Main Project Print Out

Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
The goal of this research is to fabricate a silicon nitride Turbine-Compressor-

Shaft Assembly for a Micro Gas Turbine Engine. To produce a part with complex
shape out of ceramic materials, special manufacturing processes are necessary.
The Mold SDM process is capable of producing parts with highly complex ge-
ometries. Combining the gelcasting process and Mold SDM allows the fabrication
of silicon nitride parts with high geometrical accuracy and proper mechanical
properties. However, the fabrication of silicon nitride parts is afflicted with difficul-
ties and problems. To present these difficulties as well as solutions and
improvements to some of the problems is the main focus of this thesis.
1.2 Project Outline
Following the present introduction, Chapter 2 presents background information

on the Mold SDM process. Starting with general ideas a description of the Mold
SDM process is shown. Advantages and disadvantages of the process are dis-
1
Introduction
cussed. The second part of this chapter summarizes information on

materials
used in the Mold SDM process.
Chapter 3 explains reasons for the miniaturization in industrial applications.

The Micro Gas Turbine Engine is described as an example of a practical
application. The design of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine is discussed and its
main components are presented.
Chapter 4 describes the fabrication of the silicon nitride Turbine-Compressor-

Shaft Assembly for the Micros Gas Turbine Engine. The entire process is divided
into main three sections: planning, mold building and post processing. The mold
building process is explained on the basis of the manufacturing of a mold for the
turbine.
Chapter 5 includes the analysis of current problems in the production of high

quality silicon nitride parts. An introduction to computertomographical investiga-
tion of silicon nitride parts is presented.
Chapter 6 shows improvements in the fabrication process and the results.

The Assembly Mold Concept is described. The increased yield with
simultaneous consideration of the reduced fabrication time is achieved. A
shrinkage calculation is also performed.
Chapter 7 contains conclusions and potential future research directions.
2
Background
2 Background
The following chapter introduces the Mold SDM process. Advantages and disad-
vantages of this process are discussed. Selection and explanation of
materials used in Mold SDM are also presented.
2.1 Mold SDM Process
2.1.1 General Ideas
Ceramic materials are very attractive for a wide range of engineering applications
because of their high temperature properties, high strength and stiffness, low
density and good chemical resistance. However, the use of structural ceramics is
limited by two principal factors: the low toughness of ceramic materials and
the difficulty of making highly complex shapes.
Traditional ceramic manufacturing processes, such as machining of green ce-

ramic blanks, only work well for producing parts with simple shapes. Solid Free-
form Fabrication (SFF) processes, based on layered manufacturing techniques,
can build complex shapes. But these SFF processes generally produce parts
3
Background
with poor surface finish; in other words, stairsteps are often seen on surfaces that
are not vertical or horizontal [KANG99].
These stairsteps reduce the benefits of ceramic materials in two ways. First, they
make the inclined surfaces rough. Surface discontinuities give a rise to stress
concentration and hence may reduce overall part strength. Second, these
stairsteps cause loss of dimensional accuracy. Inclined surfaces formed with
stairsteps represent only an approximation of the desired geometry within a cer-
tain deviation h (Figure 2.1). Some stairsteps can be removed by post processing
the ceramic parts by machining green or sintered parts. However, this may not
always be feasible due to limited tool accessibility and challenges associated
with accurately fixturing and indexing complex shapes [KANG99].
-1
)
h=O(n
n
4
Background
An inclined surface shaped by conventional CNC machining with ball end mills
(Figure 2.2) has advantages in strength and dimensional accuracy over the one
formed by layers of constant thickness (Figure 2.1). As shown in Figure 2.1 and
Figure 2.2, h is the deviation from the designated surface, which can be consid-
ered as a measure for surface roughness and dimensional accuracy.
Assume surfaces A and B have the same h (i.e., have similar surface roughness).
Surface A has sharp concave corners that induce high stress concentrations,
while surface B has smoother surfaces that exhibit lower stress
concentrations. Clearly surface B is less susceptible to failure at a given
stress level and can preserve the inherent strength of the ceramics material.
Also, the convergence rate of h to
2 1
the designated surface is faster for surface B (n ) than for surface A (n ). There-
fore, CNC machining can improve dimensional accuracy more efficiently than
layered manufacturing [KANG99].
The layer boundaries are also potential sources of defects that can reduce
the mechanical properties. Mold SDM was developed to address this issue. As
will be explained in detail later, Mold SDM is a layered manufacturing process,
so it can build complex shaped parts. Furthermore, it uses CNC milling to
accurately shape all surfaces as they are built to minimize the stairstep effect.
Although the mold is built in layers, there will be no layer boundaries in the
finished part because the final part is cast monolithically. In addition to ceramic
parts, Mold SDM can be used to make parts from a variety of castable
materials including poly- mers such as polyurethane, epoxy and silicone
[KANG99].
2.1.2 Description
Mold SDM is a variation on Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM). SDM is an

additive-subtractive layered manufacturing process. Most SFF techniques
5
de- compose the model into relatively thin planar layers of uniform
thickness. In
Background
SDM, however, the decomposed layers are three-dimensional, may be of

arbi- trary thickness and do not need to be planar. This adaptive decomposition
allows the number of layers to be minimized which in turn leads to reduced build
time. In Mold SDM fugitive molds are built using SDM process and these molds
are then used to cast a variety of part materials [COOP98, COOP99_02].
1 2 3 4
Mold Material
Support Material
Part Material
7a 8a
6
5 6
7b 8b
Figure 2.3: Example Mold SDM Build Sequence [COOP99_02]
Figure 2.3 illustrates the phases of the Mold SDM process:
1. Mold building (1-4): the mold is built using the SDM process. Each step
represents one material deposition and shaping cycle. In the case of Mold
SDM, however, the support material takes the shape of the part. The mold
material encases the support material and forms the mold itself. Note also
step 4, where the last layer of mold material is deposited to form the top of
the mold.
Background
2. Support removal (5): once the mold is complete the support material is
removed, typically by dissolution, to open up the mold cavity.
3. Casting (6): the part material is cast into the mold cavity and allowed to
cure or set. Vacuum degassing is used to eliminate trapped air in the cast-
ing.
4. Mold removal and finishing (7-8): once the part material has fully cured
the mold must be removed, typically by melting or etching. Also any finish-
ing operations, such as casting feature removal, must be preformed. A
number of options are available at this stage of the process and two
of them are shown here. The first option is to remove the mold (7a) and
then perform finishing operations (8a). However, for fragile or delicate
parts it may be beneficial to perform the finishing operations while the
7
part is still protected by the mold material (7b). The mold is removed once
the finish-
ing operations are complete (8b) [COOP98, COOP99_02].
2.1.3 Advantages
The main advantage of Mold SDM over SDM and other layered processes is that
since the final part is cast monolithically there will be no layer boundaries in
the finished part. For example, in Figure 2.3 the part does not contain any
layer boundaries (step 6), whereas the mold has two and the support material
has one (step 4). This is particularly advantageous for flaw sensitive material,
such as ceramics, or for materials with poor interlayer bonding. The finished
part will not contain any of the residual stresses that typically result from layered
manufacturing. The mold may contain residual stresses, but these will not be
transferred to the cast part. The lack of residual stresses in the finished part
will reduce the tendency for distortion. Compared to direct machining of
ceramic green materi-
als, Mold SDM also minimizes the amount of part machining required which is an
8
Background
advantage for materials that are difficult or expensive to machine, such as

ceramic green materials [COOP99_02, KANG99, COOP99_01].
2.1.4 Disadvantages
Mold SDM has several disadvantages compared to SDM. First, a third material,
the mold material, is required. The additional material compatibility and process-
ing requirements may restrict the range of materials that can be used. Second,
there are extra casting and mold removal steps, which increase cycle time.
Fi- nally, mold-filling issues may limit part geometry, although in many cases
sprues and vents can be added to ensure complete mold filling [COOP99_02,
KANG99].
2.2 Materials
2.2.1 Mold and Support Materials
The capability to make quality molds depends on a number of mold and

sacrifi- cial material properties. The materials must have low shrinkage to avoid
warping and distortion. They must bond well to each other so that they do not
delaminate and are able to withstand cutting forces. They should have good
machinability so that good surfaces can be produced. They must be
chemically compatible with each other so that they do not damage each other,
during both the build phase and the two etching steps. In addition to these
basic requirements there are a number of other material properties which are
desired to make the process more efficient. Being able to etch the temporary
part material and later the mold material quickly and easily saves time. Low
cost, non-toxic materials make the process more economical.
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Background
The main issue with the mold material is the tradeoff between shrinkage and ma-
chinability. In general, machinable waxes have high shrinkage while low shrink-
age waxes tend to machine poorly. Table 2.1 shows a range of waxes that have
been tested for use in Mold SDM.
Melting Point Shrinkage

Wax
[°C] [Linear %]
Kindt-Collins Master Protowax 60 0.46
Kindt-Collins Master File-a-wax 105 2.60
Freeman machinable 105 2.91
25% Kindt-Collins Master File-a-wax
80 0.80
75% Kindt-Collins Master Protowax
Table 2.1: Waxes tested for Use in Mold SDM [COOP98]
Currently the preferred wax is produced based on the 25/75 mix of Kindt-Collins
Master File-a-wax and Protowax and does not contain dyes and antioxidants.
The File-a-wax is a machinable wax; the Protowax is a casting wax. By mixing
the two waxes it is possible to obtain a better tradeoff between machinability and
shrinkage than what is available commercially.
Melting point and melt viscosity are two other important properties. A lower melt-
ing point wax is desired because it will reduce the heat transferred to the
previous layers during wax casting and thus reduce mold warpage. However,
the wax must have a high enough melting point to be able to withstand the
cure conditions for the final part material. Many materials require an
elevated temperature cure or have an exothermic curing reaction. Low melt
viscosity is beneficial since it will allow the wax to fill fine features more easily. It
will also make wax removal by melting easier as the wax will run off the part more
readily [COOP98].
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Background
The support material must be able to accurately define the mold cavity. To
do this the support material must be machinable so that fine features can be
made and heat resistant so that it can withstand wax deposition conditions.
Currently water-soluble soldermask is used as the temporary material. It is
cured by ultra- violet light. Low cure depth reduces build rate because thick
layers must be built up in several steps. The current soldermasks used can be
cured up to 1.0 mm deep in 10 minutes.
2.2.2 Part Materials
In high temperature applications ceramics are used as part materials because of

their excellent high temperature properties. As the use temperature increases,
ceramics become more attractive because they maintain their mechanical
properties to higher temperatures than metals do.
Ceramic materials are defined as inorganic and non-metallic materials. Ceramics

are typically oxides, carbides, nitrides or borides. In most applications they
are used in polycrystalline form rather than as single crystals.
Structural ceramics are ceramics that are used in applications that involve me-
chanical loading. Compared to structural metals, ceramics are attractive because
of their low densities and high strengths, high stiffnesses and excellent creep re-
sistance. Ceramics usually have excellent chemical and oxidation resistance as
well as good abrasion resistance because of their hardness. The major
limitations of ceramics for structural applications are their low toughnesses
and high costs [COOP99_02].
The two charts in Figure 2.4 show where ceramics lie with respect to other engi-
neering materials in terms of their mechanical properties [ASHB92]. The first
11
Background
chart (Figure 2.4a) shows fracture toughness versus strength. Ceramics are
the strongest materials. This is even more evident if specific strength is
considered, because of the relatively low densities of ceramics compared to
alloys. However the fracture toughnesses of ceramics are inferior to all but the
most brittle alloys. The second chart (Figure 2.4b) shows strength versus
operating temperature. This figure clearly illustrates the benefits of ceramics
as they are not only the strongest materials, but they also have the highest
operating temperatures. More mechanical and thermal properties of a selection
of structural ceramics can be found in the appendix.
a b
Figure 2.4: Ashby Charts Illustrating Material Property Ranges

[ASHB92]
The most important structural ceramics are:
• Silicon Nitride
Silicon nitride is one of the primary structural ceramics because of

its high strength, particularly at high temperatures, high thermal
shock resistance and good oxidation resistance at high temperature.
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Silicon nitride is the ceramic material of choice for use in high
tem-
Background
perature structural applications such as heat engine components.

Application examples include gas turbine engine vanes and blades,
turbocharger rotors, internal combustion engine valves and high
temperature seals. Silicon nitride components can be used at tem-
peratures up to about 1350°C.
• Alumina
Alumina is most often used in electrical and electronic applications

because it is an excellent insulator and is relatively
inexpensive. However it is also used in structural applications
because of its good mechanical properties and relatively low cost. It
is not as strong as silicon nitride and has much less thermal shock
resistance. Alumina is very chemically resistant, and since it is an
oxide ceramic it is oxidation resistant, which makes it ideal for use
in harsh chemical envi- ronments.
• Silicon Carbide
Silicon carbide is used in many of the same structural applications

as silicon nitride. It has good mechanical properties, maintaining
its strength to temperatures up to 1400°C, high thermal shock
resistance and good oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
• Zirconia
Partially stabilized zirconia is the toughest of the structural ceramics

with a fracture toughness approximately twice that of silicon nitride.
Above about 800°C, a phase transformation negates the toughening
13
effect, so zirconia is usually used in lower temperature applications
[COOP99_02].
14
Background
For the Micro Gas Turbine Engine whose design is shown in Chapter 0, silicon
nitride is chosen as the material for certain critical components. Table 2.2
lists some of the properties of silicon nitride compared to the same properties
for a selection of typical structural metals. Properties shown are measured
at room temperature unless shown otherwise. The maximum operating
temperatures are approximate values since these depend greatly on the
loading and service life required.
Silicon Aluminum Titanium Steel Inconel

Property
Nitride (7075-T6) (Ti6 Al4 V) (AlSI 4340) (IN-738)
Density
3
3.19 2.80 4.43 7.65 8.11
[g/cm ]
Strength
414 – 1000 503 830 –1103 740 – 1860 950
[MPa]
Elastic Modulus
304 71 113.8 210 201
[GPa]
Fracture Toughness
4.1 – 6.0 16.5 – 27.5 44 - 110 53 – 110 -
[MPa/m]
Thermal Expansion
-6
3.0 23.4 8.6 11.5 11.6 @ 93°C
[10 /K]
Thermal Conductivity
9 – 30 130 6.6 – 6.8 - 17.7 @ 538°C
[W/mK]
Maximum Use
Temperature 1350 100 315 300 800
[°C]
Table 2.2: Typical Properties of Silicon Nitride Compared with Structural Alloys
[COOP99_02]
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Micro Gas Turbine Engine
3 Micro Gas Turbine Engine
The following chapter shows reasons for the miniaturization of industrial

applications. The Micro Gas Turbine Engine is then described as an example of
a miniaturization.
3.1 Design
This section contains a brief overview of design aspects of the Micro Gas
Turbine Engine. Starting with a short introduction to the functionality of the
engine, the
main focus is on turbine and compressor design. Because of patent reasons,
only a general survey can be given.
3.1.1 Functionality
The air inlet is located between the gas turbine engine itself and the attached
generator. The compressor is forcing air over the vane island diffuser in the com-
bustor. The combustor has a set of pure airblast fuel nozzles. The ignition source
is a hot surface igniter. The hot high-pressure air flows through the turbine
inlet nozzle. The inlet nozzle leads the air to the radial inflow turbine. The
turbine powers the compressor and the generator. The outlet of the hot air is
coated by the eductor. The eductor controls the thermal expansion of the
combustor case.
The design of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine aims at a shaft speed of 800,000
rpm. The turbine inlet temperature is around 1000°C. These specifications re-
quire an extremely high stiffness, thermal shock resistance and strength of the
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engine components. Therefore, critical parts such as turbine and compressor are
produced in silicon nitride.
3.1.2 Turbine
This section documents the aerodynamic design of the turbine. The turbine
design meets all of the design constraints and performance goals. The turbine
design also facilitates manufacturing using the SDM process.
The Micro Gas Turbine Engine requires a turbine design capable of producing a
certain amount of power from the generator. To achieve this power output the to-
tal shaft power required from the turbine is six times the power produced by the
generator.
The turbine needs to be produced using the Mold SDM process. In order to util-
ize this process the minimum acceptable blend radius on the turbine has to be
larger than 0.397 mm (0.0156 in.) to accommodate a 1/32 in. (0.79 mm) diameter
ball end mill and the minimum blade thickness has to be larger than 0.25 mm
(0.010 in.).
The final design is a radial inflow turbine with nine turbine blades. Figure 3.4 pre-
sents the results of the stress analysis conducted on the turbine and
indicates the stresses are acceptable for the silicon nitride material selected.
17
Figure 3.4: Turbine Stress Analysis
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3.1.3 Compressor
The compressor design meets the same design constraints and performance
goals as the turbine design.
The compressor design consists of a 7-main-blade and 7-splitter-blade

design (Figure 3.5). A stress analysis of this geometry, presented in Figure 3.6
for the compressor and Figure 3.7 for the rotating assembly, indicates that the
maximum stresses are acceptable for the silicon nitride material selected.
Figure 3.5: Compressor Blades
19
20
Figure 3.6: Compressor Stress Analysis
21
Figure 3.7: Rotating Group Radial Stresses
3.1.4 Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly
Figure 3.8 shows a cross-section of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly

with the embedded magnet. By embedding the magnet in the silicon nitride shaft,
the whole assembly can be produced in one part. This may result in better
stiffness, higher dimensional accuracy and more compact construction of the
engine.
22
Turbine Compressor Shaft Magnet
Figure 3.8: Cross-Section of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft
23
Fabrication of Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly
4 Fabrication of Turbine-Compressor-Shaft
Assembly
To achieve the desired engine performance, it is necessary to operate the Micro

Gas Turbine Engine in high temperature environment. This requires components
with the following properties:
• Very high strength,

• Resistance to corrosion up to a very high operating temperature,
• Excellent high temperature mechanical properties,
• Very good thermal shock resistance,
• Low thermal expansion,
• Very high thermal conductivity,
• High wear resistance and
• High hardness.
Therefore, as provided in the design of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine, the Tur-
bine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly, which is shown in Figure 4.1, should be made
out of silicon nitride. The Figure 4.1 shows following components:
• Turbine in green,
• Interconnection between turbine and compressor in blue,
• Compressor in cyan and
24
25
• Shaft in red.
Figure 4.1: CAD Model of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly
This chapter explains different manufacturing steps for the silicon nitride Turbine-
Compressor-Shaft Assembly of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine. The process is
divided into three main sections: planning, building of wax molds using the Mold
SDM process and post processing. The mold building is described on the basis
of the fabrication of a mold for the turbine.
4.1 Planning
Certain planning task is involved in the Mold SDM process. It includes the de-
composition of the original CAD model as well as the generation of the CNC ma-
chining codes.
26
4.1.1 CAD Model Decomposition
The CAD model of the part needs to be split into a set of SDM buildable layers
before the Mold SDM process can be applied. The decomposition procedures go
as follows. All the surfaces of the target part are first split into smaller
subsurfaces such that each subsurface can be processed in one
additive/subtractive build cycle. Shaping these subsurfaces in certain build
sequences can now produce the target solid. A feasible build sequence is
basically a spatial arrange- ment of subsurfaces which assures the cutters will
not run into the already built subsurfaces while the target subsurface is being
machined. In order to identify such sequences, the spatial relationships among
all these freeform subsurfaces have to be examined and recorded. A special
graph structure named the Com- pact Graph is utilized to record these spatial
relationships because it not only offers a concise format for keeping this spatial
information, but also provides useful algorithms to explore alternative build
sequences afterwards. Finally, a “preliminary surface compact graph” is
obtained after the subsurface entities and their spatial relationships are
recorded through the Compact Graph structure. Again, the terminology and
procedures are stated in the following sections.
Instead of decomposing a solid model horizontally, this decomposition strategy

splits and distinguishes the surfaces of the given solid into undercut and non-
undercut surface compacts. Based on the surface compacts, the compact graph
algorithms can then construct build sequences of the given model automatically.
Compared with traditional planar slicing approach, this new surface compact ap-
proach results in fewer build layers for 2.5D and 3D freeform solid models.
The example part had twenty-four surfaces originally. Ten undercut surfaces and
fourteen non-undercut surfaces are identified after performing surface splitting on
the part. The preliminary surface compact graph contains twenty-four nodes rep-
resenting these twenty-four surfaces. After graph consolidation, the resulting
27
minimal surface compact graph contains only four nodes, which suggests this
part can be built in four layers as illustrated in Figure 4.2. In short, we first deposit
support material and machine surface compact S1, then deposit part material
and machine S2. More support material is deposited on top of S2 and area S3 is
machined. Finally, we deposit part material on top of S3 and machine area S4.
28
4.1.2 CNC Code Generation
The CNC machining code generation is based on the CAD model decomposition.
The CNC machining codes are generated starting from the CAD model by using
Unigraphics. Unigraphics is a full 3D-CAD and CAM computer program. It sup-
ports 5-axis simultaneous machining. Due to 5-axis simultaneous machining it is
possible to position the tool in the ideal position and cut complex shapes.
The manufacturing of the part geometry is ordered in two sequential production

steps. First step is a rough machining of the part geometry with machining allow-
ance. In the second step the accurate part geometry is machined. This procedure
helps to save machining time because the rough machining can be done with
a high cutting speed.
To achieve best cutting conditions and high cutting speeds it is necessary to use
tools as big as possible. A limit for the feasible tool size is often the accessibility
because of the complex shape. Furthermore the choice of the tool is limited by
the small features on the part. For example it is necessary to use a small tool be-
cause of small radiuses in the part geometry. The smallest achievable radius with
a ball end mill is the radius of the tool.
The executable end product of Unigraphics machining operations is the

Cutter Location Source File (CLSF). After the tool path is generated, it can be
converted into a
29
By post processing the CLSF the final CNC machining code is generated. For
post processing the CNC machine has to be specified, because different
CNC machines have different machine parameters for the post processing task.
4.2 Mold Building
The second step of the fabrication process for the silicon nitride Turbine-
Compressor-Shaft is building the molds. This section describes how the
molds are built using the CNC files, which where generated by the planning
step (see
4.1). First, basic ideas of the mold building process are presented. Afterwards a
detailed description of the production of one turbine mold is shown. At last, the
assembly process of the molds is presented.
4.2.1 Basic Ideas
In Mold SDM wax layers are deposited by casting wax inside of walls formed by
aluminum foil. The aluminum foil is wrapped around the required area, which
should be filled up with wax. Once the walls have been formed, the mold wax is
then cast. In order to reduce thermal stresses and minimize the potential of dam-
aging previously built layers it is desirable to cast the wax layers at as low a tem-
perature as possible. However at lower temperatures there will be less remelting
of the previous layer, therefore the interlayer adhesion will not be as good. An
option is to preheat the previous layer. An IR lamp is used, for example, to warm
up the surface so that the surface will remelt more easily and reduce the required
deposition temperatures. For example the Kindt-Collins Master File-a-wax depo-
sition temperature can be reduced from 180 to 160°C. One disadvantage of pre-
heating is that interlayer discontinuities tend to be greater. This is believed to be
30
31
due to softening of the surface layer that is then distorted as the new wax
layer
cools and shrinks above it.
The cooling time between wax deposition and machining accounts for a
significant fraction of the total part build time. Usually wax layers must be
allowed to cool for 2 hours for a typical 5-10 mm thick layer. Thicker layers will
take longer time. In order to reduce this idle time and increase the process
rate, alternative ways of speeding the cooling of the wax have been
investigated. By simply blowing cool air over the surface it is possible to reduce
cooling time by a factor of 2 to 4. By storing in the refrigerator it is possible to
reduce the cooling time by an even higher factor. But all these ways of faster
cooling down have following disadvantages:
• The risk of high residuum stress in the material rises and

• Deep shrinkage holes form at the surface.
Thus currently the wax is just left cooled at room temperature but some
better cooling methods should be developed when the wax-cooling phase
really becomes the bottleneck of the fabrication process.
4.2.2 Build Sequence
In this section the whole fabrication process for the turbine mold is
explained, which also serves as the example of the fabrication process for the
other molds. The fabrication of the mold for the turbine is one of the most
difficult tasks in the manufacturing process for the silicon nitride Turbine-
Compressor-Shaft Assem- bly.
32
Step 1: Preparation of the wax base
The first step of the fabrication process is to prepare the wax base. A 90 mm high
wall out of aluminum foil is built around the 54 x 54 mm metal pallet.
Attention should be paid to wrap the aluminum foil as tightly as possible to avoid
wax leak- age. At the overlap area of the aluminum foil stripes of an adhesive
tape are put around. After the forming of the aluminum wall is completed, yellow
wax can be melted and deposited. To have a good contact between the metal
pallet and the yellow wax, the casting temperature should be around 120°C.
Experiments have shown that it is not useful to cast more than 40 mm of wax in
one step, because during solidification a deep hole will form in the middle of the
wax. If it is necessary to cast in several steps, the temperature of the melted
wax has to be around
120°C as well to melt the previous layer of wax and to get a good connection be-
tween the different wax layers. The cool down process for a 40 mm thick
layer takes around 4 hours. Figure 4.3 shows the metal pallet with the cast wax
on the top. The overall height measured from the bottom of the pallet is 80 mm.
Figure 4.3: Wax Base

33
Figure 4.4: Planed and Rounded Wax

Base
Step 2: Plaining and making round of the wax base
The second step is a preparation step for the following steps. To mill the hole for
the soldermask deposition, a flat top surface has to be provided. This plane is
also a reference plane for the soldermask deposition. The next step is to ma-
chine the top half of the wax into a round shape. Making the wax base round is
the basis for further processing steps. The wax base after this step is shown in
Figure 4.4.
34
Figure 4.5: Wax Base with Hole for Soldermask Deposition
Step 3: Milling of hole for soldermask deposition
The next step is to mill a hole with a diameter of 14.4 mm centered in the wax
post. The hole has a depth of around 10 mm. This hole is required for
soldermask deposition afterwards. Figure 4.5 shows the hole in the wax post. A
quarter of the wax has been cut out for better illustration of the hole-geometry.
35
Figure 4.6: Wax Base with Hole for Soldermask Deposition and Anchor
Hole
Step 4: Milling of anchor for soldermask
To hold the soldermask during the machining an anchor is necessary. This an-
chor is a hole with a diameter of around 5.7 mm and depth of almost 3
mm. Figure 4.6 shows the hole and the anchor for the following soldermask
deposition.
36
Figure 4.7: Wax Base with Cast

Soldermask
Step 5: Soldermask deposition
The deposition of the soldermask is a two-step process. First, the liquid

water- soluble soldermask is cast into the hole. A curing step is accomplished by
placing the soldermask under ultra-violet light.
The soldermask deposition is one of the most time-consuming steps in the whole
process. The deposition time for the soldermask is almost 4 hours. This low
speed deposition results from two issues. First, the thickness of one castable
layer is around 1 mm only. The height of one layer is limited by the cureable
thickness of soldermask. If the layer is too thick, the soldermask cures on the top
37
first and the bottom layer cannot be cured anymore. This result in cracks and
bubbles inside the soldermask.
To prevent bubbles in the soldermask careful handling of the soldermask bottle is

necessarily. Shaking of the soldermask bottle will lead to bubbles inside the liq-
uid. It is very difficult to get rid of these bubbles afterwards. Figure 4.7 shows the
poured soldermask. The hole in the yellow wax has to be completely filled with
soldermask.
Figure 4.8: Photo of Deposited

Soldermask
Figure 4.8 shows a photo of the deposited soldermask inside the yellow wax.
During the use of the soldermask, the following phenomenon is observed.

The curing of the soldermask also goes on without exposure to ultra-violet
light. By this additional curing the soldermask becomes brittle. The
soldermask can no longer be machined if it sits too long after deposition.
Because of this reason, soldermask should be machined within the first two
38
days after deposition.
Figure 4.9: Wax Base with Exposed

Soldermask
Step 6: Machining of the wax soldermask post
This step makes accessible the soldermask for further milling operations. For this
purpose, the yellow wax around the soldermask is machined away and only the
post of soldermask is left. Figure 4.9 illustrates the soldermask post.
39
Figure 4.10: Soldermask with Basic Turbine Shape
Step 7: Outside milling of the turbine
In this step the top surface of the 9 turbine blades is machined (see Figure 4.10).
40
Figure 4.11: Soldermask with Machined Top
Step 8: Outside milling of the turbine
In this step the top fillet of the turbine is machined (see Figure 4.11).
41
Figure 4.12: Turbine Shape machined in Soldermask
Step 9: Turbine blades machining
This step is the main milling step. All nine blades are machined as well as the
floor between all blades. The overall machining time of this step is around 2
hours and 10 minutes. The tool used for these milling operations has a diameter
42
of only 1/32 inch. The CNC codes for the machining of the blades were
revised several times to achieve a higher yield (see 5.1.2 and 6.2). Revising
the CNC codes has cut 2 / 3 of the machining time. Figure 4.12 shows the
machined turbine. A photo of the machined turbine is shown in Figure 4.13.
Figure 4.13: Photo of Soldermask with Final Turbine Shape
Step 10: Wax casting
The next step in the manufacturing process for one turbine mold is recasting of
yellow wax.
43
Figure 4.14: Photo of Soldermask Covered with Wax
44
As shown in Figure 4.14 aluminum foil is wrapped around the yellow wax
post. The casting temperature of the yellow wax in this step is 90°C. A higher
temperature would lead to deformation of the soldermask; at a lower
temperature the wax has too high viscosity. During the fill-in process, to
prevent deformation of the soldermask, the hot wax should not be cast
directly on the soldermask. To remove all bubbles inside the wax, degassing
is essential. Shaking the whole vacuum chamber during degassing provides the
best degassing results.
Figure 4.15: Soldermask Covered with Wax
45
Figure 4.16: Wax Trimmed to Necessary Outside

Dimensions
Step 11: Milling of the outside diameter and top surface
To fit the turbine mold in the assembly mold (see 6.1) an outside diameter of 25
mm of the turbine mold is required. In this step, the outside diameter as well as
the accurately defined top surface are machined. The soldermask turbine is still
inside the yellow wax (Figure 4.16).
46
Figure 4.17: Top Hole and Side Slot
Step 12: Milling of top hole and side slot
Step 12 is the final milling step. First, a hole through the top surface is machined.
Second, a slot is machined to cut off the mold.
47
Figure 4.18: Cut Mold
Step 13: Cutting off the mold and soldermask etching
The final step is to cut off the mold from the wax base using a band-saw.
The blade should not touch the bottom surface of the wax mold. After cutting
off the mold, the soldermask has to be washed out of the mold. Therefore, the
mold is put under a water stream. The etching of the soldermask takes up to
36 hours. To assure all soldermask is removed it is important to wash the mold
at the end with clean water.
48
Figure 4.19: Final Turbine Mold
49
Figure 4.20: Photo of Turbine Mold
50
4.2.3 Mold Assembly
The mold for a Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly consists of 6 separate

molds:
• Cap for turbine,

• Turbine Mold,
• Interconnection between turbine and compressor,
• Compressor Mold,
• Shaft Mold and
• Cap for 5-axis hollow shaft.
Table 4.1 shows all mold identifiers and the description of each mold. This table
includes all molds, which have been designed and produced. The molds used for
the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly are highlighted.
Mold Identifier Description

CAP1P Cap for turbine mold with hole, closed
CAP2P Cap for compressor mold with hole, closed
CAP3P Cap for turbine/compressor mold without hole
TBN1P FF Turbine V1, x1.2, + 0.15 top/side, + 0.5 bottom
INT1P Interconnection between turbine and compressor, thickness
1.524 mm, radius 0.5 mm
CMP1P FF Compressor V1, x1.24, + 0.15 top/side, + 0.5 bottom
SFT1P Mold for 4 mm shaft, ID6.6, D30
SFT2P Mold for 4.7625 mm shaft, 5-axis machined, ID6.8, D33
SFT3P Mold for 4.7625 mm shaft, 3-axis machined, ID6.8, D33
HOL1P Cap for 5-axis hollow shaft, 2.95 OD, 21 mm high
TOP1F Upper fixture, compatible with CAP1P, TBN1P, CAP2P and
CMP1P
51
Mold Identifier Description

TOP2F New upper fixture, compatible with CAP1P, TBN1P, CAP2P
and CMP1P
BTM1F Bottom fixture for turbine-shaft or compressor-shaft
assem-
bly, compatible with TBN1P/CMP1P and SFT1P
BTM2F Bottom fixture for turbine-turbine-shaft or turbine-
compressor-shaft assembly with ID6.6, D30 shaft,
compatible with SFT1P
BTM3F Bottom fixture for turbine-shaft or compressor-shaft with
ID6.6, D33 mm shaft, compatible with SFT2P and SFT3P
BTM3F1 Inner part of BTM3F assembly mold
Table 4.1: Mold Identifier and Description
Figure 4.21: Whole Set of Unassembled Molds; View 1
52
Figure 4.22: Whole Set of Unassembled Molds; View

2
Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.22 show a photo of a whole set of the
unassembled molds. In Figure 4.23 to Figure 4.28 the assembly process of the
molds is shown step by step. To have clearer illustration, the molds are cut in
half to show the assembly process.
53
Figure 4.23: Exploded View of All Molds for a Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly
54
Figure 4.24: Step No. 1: Assembly of Mold (HOL1P and SFT2P)
55
Figure 4.25: Step No. 2: Assembly of Mold (SFT2P and CMP1P)
Figure 4.26: Step No. 3: Assembly of Mold (CMP1P and INT1P)
56
Figure 4.27: Step No. 4: Assembly of Mold (INT1P and TBN1P)
Figure 4.28: Step No. 5: Assembly of Mold (TBN1P and CAP1P): Fully Assembled Mold
To fix the molds after they are fully assembled, the assembly is completely cov-
ered by wax. Attention should be paid to the wax temperature. It should
be around 100°C to minimize the heat transferred to the whole assembly. It is
also necessary to perform this covering procedure in several steps.
57
4.3 Post Processing
After the molds are constructed, a post processing step is performed to

realize the ceramic part. The post processing in the Mold SDM process
includes following processes:
• Casting of the ceramic slurry in the wax mold,

• Drying,
• Debinding,
• Sintering and
• Post machining.
In general, any casting process can be used along with the Mold SDM
process. However, for the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly gelcasting is
selected because of its capability to produce high-quality, complex-shaped
ceramic parts.
In gelcasting a slurry made from ceramic powder and an organic solvent

monomer solution is poured into a mold, polymerized to immobilize the
particles in a gelled part, removed from the mold while wet, then dried and fired.
Gelcasting is not limited to use with any particular ceramic powder because
the processing additives are all organic and leave no cation impurities behind
in the fired part. Gelcasting can be quickly adapted for use with new
materials and new applications. Gelcasting is attractive for fabricating
complex shapes such as turbines, and for simple shapes such as large
toroidal rings. Gelcast components can be made with high reproducibility.
Specifically, gelcasting provides a rapid forming cycle, good wet and dried
strength, the option to use a wide range of mold materials, the ability to make
large parts having thick and thin sections, and few, if any, molding defects
[JANN90, JANN98, KRAU95, OMAT91].
58
A gelcasting process flowchart is shown in Figure 4.29. This flowchart shows
how the process turns ceramic powder into a finished product.
Organic Solvent
Ceramic
Monomers Dispersant
Slurry (Milling)
Initiator
Catalyst
Casting
Gelation
Mold Removal
Drying
59
Binder Burnout
Sintering
Figure 4.29: Gelcasting Process Flowchart [OMAT91]
60
4.3.1 Casting
The first step is to cast the ceramic slurry into the wax mold. In the beginning the
ingredients have to be mixed and milled. The ceramic powder is mixed with dis-
persant and gel-forming organic monomers. To prevent bubbles causing flaws in
the final product, the mixture has to be placed under a partial vacuum to remove
trapped air. After the degassing a catalyst and the polymerization initiator
are added. The initiator starts the gel-forming chemical reaction. The ceramic
slurry is then poured into molds.
The next step is to heat the mold in a curing oven at a temperature of 60°C. The
catalyst will cause the monomers to form large cross-linked polymer
molecules that trap water and create a rubbery polymer-water gel. The gel
permanently im- mobilizes the ceramic particles in the shape defined by the
molds. It is this setting step that gives gelcasting its name. By separating the
mold-filling operation from the setting operation gelcasting overcomes many of
the problems associated with injection molding that can cause defects in the
molded part. To remove the ceramic from the mold, the filled mold is heated
up to a temperature of
100°C. The wax will melt and the green part is separated from the wax. To
remove the wax completely from the ceramic, BioAct280, a solvent, is used
after the Dewaxing process. In Figure 4.30 the molecular structure of the
green part after casting is illustrated.
61
Binder
Powder (Si3N4, 45 - 60 Vol.%)
Organic solvent
62
Figure 4.30: Molecule Structure of Green Part after Casting
4.3.2 Drying
The cast ceramic has to be dried thoroughly to remove most of the solvent, pref-
erably at a high relative humidity (90%) to minimize warping and cracking. During
drying the ceramic slurry normally shrinks uniformly about 3%. A possibility to
speed up the drying is to wait until the shrinkage stops and then decrease the
humidity and increase the temperature. Figure 4.31 shows the remaining compo-
nents such as powder and binder in the green part after the drying. The solvent is
removed.
63
Figure 4.31: Molecule Structure after Drying
Figure 4.32 shows the drying schedule used for the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft.
200
180
160
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
Temperature [°C]
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
75
76
0 5 10 15 20 25
77
The Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly after the drying process is shown

in Figure 4.33, Figure 4.34 and Figure 4.35.
Figure 4.33: Picture of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft in the Green Part Status; Front
View 1
78
Figure 4.34: Picture of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft in the Green Part Status; Front
View 2
79
Figure 4.35: Close up View of the Turbine-Compressor Section in the Green Part Status
4.3.3 Debinding
To debind the silicon nitride part, the part is heated up to 600°C. This
heating process burns out the polymer remaining in the ceramic; this polymer
must be removed carefully or else the final product may have defects and
cracks. Figure
4.36 shows the molecular structure of the green part after debinding. The binder
has been removed [KRAU95].
80
Figure 4.36: Molecule Structure after Debinding
The debinding schedule is shown in Figure 4.37.
700
81
600
Temperature [°C]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time [h]
Figure 4.37: Debinding Schedule
4.3.4 Sintering
During the sintering process the temperature goes up to almost 1750°C. At this
high temperature, the furnace’s intense heat sinters the ceramic, making it
hard and dense. The sintering process is performed under N2 atmosphere
with a pressure of 1 atm. The sintering mechanism is illustrated in
Figure 4.38 [KRAU95, OMAT91].
82
Figure 4.38: Sintering Mechanism
The sintering mechanism runs in four main steps:
(A) Slurry includes Si3N4 powder, which is coated with SiO2 glass and some
metal oxide additives (Al2O3, Y2O3).
(B) In firing, the metal oxide additives and SiO2 glass melt and a liquid phase
exists to help densification.
(C) Higher temperature is reached and phase transition happens from
α - phase Si3N4 to β -Si3N4.
(D) The result of sintering is a part with microstructure of β -Si3N4 and
glassy
83
matrix.
The structure of sintered silicon nitride is shown in Figure 4.39.
Figure 4.39: Micro Structure of Sintered Silicon Nitride
Figure 4.40 gives an example of the surface structure of silicon nitride.
84
Figure 4.40: Surface Structure of Sintered Silicon Nitride
Figure 4.41 shows the sintering schedule.
1800 1000
1600 800
1400 600
Temperature [°C]
1200 400
85
200
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Time [h]
Figure 4.41: Sintering Schedule
86
4.3.5 Post Machining
To get the accurate shape of the sintered silicon nitride part, it is necessary
to provide a post machining step. In the fabrication of the Turbine-
Compressor- Shaft Assembly, post machining basically means to grind the shaft
of the assembly as well as the outer surface of the turbine and compressor.
87
Process Analysis
5 Process Analysis
This chapter shows a critical review of the whole manufacturing process for
the silicon nitride Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Group. It identifies the
difficulties in each step of the manufacturing process. The second part of this
chapter introduces the computertomographical investigation. It presents the
ideas of computertomography and also the advantages of this technique for
quality analysis.
5.1 Problem Identification
5.1.1 Planning
In the planning stage, the decomposition program should generate the build
sequence automatically. However, if the given part contains complex
freeform geometry, the program sometimes results in an improper build
sequence because of tolerance issues. Also, the build sequence produced by
the program may not meet the demands of experienced users because it has
no actual manufacturing knowledge. Therefore, currently the planning step is
still performed manually to generate the optimal build sequence.
88
Process Analysis
Also, generating CNC codes automatically for highly complex geometry is still a
state-of-the-art technology. Thus even with the capability provided by the CAD-
CAM-system Unigraphics, the users still have to fine-tune their CNC codes.
In addition, the post processing tool provided by Unigraphics seems to have lim-
ited capability. As shown in Chapter 5.1.2, the output of the post processor
results in operation problems during the machining. Moreover, the post
processing strategy is chosen by Unigraphics and the users cannot specify the
strategy they want.
5.1.2 Mold Building
During the mold-building step, the following problems and difficulties occurred:
• Low yield of turbine molds

• Requirement of frequent human intervention
• Offset errors
• Sagging of the turbine / compressor blades
More details of these problems are given below.
Low yield of turbine molds
Before the CNC codes for the blade machining were revised, the milling process
regularly resulted in broken blades. The position, where the blades normally
broke, is marked in Figure 5.1.
89
Process Analysis
Figure 5.1: Position of the Broken Blade During Soldermask Machining
Figure 5.2: Photo of a Broken Soldermask Blade
A photo of one broken blade is shown above (Figure 5.2). After the subsequent
revision of all CNC codes, no blade has been broken during machining (see 6.2).
Requirement of frequent human intervention
The requirement of frequent human intervention during the mold building process
has two main reasons. First, it is not possible to download CNC files bigger than
1 MByte to the milling machine. This limitation comes from the current download
90
software used. Second, during wax machining it is important to blow cold air as
91
Process Analysis
close as possible to the current machining position. This is done by two air
out- lets, which have to be positioned manually. An automated air blowing system
has not been implemented so far.
Offset errors
The limitations of the post processor of Unigraphics cause problems during 5-

axis machining. Figure 5.3 demonstrates two possible machining setups. Both
setups should produce the same results ideally. But because of inaccurate posi-
tioning of the Maho 5-axis milling machine, the two setups come out differently,
and thus cause variation on the part geometry produced. One example is the
non-centered hole in the shaft mold, which leads to the poor alignment of the
Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly.
B = - 90°
B = 90° A = - 90° A=
90°
Configuration A Configuration B
92
Figure 5.3: Deviated Machining
Positions
Sagging of the turbine / compressor blades
The first task is to find out where the sagging of the turbine / compressor blades
comes from. Figure 5.4 shows a directly machined polyurethane turbine.
This part does not show any sagging of the blades. In contrast Figure 5.5
shows the sagged blades of a sintered silicon nitride turbine. Two possible
reasons are as
follows:
Process Analysis
• The sagging could occur when wax is cast on top of the soldermask. Dur-
ing solidification wax shrinks and distorts the shape of the blades. Another
possibility is that the blades soften and sag during the cooling process of
the wax.
• The sagging could happen during sintering because the blades are not
supported. The weight of each blade itself may distort the shape.
93
Figure 5.4: Regular Turbine Blade
94
Process Analysis
Figure 5.5: Sagged Turbine Blades
To discover how the sagging performs, a cast polyurethane part has been
produced. The computertomography picture of this part is shown in Figure 5.6.
95
Figure 5.6: Cast Polyurethane Turbine
Process Analysis
The cast polyurethane turbine also shows sagging. Compared with Figure 5.5 the
sagging is smaller.
Consequentially, the sagging of the turbine blades is a result of both the sintering
process and wax casting. The sintering process has more influence on the
sagging than the wax casting process.
5.1.3 Post Processing
During the post processing of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly, the

processes with major failures are as follows:
• Gellation (curing): Blades chip-off due to the difference of coefficient

thermal expansion of wax and ceramic green part.
• Dewaxing: Green parts have been broken because of the weight of
ex- cess wax.
• Debinding: Improper handling has destroyed fragile green parts.
• Sintering: Blade sagging (5.1.2), shaft warping, cracking.
• Packing powder emission cause incorrect reading by the optical tempera-
ture sensor. This resulted in improper sintering temperature end therefore
destroyed the ceramic parts.
• Crucible reactions: Chemical reaction of silicon with carbon leads to SiC.
The energy released during the chemical reaction between Si and C may
be responsible for the cracking or even exploding of the crucible.
• Position shifting of the green part: During pump down the position of the
green part shifts. The powder inside the crucible becomes denser during
the pumping process and thus shifts the green part.
96
Process Analysis
Due to the use of the furnace by other users contamination occurred. This Con-
tamination resulted in very poor sintering quality. Figure 5.7 shows some failures,
which may well have resulted from contamination.
97
2
Figure 5.7: Contaminated Crucible: (1) Cracks Inside the Crucible; (2) Peeling Area
(Chemical Reactions)
Another crack has been observed in the cap of the crucible (Figure 5.8).
98
Process Analysis
99
Figure 5.8: Broken Edge of Crucible
Cap
The dimension constraint causes difficulties in green part handling. Currently a

cylindrical region of 2.5” X 7” cylindrical is used. To overcome the powder emis-
sion a bigger crucible has been purchased (Figure 5.9).
Process Analysis
100
Figure 5.9: Old (left side) and New (right side) Crucible
A local over-heating was observed. This over-heating zone can be seen in Figure
5.10 as the dark area inside the crucible. Local over-heating may result in
non- uniform shrinkage of the silicon nitride part or cracks and bursting in the
surface layer.
Process Analysis
101
Figure 5.10: Localized Over-heating in the Crucible
Some failures can be fixed by grinding, but most of them cannot. All the effort of
the previous fabrication steps is wasted if any failure occurs during the
post processing. Therefore it is necessary to bring down the failure rate of the
post processing to a minimum.
5.2 Computertomographical Investigation
Computertomography offers a quantitative three-dimensional map of the X-

ray absorption in an object. Computertomography is used more and more as a
quantitative method for the analysis of local density variations in sintered
materials with the aim of optimizing the production process, as a tool to study
fiber rein- forced materials and for dimension analysis of complex shapes and
components
especially in combination with rapid prototyping and CAD methods.
102
Process Analysis
5.2.1 Motivation
To ensure the accuracy of the silicon nitride parts produced, computertomogra-

phy can be used to classify the influence of the different manufacturing steps on
the part quality. A characterization of all possible influences on the dimension ac-
curacy is illustrated in Figure 5.11. On the right side of the figure all possible rea-
sons, which can lead to inaccuracies, are listed.
CAD model
• Scaling of CAD model
• Inaccurate CNC code
• CNC machine offset
• Tool size difference
Machined
Soldermask
• Soldermask deformation
Mold
• Anisotropic Shrinkage
• Deformation
Sintered
part
Figure 5.11: Accuracy Characterization
Figure 5.12 shows four comparable states of one part. It is necessary to analyze
each state, to verify, where the inaccuracy arises.
103
104
Process Analysis
Sintered
CAD model Mold
soldermask p
Figure 5.12: Four Comparable

States of One Part
Computertomography is
used to characterize the
quality of parts in each
state.
105
5.2.2 Principle of Computertomography
Computertomography permits the measurement of local X-ray absorption inside

the object usually in form of an image matrix (two- or three-dimensional). Each
matrix element or pixel represents the X-ray absorption averaged over the corre-
sponding volume element (voxel). Figure 5.13 shows the principle for the
two- dimensional case. The result of a measurement will usually be represented
as an image matrix (cross-sectional plane or slice) through the object. The
minimum size of a voxel is mainly given by the focal spot size of the radiation
source, the detector aperture and the magnification of the system and
determines mainly the
spatial resolution of the whole system which is often defined by the
modulation
106
Process Analysis
transfer function (MTF). The use of a two dimensional detector instead of single
detectors or a line detector leads to the Cone Beam Tomography where
some hundred parallel slices can be measured in one cycle. This state-of-the-art
technology gives a spatial resolution of roughly 0.5 mm for larger objects
with X-ray energies of 250 kV and higher, and about 15 µm using X-ray tubes
with a micro focal spot and energy range lower than 225 kV.
Source Object Detector
Figure 5.13: Principle of 2D Computertomography with a Line Detector
The contrast resolution works in the opposite direction to the spatial resolution
but can be influenced moderately by an appropriate measuring time. A
contrast discrimination of 1 to 5% can be reached between adjacent pixels in
contradic- tion to radiography where the maximum contrast resolution refers to
the maximum thickness of the object, for example differences of 1% of
maximum thickness can be resolved.
5.2.3 Dimension Analysis
The main interest presently is the control and generation of geometry of complex
shaped components for reverse engineering applications. Due to the spatial
107
cor- relation between measured absorption and localization in the object,
computer-
Process Analysis
tomography can obtain very precise information about the geometry. The proce-
dure is generally performed as follows. From a set of parallel 2D-slices or by 3D-
computertomography a three-dimensional voxel data set is generated.
After some image processing steps like a threshold operation these data can be
processed directly in form of point clouds or as tessellated surfaces. This true
object geometry obtained by computertomography will serve as the base for a
lot of computations:
• Generate outer and inner contours from a cross section in any required
orientation.
• Compare point cloud data with CAD data set. Deviations can be shown as
color maps on a two- or three-dimensional view.
• Create interesting sections of the measured object with methods of rapid
prototyping.
However, transforming computertomography data into CAD systems is still an

ongoing research topic.
Some examples of analyzed parts are shown in Figure 5.14 to Figure 5.17. As an
example Figure 5.14 shows an isosurface visualization of a test rotor. The maxi-
mum diameter is around 27 mm.
108
Process Analysis
Figure 5.14: Isosurface Visualization of the Rotor
109
Figure 5.15: Photo of the Rotor
Process Analysis
Another example is shown in Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.17. These figures show
an inlet nozzle.
Figure 5.16: Photo of the Inlet Nozzle
110
Figure 5.17: Isosurface Visualization of the Inlet Nozzle
111
Process Analysis
5.2.4 STL File
Representation methods used to describe CAD geometry vary from one

system to another. A standard interface is needed to convert geometric
descriptions from various CAD packages to Rapid Prototyping systems. The STL
(Stereo Lithogra- phy) file, as the de facto standard, has been used in most, if not
all, Rapid Proto- typing systems. Computertomography technology also uses
this STL format as the most common output of its scanning results.
The STL file, conceived by 3D Systems, USA, is created from a CAD

database via an interface on the CAD system. This file consists of an unordered
list of triangular facets representing the outside skin of an object. There are
two STL file formats. One is the ASCII format and the other is the binary format.
The size of an ASCII STL file is larger than that of the binary format but is
human readable. In an STL file, triangular facets are described by a set of X, Y
and Z coordinates for each of the three vertices and a unit normal vector with x,
y and z to indicate which side of facet is inside the object. An example is shown
in Figure 5.18.
solid print
facet normal 0.00000e+00 1.00000e+00 0.00000e+00
ZX
outer loop
vertex 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00 2.00000e+00 1,0,2
vertex 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00
vertex 1.00000e+01 0.00000e+00 2.00000e+01
endloop
endfacet
facet normal 0.00000e+00 1.00000e+00 0.00000e+00
outer loop
vertex 1.00000e+01 0.00000e+00 2.00000e+01
vertex 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00
vertex 1.00000e+01 0.00000e+00 0.00000e+00
endloop
endfacet
…………
112
0,0,2
0,1,0
113
0,0,0
114
Figure 5.18: A Sample STL File
Process Analysis
As an STL file is a facet model derived from a precise CAD model, it is, therefore,
an approximation of the model. Besides, many commercial CAD systems are not
sufficiently robust to generate the facet model (STL file) and as such they
fre- quently have problems.
Nevertheless, there are several distinct advantages with the STL format. Firstly, it
provides a simple method of representing 3-dimensional CAD data. Secondly, it
is already a de facto standard and has been used by most CAD systems and RP
systems. Finally, it can provide simple files for data transfer for geometric
shapes.
Several disadvantages of the STL format exist. Firstly, the STL file is many times
larger than the original CAD data file for a given accuracy parameter. The
STL file carries much redundant information such as duplicate vertices and
edges shown in Figure 5.19. Secondly, geometry flaws exist in STL files because
many commercial tessellation algorithms used by CAD vendors today are not
robust. This gives rise to the need for repair software, which slows the
production time. Finally, the subsequent slicing of large STL files can take many
hours. However, some Rapid Prototyping processes can slice while they are
building the previous layer and this will, to some extent, alleviate this
disadvantage.
115
Figure 5.19: Edge and Vertex Redundancies in STL Format Compared to CAD Data File
[KAI96]
Process Analysis
5.2.5 Future Developments in Computertomography
The increase of computer power in connection with considerably cost reduction

in computer hardware and new developments in detector design (i.e. amorphous
silicon flat panel detectors) will lead to a higher degree of acceptance of
computertomography in industry in the future. The main applications foreseen
are the great potential of computertomography generating 3D data of complex
parts and optimization of production processes for sintering materials
(ceramics and powder metallurgy).
116
Improvements and Results
6 Improvements and Results
This chapter describes the improvements and results of the present work. Among
the problems described in Chapter 5.1, the issues regarding fabrication efficiency
and yield of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly are addressed here. An
“Assembly Mold Concept” is adapted first to improve the process efficiency. Fur-
ther efficiency is gained by implementing a revised machining strategy, which in-
creases the fabrication yield at the same time. Finally, the shrinkage of the ce-
ramic parts is characterized to guarantee the accurate part geometry.
6.1 Assembly Mold Concept
The assembly mold concept enables the combination of different molds over
117
a specified interface. Under this concept different molds are aligned over a
specified feature. This concept has several benefits. On one side it
increases the speed of planning, mold building and production of a whole
assembly as well as individual molds. On the other side, the assembly mold
concept can be easily applied to various parts and thus has higher flexibility.
118
The following parts have been built by using this new assembly mold concept:
• Turbine-solid shaft
• Turbine-hollow shaft
• Turbine-turbine-solid shaft
• Compressor-solid shaft
• Compressor-hollow shaft
• Turbine-compressor-hollow shaft
Figure 6.1 shows two examples of parts built using different sets of molds. The
Turbine-Compressor-Hollow-Shaft Assembly consists of compressor, connector,
turbine and hollow shaft molds. The Turbine-Solid-Shaft Assembly consists of
turbine and solid shaft molds. As can be seen, the same turbine mold can be
used interchangeably in both assemblies. The same applies to other molds as
well.
Compressor Connector Turb Holl

ine ow
119
Sh
aft
120
6.2 Increased Yield
As shown in Chapter 5.1.2 during the fabrication of molds for the turbine several
difficulties were encountered in the soldermask machining step. Broken blades
occurred irregularly and the number of broken blades in the fabricated
turbine molds was varied. Figure 6.3 shows the number of broken and
non-broken blades. The x-axis shows the number of the fabricated molds,
the y-axis the number of blades.
6
Number of non-broken
5
blades
4 Number of broken
blades
3
121
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Mold Number
Figure 6.2: Number of Broken / Non-broken Blades
It is conspicuous that the number of broken blades starting from mold number 1
to mold number 7 is alternating between 0 and 1. This shows that the machining
122
in workpiece 14 can be explained as a result of the unusually high machining

speed used. The normal feed rate during the blade machining was only 30% feed
rate up to this point. Mold 14 was machined with a feed rate of 150%. Therefore,
almost every blade broke. As shown in Chapter 6.3, however, it is now possible
to machine the blades with a speed of 150% without any broken blades. Starting
from mold number 16, a new machining strategy was adopted.
This new machining strategy is the result of the revision of almost all CNC codes,
which are used to machine one turbine mold. This new machining strategy differs
from the previous one in two ways. Figure 6.3 illustrates the old and new machin-
ing direction of the turbine blades. As shown in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2 the
blades broke always on the edge of the outside diameter. This resulted from the
old machining strategy. With the old strategy, the milling tool started at the bot-
tom of one blade and machined to the top of the blade. During this operation, the
tool pressed on the soldermask material and led to the chipping of the edge. By
inversing the machining direction, it was possible to reduce the force on the sol-
dermask material and higher machining speed could be achieved as well.
The whole blade was machined with the old strategy in three steps, now it is
machined in four steps but with much higher feet rates. Thus the machining time
can be reduced (see 6.3).
123
Old New
 
 
124
Figure 6.3: Inversion of the Machining Direction of One Turbine
Blade
After the CNC codes were revised, no blade has been broken. The yield of molds
is increased from around 40% to 100%.
6.3 Reduced Fabrication Time
After selecting the new machining strategy it is now possible to machine one tur-
bine in 40% of the previous machining time. It is made possible because of
the reduced number of CNC files as well as the higher machining speed.
Starting from 22 single CNC files the number of files could be reduced to 11. The
revised machining codes for machining the turbine blades can now be run with
feed rates of 150% feed rate. Both changes lead to the reduced fabrication time:
• Old machining time for one turbine: 7 h 51 min

• New machining time for one turbine: 2 h 59 min
The table below shows the time consumed to produce one complete Turbine-
Compressor-Shaft mold. This time calculation assumes that all tasks are per-
formed sequentially. Another calculation for parallel workflow is presented

afterwards.
Man time Cycle time

Workpiece Task
[h:min] [h:min]
Turbine Wax casting 0:40 12:00
ing 0:39 2:59
oldermask deposition 1:00 4:00
125
off 0:05 0:05
oldermask etching 0:05 36:00
Overall Time for Turbine 2:29 55:04
Compressor Wax casting 0:40 12:00
ing 0:55 7:27
oldermask deposition 1:00 4:00
off 0:05 0:05
oldermask etching 0:05 36:00
Overall Time for Compressor 2:45 59:32
Connector Wax casting 0:30 8:00
ing 0:11 0:11
off 0:05 0:05
Overall Time for Connector 0:46 8:16
Cap for 5-axis
Wax casting 0:30 8:00
Hollow Shaft
ing 0:16 2:54
off 0:05 0:05
Overall Time for Cap for 5-axis
0:51 10:59
Hollow Shaft
Man time Cycle time

Workpiece Task
[h:min] [h:min]
Shaft Wax casting 0:30 8:00
ing 0:08 0:08
off 0:05 0:05
Overall Time for Shaft 0:43 8:13
126
Cap for Tur-
bine
ing 0:09 0:09
off 0:05 0:05
Overall Time for Cap for Turbine 0:44 8:14
Assembly Assembling 0:20 0:20
2:00 7:00
0:15 25:00
ng 0:05 51:00
intering 1:00 6:00
Overall Time Assembly 3:40 89:20
Overall Time 11:58 239:38
Table 6.1: Time for Sequential

Workflow
Some tasks such as wax casting can be performed in parallel. So it is possible to

save even more time. Table 6.2 shows the calculation for the estimated minimum
fabrication time through parallel work.
Man time Cycle time

Task
[h:min] [h:min]
Soldermask deposition 1:00 4:00
Man time Cycle time

Task
[h:min] [h:min]
Machining Turbine 0:39 2:59
Machining Compressor 0:55 7:27
Machining Connector 0:11 0:11
Machining Cap for 5-axis Hollow Shaft 0:16 2:54
127
Machining Shaft 0:08 0:08
Machining Cap for Turbine 0:09 0:09
Saw off all molds 0:30 0:30
Assembling 0:20 0:20
Casting / Dewaxing 2:00 7:00
Drying 0:15 25:00
Debinding 0:05 51:00
Sintering 1:00 6:00
Overall 8:28 119:38
Table 6.2: Minimal Fabrication Time of One Turbine-Compressor-Shaft

Assembly
The fabrication time of 119 hours 38 minutes can be further reduced by

parallel fabrication of several Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assemblies. However,
the high complexity of this manufacturing process is still reflected in the
fabrication time. If higher production volume is needed, further improvements
on the current process should be made.
6.4 Shrinkage
The calculation of the shrinkage of ceramic parts is one of the most challenging
issues. Wrong shrinkage calculation leads to inaccurate dimensions and useless
parts. Therefore, an exact calculation of the shrinkage especially for the CNC
128
code generation is important. Starting from the original CAD model a scaling
is necessarily to create correct CNC codes for the molds. During the post
processing, the ceramic part will ideally shrink to the desired dimensions if the
right scaling factor is applied. This process is illustrated in the chart
129
Original CAD model
Shrinkage calculation
Scaled CAD model
CNC code generation

Machining
Before Sintering
Post processing
Sintered part
6.4.1 Measurements
To characterize the shrinkage a turbine-shaft part was used. Figure 6.5 shows
the measurement positions. For each position two values have been taken by
rotating the part 90 ° between two measurements.
130
Ø C1, C2
F1, F2
D1, D2
E1, E2
Ø B1, B2
Ø A1, A2
131
Figure 6.5: Positions of Measurement
Table 6.3 shows all measurement values.
Table 6.3: Sintered Turbine Shrinkage Measurement
Only the values for A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2 have been used for further
calcu- lations.
6.4.2 Calculation
The range of the shrinkage is 18.19 – 20.09%. This uncertainty of

sintering shrinkage leads to a challenging choice for the right scaling factor.
The scaling factor λ is defined as following:
Length after sinterin

Shrinkage S = g Equation 15
λ =
132
Length before sintering
1
Equation 16
1− S
133
Using the average shrinkage of 19.14% a scaling factor λ = 1.24
results.
Figure 6.6: Scaling of the Turbine-Compressor Section
Tight clearance, e.g. compressor against shroud, requires grinding of the sin-
tered parts. If the average shrinkage factor is applied, statistically 50% of the sin-
tered parts will be smaller than the desired geometry. Thus the necessary grind-
ing cannot be performed, because those sintered parts are already too small. On
the other hand, if the maximum shrinkage value is used to calculate the scaling
134
factor, all the sintered parts will become larger than the desired geometry. These
parts can be ground to the final shape, but during grinding fine geometry features
may be damaged. The choice of the right scaling factor is therefore a tradeoff be-
tween clearance and accuracy. The current approach is to use the average
shrinkage to calculate the scaling factor. Stock material is added to compensate
for the shrinkage so that the follow up grinding operation can be performed. For
example, in Figure 6.7, stock material is added on the tip of the blades of the tur-
bine.
Stock material
135
Conclusions
7 Conclusions
7.1 Summary
This research has resulted in the following main achievements:
• Development of the fabrication process for the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft

Group,
• Analysis of this fabrication process and examination of possible problems
and deficiencies of ceramic manufacturing and
• Improvements on the fabrication outcomes.
Because of material requirements, the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft part is

produced in silicon nitride. To produce complex shaped silicon nitride parts with
high quality requires a special manufacturing process. The Mold SDM process
is capable of fabricating ceramic parts with highly accurate dimensions, thus it
is chosen as the process to produce the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Group.
However, the manufacturing process for ceramic parts with highly complex
shapes is a complicated process and some problems and difficulties were en-
countered. To resolve these issues, a detailed analysis of the whole process is
crucial. The fabrication process is divided into three main sections: planning,
136
Conclusions
mold building and post processing. Each section is further split into several tasks.
Every task is described and potential problems are pointed out. As part of the
analysis computertomography is introduced to verify the quality of produced
parts. This analysis tool allows control of accuracy as well as consistency of sin-
tered silicon nitride components.
Due to the complexity and long cycle time the yield of Mold SDM process is low.
To have reasonable speed of planning, mold building and production of whole
assemblies as well as individual molds, the Mold Assembly Concept was
developed to achieve higher production flexibility. Other improvements on the
manufacturing process are the shortened building time and precise
characterization of shrinkage. These improvements result in highly accurate
ceramic parts, which can be produced in a shorter time.
These achievements are significant because they:
• enable the fabrication of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly in

silicon nitride which could not be made previously,
• show all potential difficulties during manufacturing of ceramic parts with
highly complex shapes,
• increase the yield of molds from approximate 40% to 100%,
• reduce the fabrication time to approximate 40% of the previous fabrication
time,
• make it possible to quickly produce functional parts for use in design
iterations and
• characterize the currently achieved quality of silicon nitride parts.
137
Conclusions
7.2 Contributions
The main contributions of this thesis are summarized below:
• Fabrication of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly: The whole

fabrication process for the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly is pre-
sented. This assembly is a highly complex shape and it was built success-
fully using the Mold SDM process. The manufacturing process is divided
into three main steps: planning, mold building and post processing.
• Analysis of the fabrication process: The production of ceramic parts

is a challenging issue and therefore afflicted with some problems.
These problems are presented and interpreted. The characterization of
existing problems makes it easier to find solutions.
• Introduction of computertomographical investigation: Computerto-

mography is a useful tool to investigate the part quality. To ensure
the accuracy of silicon nitride parts produced, computertomography is
used to classify the influence of the different manufacturing steps on the
part quality. Computertomography can also be used to analyze local
density variations in sintered materials with the aim to optimize the
production process, and as a tool for dimensional analysis of complex
shape samples and components especially in combination with rapid
prototyping and CAD methods.
• Development of the Assembly Mold Concept: The assembly mold con-

cept enables the combination of different molds over a specified interface.
These different molds are aligned over a fixed diameter. This concept has
several benefits:
o It increases the speed of planning, mold building and production of
Conclusions
o The assembly mold concept can be easily applied to various parts

138
and therefore has higher flexibility.
• Increased Yield: The low yield of the molds has been one of the most
challenging issues. During the machining of the soldermask material, the
turbine blades have broken irregularly. Also the number of broken blades
has varied. By adopting a new machining strategy, the yield is increased
from 40% to 100%.
• Shortened fabrication time: The machining time for one turbine mold
has been reduced from almost 8 hours down to 3 hours. However, the fab-
rication of one complete Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly still takes
around 119 hours, including mold building and post processing steps. The
potential alternatives to reduce the overall cycle time are presented as
well.
• Shrinkage characterization: The calculation of the shrinkage of ceramic

parts is one of the most important issues. Without proper shrinkage calcu-
lation accurate dimensions cannot be achieved. Therefore, an exact calcu-
lation of the shrinkage is shown. The choice of the right scaling factor for
the CAD model is made based on careful consideration. Different aspects
have been examined to find the right scaling for ceramic parts.
7.3 Future Work
The Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Group has now been built. However, due to pos-
sible design changes of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine in the future, the Turbine-
Compressor-Shaft Group shown in this thesis may not be the final design. The
Conclusions
Mold SDM process and the Mold Assembly Concept enable rapid fabrication of
139
ceramic parts for future design iteration and testing.
Highly accurate and functional silicon nitride parts are essential to build the Micro
Gas Turbine Engine. The steps required to further improve the fabrication
process should be to:
• increase the part accuracy,

• increase the build rate,
• increase the yield of sintered silicon nitride parts and
• analyze parts built for quality assurance reasons.
Overcoming the milling inaccuracies is also critical to increasing the accuracy of

the fabricated parts. The proper scaling factor for the CAD model has to be
applied to all engine components built in the future.
The long fabrication time of one Turbine-Compressor-Shaft part limits the

number of design iterations. Therefore, the cycle time for the manufacturing
process should be further decreased, so that changes to the design can be
implemented faster and with less effort. Also by using the Assembly Mold
Concept, a flexible production process has been setup. Moreover, potential
exists for further im- provement of the flexible production thus more
detailed studies are recommended.
Currently the yield of sintered parts is low. Characterization of the sintering condi-
tions is the key to make the sintering process more stable. Starting from current
conditions, it is important to find the proper approach for the post processing step
to get high quality sintered silicon nitride parts. To achieve reproducible high
quality sintered silicon nitride parts, it is also necessary to have uniform sintering
shrinkage. So far, the sintering shrinkage shows poor repeatability. The choice of
Conclusions
proper amount of stock material is related to the shrinkage characterization and
140
should be studied further.
To achieve the expected performance of the Micro Gas Turbine Engine, compo-
nents without any defects and inaccuracies are required. Computertomography
can be used to analyze all critical units of the engine. It is recommended to per-
form computertomography of all ceramic parts to monitor their quality after sinter-
ing. This monitoring is beneficial because no defective component will be fed into
the expensive grinding operation or the final testing, and thus it is much
more cost effective.
Glossary
9 Glossary
141
Build Direction: rapid prototyping processes build parts in layers and the direc-
tion normal to the plane of the layers is called the build direction. The build direc-
tion is usually vertically upwards.
Burnout: the process of removing the organic components from a ceramic green
part prior to sintering. This is usually accomplished by oxidizing the organic mate-
rial at elevated temperature, typically in the 300 – 600°C range. In most
cases the temperature is increased as burnout proceeds.
Christmas Tree Effect: a surface discontinuity effect in SDM and Mold SDM
caused by material shrinkage. Distortion due to material shrinkage during deposi-
tion produces a small step on the surface between layers.
Computer Numeric Control (CNC): instead of controlling a machining process,

such as milling or turning, by hand a computerized system is used to automati-
cally control the motion of the cutting tool. This automation greatly reduces the
labor required to produce machined parts and also improves repeatability and
production rate.
142
Glossary
Compact: a section of a part that can be fabricated in one SDM machining and
deposition cycle. A ray along the build direction will enter and leave a compact
only once. Because of this compacts are defined relative to a particular build ori-
entation. Changing the build orientation may invalidate the compacts.
Decomposition: in layered manufacturing processes this is the step where the

original part geometry is broken up into simpler producible elements. These are
typically 2.5-dimensional uniform thickness horizontal slices, although some
processes use more complex geometries.
Drying: the process of removing any liquid components from a ceramic green
part before beginning burnout. In gelcasting for example a solvent occupies the
pore spaces in the cured green part. Drying is usually accomplished at moderate
temperatures between 100 and 200°C, but in some cases may also be
performed at ambient temperatures. Temperatures are usually increased as
drying proceeds.
Gelcasting: a ceramic forming process developed at Oak Ridge National Labo-

ratory; which involves suspending ceramic particles in a liquid monomer and sol-
vent mixture to form a castable slurry. The slurry is cast into a mold and polymer-
ized to form a strong green part that consists of ceramic particles held together
by a polymer network with solvent occupying the pore spaces.
Green Part: a porous part composed of fine ceramic particles held together by a
binder. The binder is typically a polymeric material and its purpose is to
provide some mechanical strength to the green part so that it maintains its
shape and can be handled. Green parts typically contain 45 – 60% ceramic
particles by volume; the rest is composed of binder materials and pore space.
143
Glossary
Mold Shape Deposition Manufacturing (Mold SDM): a variation on Shape

Deposition Manufacturing which uses SDM techniques to fabricate fugitive molds
which can then be used to make parts from a variety of castable materials.
Rapid Prototyping (RP): the name for a broad category of processes that fabri-
cate parts by building them up in a layer-by-layer fashion. Three-
dimensional parts are decomposed into simpler geometries, typically 2-
dimensional cross sections, and are then built by sequentially fabricating each
of the simpler geometries in sequence. These processes are capable of
building very complex geometries in relatively short times, typically on the order
of hours to a few days. Most processes are highly automated. The main
drawbacks are the general lack of capability to produce parts from engineering
materials and the poor surface quality of as built parts. Also sometimes referred
to a Solid Freeform Fabrication processes.
Sintering: the high temperature process where the ceramic particles in the burnt
out green part are fused together to form a dense ceramic object. Sintering
is usually performed at temperatures exceeding 1500°C and may also involve
the application of external pressure to assist in densification. Sintering is also
usually performed under controlled atmospheres to reduce oxidation or
decomposition of the material during the process.
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM): a rapid prototyping process that dif-

fers from others because it is an additive-subtractive process instead of being
a purely additive process. Layers are built up by alternately depositing and
shaping part and support materials. The shaping, or material subtraction
step, allows greater variety in the range of materials that can be used
because net shape deposition is no longer required.
Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF): the name for a wide range of processes that
fabricate parts by gradually building them up from simpler elements of
material.
144
Glossary
Parts are typically built up incrementally using droplets, filaments or sheets of

material.
Stereolithography (SLA): a rapid prototyping process that builds parts by selec-

tively curing layers of polymer resins using an ultra-violet laser. Each layer is built
by coating a fresh layer of resin over the already built layers and then
scanning the laser over the area inside the part cross section to cure the resin.
Support is provided by building an open framework structure, which can be
removed after the part is finished.
145
146

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Introduction

The goal of this research is to fabricate a silicon nitride Turbine-Compressor-

1.2 Project Outline

Following the present introduction, Chapter 2 presents background information

cussed. The second part of this chapter summarizes information on

Chapter 3 explains reasons for the miniaturization in industrial applications.

Chapter 4 describes the fabrication of the silicon nitride Turbine-Compressor-

Chapter 5 includes the analysis of current problems in the production of high

Chapter 6 shows improvements in the fabrication process and the results.

Chapter 7 contains conclusions and potential future research directions.

2.1 Mold SDM Process

2.1.1 General Ideas

Traditional ceramic manufacturing processes, such as machining of green ce-

Mold SDM is a variation on Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM). SDM is an

SDM, however, the decomposed layers are three-dimensional, may be of

Figure 2.3: Example Mold SDM Build Sequence [COOP99_02]

Figure 2.3 illustrates the phases of the Mold SDM process:

advantage for materials that are difficult or expensive to machine, such as

2.2.1 Mold and Support Materials

The capability to make quality molds depends on a number of mold and

Melting Point Shrinkage

Table 2.1: Waxes tested for Use in Mold SDM [COOP98]

2.2.2 Part Materials

In high temperature applications ceramics are used as part materials because of

Ceramic materials are defined as inorganic and non-metallic materials. Ceramics

Figure 2.4: Ashby Charts Illustrating Material Property Ranges

The most important structural ceramics are:

Silicon nitride is one of the primary structural ceramics because of

perature structural applications such as heat engine components.

Alumina is most often used in electrical and electronic applications

Silicon carbide is used in many of the same structural applications

Partially stabilized zirconia is the toughest of the structural ceramics

Silicon Aluminum Titanium Steel Inconel

3 Micro Gas Turbine Engine

The following chapter shows reasons for the miniaturization of industrial

The compressor design consists of a 7-main-blade and 7-splitter-blade

Figure 3.5: Compressor Blades

Micro Gas Turbine Engine

3.1.4 Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly

Figure 3.8 shows a cross-section of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly

Figure 3.8: Cross-Section of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft

To achieve the desired engine performance, it is necessary to operate the Micro

• Very high strength,

Figure 4.1: CAD Model of the Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly

4.1.1 CAD Model Decomposition

Instead of decomposing a solid model horizontally, this decomposition strategy

Fabrication of Turbine-Compressor-Shaft Assembly

The manufacturing of the part geometry is ordered in two sequential production

The executable end product of Unigraphics machining operations is the

4.2 Mold Building

4.2.1 Basic Ideas

• The risk of high residuum stress in the material rises and

4.2.2 Build Sequence

Step 1: Preparation of the wax base

Figure 4.3: Wax Base

Figure 4.4: Planed and Rounded Wax

Step 2: Plaining and making round of the wax base

Figure 4.5: Wax Base with Hole for Soldermask Deposition

Step 3: Milling of hole for soldermask deposition

Step 4: Milling of anchor for soldermask

Figure 4.7: Wax Base with Cast

Step 5: Soldermask deposition

The deposition of the soldermask is a two-step process. First, the liquid