century. Huge worldwide demand for U.S. valves in the 1970s
created a shortage of products for internal consumption. U.S. manufacturers began to
look abroad and this opened the door for imports from Eastern Europe and the Far
East. The low cost of the imports vs. the high cost of very mature U.S. manufacturing
plants, led to the closure of most domestic integrated manufacturing facilities.
The economic downturn of the 1980s further pruned the number of U.S. valve
manufacturing facilities. Offshore sourcing, especially for commodity valves, became
the norm for most manufacturers as the ’80s rolled into the ’90s. The very low labor
costs in India and China have caused virtually all commodity steel valve production to
become centered in these low-cost nations. These countries also provide components
and castings to many U.S. manufacturers that still have a manufacturing presence in
the United States.
China is the nation of choice for most worldwide valve production today. The very low
cost of manufacturing there, combined with China’s own internal growth and appetite
for valves has created literally thousands of valve plants within her borders. Many U.S.
companies have joint ventures in China and some of the plants are very impressive in
size and scope.
This is a typical interior view of a Chinese investment casting foundry. In this image
workers are preparing the wax molds that will be used to produce the final patterns.
Slide 42 At this time there are still some quality issues to be overcome, particularly in the area of
quality castings. In China’s defense, until recently they had not been required to
produce valve castings to the standards required of the United States and most of
Europe.
A typical low-tech Chinese electric furnace charged with ASTM A217 grade WCB steel
is shown here. This is hardly a state-of-the-art facility, but as of 2009, castings for the
U.S. market are still produced here. Note the wooden cart on the left. In the top right
photo, note the worker who is cutting off the risers from some investment castings.
Where is his protective equipment?!
Slide 45 API publishes many valve standards that are the defacto industry standard for
particular products such as gate valves (API 600), pipeline valves (API 6D), as well as
many others. API standards are used in refineries, chemical plants and general industry
applications. API has been publishing valve standards since 1939. The most popular
standards are API 598 and API 600.
Slide 48 ASME publishes many valve standards that are used in all segments of industry and for
all types of valves. B16.10 is the standard for end-to-end dimensions which keeps
valves interchangeable. B16.25 details the geometry that all buttweld valve ends need
to have in order to match up to the appropriate pipe for welding in the field.
ASME publications cover pressure temperature ratings for different materials; non-
destructive testing procedures; NDE acceptance criteria; many useful tables and other
important data.

Slide 49 ASME B16.34 is the parent document from which most industrial valves are designed.
This specification also publishes pressure-temperature tables for virtually every
common metal and alloy used for valve construction. If an engineer wishes to know
what pressure and temperature he can operate a valve at, the answer is found in
ASME B16.34. For those valves that don’t fall under specific design standards such as
API 600 or API 608, B16.34 contains pressure testing requirements and acceptance
criteria.
Slide 51 Due to their purpose, pressure relief valves must adhere to very stringent standards in
their design, manufacture and performance. These standards are written by ASME, the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The ASME requirements for pressure relief
valves are part of some of the most stringent quality standards in the world. Four ASME
codes apply for pressure relief valves: Section I – Power Boilers; Section III – Nuclear;
Section VI – Heating Boilers; Section VIII – Pressure Vessels.
Slide 52 Companies that manufacture pressure relief valves are required to have a special
ASME certification, the ―V‖ stamp.
Slide 53 There are two main methods of indicating the pressure rating of a valve: class rating
and WOG rating. WOG stands for water, oil and gas and refers to the rating of the
valve at ambient temperature. It is also called cold working pressure (CWP). Class
ratings vary depending upon their number: 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, 2500 & 4500.
Slide 55 Class numbers were created in the early 20th century and except for class 150 they
refer to the materials pressure rating at 750o F. For example, class 300 is rated at 300
psi at 750o F, class 600 is rated at 600 psi at 750o F and so on. For some reason class
150 (actually 170 psi) is based upon 500o F.
Slide 56 To use this table, match the pressure class across the top with the operating
temperature down the left side and scan across to where they meet for the operating
pressure at that temperature. This data is derived from ASME B16.34. There are
dozens of material tables like this one in B16.34 covering virtually every material valves
are made of.
Slide 57 The most important fact to remember about pressure ratings is that the operating
pressure DECREASES as the temperature RISES.
Slide 58 Nowadays WOG ratings are usually applied to some ball valves. In years past the
WOG rating was used for all types of valves including gates and globes.
Slide 59 You can see by this table that due to the reduced high temperature strength of the
elastomer seat material, the valve in question is only suitable for 100 psi at 450o F.

Slide 60 All valves require testing at the end of their manufacturing cycle. Tests include a shell
or body integrity test, to test the pressure boundary and a closure test to test the valves
ability to stop flow. The shell test is usually performed at 150% of the rated ambient
working pressure. The seat test is often 110% of the rated ambient working pressure or
in some cases 60-100 psi air, depending on the testing specification. Common testing
specifications in use today include API 598, API 6D, MSS SP-61, ASME B16.34 and
ISO 5208.
Slide 61 An experienced testing technician, along with the right equipment and a calibrated test
gauge, are the requirements for a good valve pressure test.
Slide 62 Valve testing specifications and acceptance criteria are very black and white.
However, for the sake of manufacturing efficiency, the test durations are relatively
short.
Slide 63 The most commonly applied testing standard for a control valve is the American
National Standard Institute, ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991. This document provides criteria for
establishing classes of leakage rates, and it specifies leakage rates from very liberal to
virtually zero.
Slide 64 This table, which is published in ANSI/FCI 70-2-1991, shows some of the possible
control valve leakage rates, from the very stringent Class VI to the liberal class I
acceptance criteria.
Slide 67 In the case of most gate and globe valves the two parts are the body & bonnet. The
bonnet area sits on top of the body and contains the stem and bushing. Many designs
have been developed to hold these two parts together. Threaded bonnet designs are
some of the oldest dating from the mid 19th century. Except for small plumbing valves,
the bolted, welded and pressure seal are the most common bonnet joints.
Slide 68 A screwed or threaded bonnet bronze globe valve built today looks virtually identical to
one built a hundred years ago. Although the design is rare in critical service
applications, there are literally millions in use around the world in mundane commercial
applications. Due to the fact that the bonnet could be loosened from the body if
excessive force is used in opening, this type of valve is banned from most refinery and
chemical plant applications.
Slide 69 Bolted bonnet valves are the workhorses of today’s valve industry. From Class 150
through Class 1500, bolted bonnets are found everywhere in industry. They are
relatively easy to manufacture and assemble and easy to disassemble if repairs are
needed. Higher pressure classes have gone to pressure seal type bonnets.
A typical class 300 carbon steel bolted bonnet globe valve is shown. The circle of eight
bolts holds the body to the bonnet, with a gasket sandwiched in between the two
components.

Slide 70 Ring joint bonnets are excellent for high temperature/high pressure applications. They
rely on the soft metal ring joint gasket being slightly deformed as it is compressed
between matching grooves in the body and bonnet of the valve. This creates a very
tight seal that is usually leakproof.
Slide 71 The pressure seal bonnet was designed to eliminate the huge amount of mass required
for high pressure bolted bonnet connections in class 600 and higher valves. It is unique
in that the higher the pressure exerted in the bonnet, the better the pressure seal
gasket seals. One limitation of pressure seals is they do not work well in low pressure
applications, because there is not enough pressure-induced force to keep the gasket
energized. Pressure seal valves also require more expertise than conventional bolted
bonnet valves when they need to be repaired. Pressure seal valves are available in
gate, globe and check styles and classes 600 through 4500.
A typical pressure seal gate valve showing the pressure seal ring (yellow) and the
segmented spacer ring (orange) above it.
Slide 72 Before the advent of pressure seal bonnets, the welded bonnet design was used in
sizes up to 24‖. Today, most welded bonnet valves are made in size 2‖ and less. The
welded bonnet is also very popular in bellows seal valves, as the combination of a
bellows seal on the packing and a welded bonnet, eliminates the two primary leak
paths in a valve.
Slide 73 Valves come in a number of end connection types. For low pressure bronze valves the
threaded type is most common. For steel valves through Class 600, flanged end types
predominate. Higher pressure valves are often weld end or ring-type joints (RTJ). Small
forged steel valves are usually supplied in either socket weld or threaded ends.
Slide 74 Most flanged end steel valves are raised-face type. Flanged cast iron valves are the
flat-faced type. When connecting a steel-raised-face flanged end valve to a cast pipe
flange or valve, the raised face of the steel flange must be machined flat, or the brittle
cast iron flange will break when tightened. The RTJ flanged end is good for
intermediate pressures and is often used in classes 600 to 1500. The joint with the
highest integrity is the welded end, which if welded correctly has virtually zero chance
of leaking.
Slide 75 Other end connections are sometimes used for ease of assembly and disassembly.
They include the Grayloc, Victaulic and sanitary types. The Grayloc type is sometimes
used for high-pressure applications at 2000 psi and above.

Slide 77 From a catastrophic failure standpoint, the pressure-containing parts are probably
the most important. These shell components of the valve must be of the correct
material to ensure that they will handle the media and pressure they are required to
contain.
Correct body material selection can be made by answering the following questions:
• What is the operating pressure?
• What is the operating temperature?
• Is the fluid corrosive?
• Is the fluid erosive?
Questions 1 & 2 are answered by referencing American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) document B16.34 and checking the material/pressure/temperature
charts. Questions 3 & 4 need to be answered by a design engineer or other parties with
information on the fluid to be contained.
Slide 78 When it comes to valve materials, there are probably more bronze valves sold each
year than any other type. Bronze is the oldest material still in use for valve
construction. The most common bronze valve material specifications are ASTM B61 &
B62. Bronze is also an excellent material for cryogenic valve manufacture. Although
bronze cannot be welded, it can be brazed.
Slide 79 Ductile iron is the Cadillac of irons. It has a yield and tensile strength close to cast
steel. It also a ductile material so it has some give to it before it breaks. Ductile iron is a
prime choice for valves in water distribution.
Slide 80 Carbon steel, with its carbon content at about .030%, is the workhorse material for
industrial valves. ASTM A217 grade WCB cast steel and A105 forged steel are the
most common valve materials in use in petrochemical, refining, chemical and power
plants today. Cast steel is relatively inexpensive, relatively easy to cast (compared to
Cr/Mo alloys) and easy to weld. The weldability makes it a good choice for buttwelding
or socketwelding of valves to other piping components.
Slide 81 When temperatures exceed the range of plain carbon steel (WCB & A105), low alloy
steels are specified. They commonly come in four casting grades: ASTM A216 grade
WC6 (1-1/4 Cr), WC9 (2-1/4 Cr), C5 (5 Cr) and C12 (9 Cr). The equivalent forged-steel
grades are ASTM A182 grades F11, F22, F5 and F9. Due to their air hardenability,
these materials almost always require special care when welding, including control of
preheat temperatures and post-weld heat treatment after welding.

Slide 82 Stainless steel is the corrosion-resistant commodity material of today. The common
cast grades are ASTM A351 grades CF8 (304ss), CF8M (316ss), CF3M (316L) and
CF8C (347ss). The equivalent forged grades are ASTM A182 grades F304, F316,
F316L and F347. Austenitic stainless steels are easy to weld and generally do not
require any special requirements such as post-weld heat treatment. Stainless-steel
valves are made in all types of end configurations including threaded, socketweld,
flanged and buttweld end.
Slide 83 When stainless steels and carbon steels are not good enough, there is a host of high
alloy materials that are available. They include Monel, Hastelloy C, Inconel and
others. These alloys have unique high-temperature and corrosion-resistant properties
that make them useful to extremely harsh service environments. Some are relatively
easy to weld, while some such as cast Monel, ASTM A494 grade M35 is not weldable.
Slide 84 Non-pressure-retaining parts can vary a bit from the alloys that contain pressure and
contact the media. They usually need only to be able to handle the direct stresses that
they see.
Slide 85 A valve’s trim is defined as the components that make up the actual closure elements
of the valve or that control the closure and are surrounded by the media inside the
valve. On a gate valve, the trim is considered the seating areas of the disc and seats,
as well as the stem and backseat.
These materials must have enough corrosion resistance to withstand the effects of the
fluid and additional stresses induced by the closure function of the disc or wedge
against the seat or seats. An additional factor in trim material selection is the added
high velocity that occurs when a valve is slightly open. For example, when high-
pressure steam is being controlled, the seating trim material of choice is usually Stellite
#6, a hardfacing material. It is highly erosion and corrosion resistant.
Slide 86 Soft-seated trim materials are found primarily in quarter-turn valves, although
occasionally multi-turned valves will be soft-seated by the installation of elastomer
seals in either the disc or seats. Elastomer-seated valves are required to hold bubble
tight (zero leakage) when tested. The biggest disadvantage of soft-seated trim
materials is their high temperature limit of between 400-500o F. In addition, soft-seated
valves are usually limited to Class 600 and lower.
Metallic trim is the standard for gate, globe and most check valves. The trim materials
vary in accordance with the fluid being handled. One document that details metallic trim
materials is American Petroleum Institute standard 600, Steel Gate Valves.
Slide 87 These are some of the trims listed in API 600 and API 602. There are 18 different trim
choices in these documents. Trim 8 (also called ½ Stellite) is the most often used trim
for commodity valves, with trim 5 (also called full Stellite) running second in popularity.

Slide 88 Seals such as packings and gaskets are usually non-ferrous although some gaskets
utilize a mixture of ferrous and resilient components.
Valve seals—packing and gaskets—are where the rubber meets the road or actually
where the inside meets the outside on a valve. Packing is the seal between the shaft or
stem and the bonnet or body of the valve. Packing must be resilient yet it must also be
stout enough to contain pressure inside the valve. The most common packing materials
in use today include graphite and Teflon. Gasket materials usually match stem
materials but often contain other materials such as stainless steel to give them added
strength.
Slide 90 There must be deformation or compression, however slight, for most gaskets to work
properly. Even the solid metal pressure seal ring gasket is constructed of soft steel so
that it will conform to the geometry of the pressure seal valve body and bonnet
connection.
The crush-type gaskets are found on many valve types, however, the 150 class
valves with their oval bonnets use this design exclusively.
The controlled-compression, spiral-wound type of gasket is normally provided in only
circular configurations. It is the gasket of choice for Class 300 and some Class 600
valve applications.
The pressure seal gasket is normally limited to Class 600 and above due to its
inability to seal well at lower pressures. Soft iron or silver-plated soft steel gaskets have
been used for many years as pressure seal gasket material. However, more
manufacturers are now shifting to graphite and stainless-steel composites for these
applications.
Slide 91 It is not good enough to just have the correct gasket. The mating surfaces in contact
with the gasket must be of proper surface finish to match to gasket. Also, the bolts that
compress the gasket between valve components must be torqued correctly.
Slide 92 Like gasket seals, packings rely on deformation to seal. In the case of compression
packings, the material selected must meet the corrosion resistance criteria and be able
to handle the pressure and stresses exerted on the packing. Many quarter-turn and
some ambient temperature valves, such as pipeline valves, use elastomer O-rings for
packing.
Compression packing: multiple stacked rings, used for multi-turn and quarter-turn
O-ring packing individually contained rings, generally used for quarter-turn
Slide 93 Today the primary packings are graphite or Teflon. Teflon is the prime choice in
corrosive service where temperatures are low. Teflon can be provided in a rope-style or
molded into rings. Graphite packings use compounds of graphite and carbon and
occasionally a corrosion inhibitor.

Slide 95 Fugitive emissions testing is still partially art and partially science. As governments
around the world impose tighter fugitive emissions standards, newer and better testing
protocols will have to be developed. As of 2010, The EPA is developing fugitive
emissions testing requirements for valves to be used in domestic plants. There is still a
disparity in results between tests performed with the two popular testing media,
methane and helium.
Slide 96 Buying premium packing is no guarantee that a valve will not leak at the packing area.
Other factors are just as important. Many times packing leakage will be blamed on the
packing itself, when actually poor machining or not adhering to tolerances are the fault.
Another helpful measure sometimes used to reduce fugitive emissions from packings is
live loading the packing set by installing carefully sized Belleville washer assemblies on
to the packing gland bolting.
Slide 97 Actuation of valves can be anything that aids the operator in opening and closing a
valve. The valve types that are actuated include, gate, globe, ball, plug and butterfly
types. The most basic actuator is a manual gear assembly that multiplies the operator’s
applied torque. Sophisticated automated actuators range from simple air cylinder
devices to highly exotic, fail-safe electrically controlled units.
Slide 98 The two most common types of manual actuators are worm and bevel gears. The worm
gear is used to aid in the operation of quarter-turn valves, while the bevel gear aids in
operating rising stem or multi-turn valves. If a valve is very difficult to operate and
manual actuation is still desired, spur gearing can be added to the basic gear actuator
to further lower the required operational effort.
Slide 99 Automatic valve actuation is a huge industry in itself. There are many applications
today where automatic or remote power aided actuation is required. Automatic or
powered actuators are usually powered by electric motor or hydraulic or air cylinders.
Oftentimes the cylinder actuators will have an internal spring assembly that returns the
valve to a preferred orientation if the power fails, usually called a ―fail-to-open‖ or ―fail-
to-close‖ design. Sometimes piston-powered actuators on pipeline valves use the
internal gas pressure of the pipeline to operate their pistons, thus saving external
energy or eliminating long utility lines.
Slide Most expensive valves will be repaired many times during their lifetime. Designing
100 these valves from the start to be more repairable will result in a lower ―total-cost-of-
ownership‖ for the valve owner. Unfortunately today many good valves are scrapped
rather than replaced, because their replacement cost is lower than the potential repair
cost.

Slide Unwanted leakage is among the most common valve problems. Usually it is in the form
101 of excess leakage when valves are in the closed position. The most common cause for
this leakage is debris in the pipeline that has fouled or scored the seating surfaces.
Gasket leakage comes second. Usually it is the result of vibration, either in transit from
the manufacturer overseas to the U.S., or in-line vibration, or improper bolting torque. In
most cases a re-torquing is all that is required to correct the problem. Casting leaks are
also encountered, and these minute leak paths are usually undetectable during the
standard OEM test program. Some casting leaks can be repaired in line, while others
require the removal of the valve and a trip to the valve shop.
Slide After all of the technical questions have been answered in valve selection it usually
102 comes down to a choice of three items:
1. Price
2. Quality
3. Delivery
You can only choose two!

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AN INTRODUCTION

AN EDUCATION PROGRAM SPONSORED BY:

The Friends of the Crawford Library, Inc.

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 1

SECTION 1: VALVE BASICS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 2

SECTION 4: VALVE COMPONENTS

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 3

In this section, you will learn about:

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 4

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 5

How do valves regulate flow?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 6

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 7

Control and regulating valves

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 8

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 9

Safety and pressure relief valves

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 10

Basic valve types

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 11

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 12

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 14

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 16

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 17

What do valves regulate?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 18

Where do valves regulate flow?

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 19

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 20

Municipal water and wastewater

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 21

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 22

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 23

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 24

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 25

Power – fossil fuel plants

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 26

Power – nuclear plants

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 27

Oil, gas and refining

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 28

Special service/special valves

In this section, you will learn about:

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 30

Valve history timeline

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 31

Roman Plug Valve 25 AD

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 32

Steam power: 1775

120" Valve Circa 1915

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 33

Valve technology: 1800-1900

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 34

Integrated Valve Plant Circa 1947 Assembling Valves During WW II

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 35

Valve technology: 1900-1950

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 36

Technology revolution: mid-20th century

Pneumatic Positioner Nuclear Power Plant

An Introduction to the Valve Industry Slide 37

Valve technology: 1950-2000