Covalent Bond

 Sharing of one or more electron pairs

between 2 atoms in which each atom has the
electronic configuration of noble gases.
 Each atom provides valens electron to be
shared

   
 
 

e.g. Cl Cl = Cl Cl
 


   
   
O  O = O O
  
 

 
 
 

 

N N = N N

 If the covalent involves 2 different atoms, the

electron pair is not equally shared. The electron
pair will be attracted (near) to more
electronegative atom
– dipolar covalent molecule

+  + 
e.g  
H Cl
 

= H Cl
 

 

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Covalent Dative /Coordinate

 Electron pairs shared between 2 atoms but only

one atom provides both electrons to be shared.

e.g H3N-BCl3

H Cl H Cl
H N B Cl

 
B Cl
 

H N +
H Cl H Cl

H Cl H Cl
+ 
H N B Cl or H N B Cl
H Cl H Cl
Covalent
coordinate/dative

  O
 oo O
 +
H O N or H O N
x 

o 

o
 o  O
  O
 

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 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory)
(VSEPR)

 To predict the molecular geometry of a molecule

 Atoms are bonded to each other in molecules by the
sharing of pairs of valence-shell electrons. Electron
pairs repel one another in which electron pairs try to
stay out of each other.

There fore the basis of VSEPR model is

“The best arrangement (the preferred
geometries) of a given number of electron pairs is
the one that minimizes the repulsions among them”

  Bonding e pair
Central atom H O H
 
Non bonding e pair

Order of the strength of repulsions among the

electron pairs.
bonding e bonding e <
bonding e non bonding e <
non bonding e non bonding e

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HYBRID ORBITAL
Hybridization refers to the combination of s, p and
sometimes d orbitals of atoms to form new atomic orbital
called hybrid orbital.

e.g : Structure of CH4

Lewis Structure: each valens electron in C bonded to 4
electron from 4 H atom

6 C
2s 2p

6 C

electron in s orbital is promoted to the empty p orbital and

s and p orbitals is hybridized (combined)
1 s + 3p --> hybrid orbital sp3

6 C
3 3
sp3 sp3 sp sp

In this situation overlapping of the hybrid orbital C with s

orbital from H occurs to form covalent bond
– Valens band theory.

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Type of hybridization and geometries of the molecules

Type of
hybridization No of Geometry of
Example
of atomic orbitals molecule
orbital
BeCl2, HgCl2,
sp 2 Linear
CO2, C2H2
2 Trigonal BCl3, CO32,
sp 3
Planar NO3, C2H4
3 CH4, SO42, NH4+,
sp 4 Tetrahedral
NH3, H2O
2 Square Ni(CN)42-
d sp 4
planar
Trigonal PCl5
bipyramid
sp3d
5 or
dsp3
square
pyramid
d2sp3 6 octahedral Fe(CN)64
sp3d2 6 octahedral SF6

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SALTS

Polyatomic compound in ionic form (Cation and

Anion)
1. Solubality of Salts in Water
Generally:
 All nitrates are soluble
 Virtually all alkali metal salts are soluble
 Ammonium salts are usually soluble
 Chloride, bromides and iodides of group 1(IA),
2(IIA) and 13(IVA) metals are soluble (except
of those thallium(I).
 The only soluble carbonates are those of
alkali metals and thallium(I).
 The common insoluble salts of Ca, Sr and Ba
are florides, carbonates, sulphates and
phosphates.

 Knowledge of the solubility can be used in the

determination of the amount of metal by
gravimetric analysis

Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

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2. Preparation of Salts
 4 basic ways
 Metal + acid
(the choice of acid depend on the position of
the metals in the electrochemical series. Be
and Al are passive towards con. HNO3)
 Hydroxide (OH) + acid
 Oxide + acid
 Carbonate + acid

 If the hydroxide and carbonate are soluble, use

stoichiometric volume to the acid, the resulting
solution is then evaporated to crystallise out the
salt , need to recrystallise.
 For insoluble oxides, hydroxide and carbonates,
warm an acsess of solid with the acid, filter and
crystallize
 Ammonium salt is prepared by adding ammonia
(aqueous solution or gas) to the chosen acid
 Substituted ammonium salts can be obtained by
converting iodide to the strongly basic hydroxide
using ion-exchange column, then neutralizing the
hydroxide with acid.

MeI + Me3N  [NMe4]I  [NMe4]OH

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  Carbonates (CO32)
 Stable carbonates are formed from metal that
possess basic oxides (Group IA and IIA except Be)
 TlOH (thallium(I) in Group 13 is a strong base,
readily adsorb CO2 from air to form soluble Tl2CO3

3. Hydrolysis of Salts
 Metal cations are hydrated in solution
 Usually in the form of hexahydrates, M(H2O)6n+
 + ve charge on metal ion draws electron
density away from the region of O H bond
of the coordinated water, resulting the lost of
H as solvated proton

H
n+
(H2O)5M O H+(ak) + [(H2O)5MOH](n-1)+
H

 The smaller the cation or the higher its charge

n, the greater the tendency for the metal
cation to hydrolyse
 The addition of base to the hydrated metals
cation disturb the equalibrium by reacting
with H+ . Eventually M(OH)n precipitate out.
e.g.
Al(H2O)63+ (aq) + 3OH  Al(OH)3(s)

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