I 1076 Interbeing

the behavior will lead to the outcome, an intention

to perform the behavior, awareness of fulfilling Interpretation Theory
that intention while performing the behavior, and
skill to perform the behavior. ▶ Hermeneutics, Theological

Cross-References
Interreligious Dialogue
▶ Attribution/Attribution Theory
▶ Divine Action ▶ Pluralism (Religious)
▶ Externalism and Internalism

Interreligious Studies
Interbeing
Paul Hedges
▶ Animal Theology and Ethics Department of Theology and Religious Studies,
University of Winchester, Winchester, UK

Interfaith Description

▶ Science and Religion Dialogue and the The term “Interreligious Studies” is a relatively
Interreligious Dialogue new one within academia, but one that is becom-
ing frequently employed. Its basic meaning refers
to studies involving two or more religious tradi-
tions or groups; however, it can bear a number of
Interiority different connotations within this broad area. For
instance, it is often seen linked to the term
▶ Externalism and Internalism “Intercultural Theology,” a term that usually
refers to recent development within ecumenics
and mission studies where emphasis moves
from mission as conversion toward developing
Internet and Religion an inculturated theology and dialogue with the
religious other. In this context, although stressing
▶ Online Religion the Religious Studies context rather than the
theological, it may carry a theological tone
where study between religions for mutual enrich-
ment is key. However, this is not its only usage,
Internet Ethics and it may refer to the study of different religions
in meeting, encounter, and activism. Here, a more
▶ Cyberethics “secular” than theological concern may be
involved based in, for instance, a sociological
exploration of the role of different religious tra-
ditions in social inclusion, or activism around
Interpersonal Relationships issues like the environment. Another area that
may be of concern in Interreligious Studies, and
▶ Social Psychology where, probably, the most common usage of
Interreligious Studies
“interreligious” on its own is found, is as an
alternative or synonym to “interfaith” in the
phrase Interreligious/Interfaith Dialogue. This
preview of three sample areas may suggest
a variety of different usages, and this is indeed
the case, however, this does not make the term too
broad. Across its various usages, Interreligious
Studies often tends to imply more than simply
a study of two or more religions, but is about
studying the dynamic encounter and interaction
between them. This may involve hermeneutics,
dialogue, historical encounters, or other areas;
moreover there is normally an interest in the
meaningful growth, enrichment, and benefit
gained in this. Much of its focus will be on modern
and contemporary issues; however, for particular
scholars historical studies may be the focus.
Given its broad usage and general intentions,
Interreligious Studies has a certain affinity with
a number of other academic growth areas, par-
ticularly Intercultural Theology (referred to
above), Comparative Theology, Comparative
Religion, and studies in such areas as the Theol-
ogy of Religions, Multiple or Dual Religious
Belonging, and Interfaith Dialogue and Rela-
tions. It may, therefore, be seen, in some ways,
as an interface between a more traditionally
secular Religious Studies discipline, and
a more traditionally confessional theological
discipline. It is certainly a multidisciplinary
enterprise employing historical, sociological,
anthropological, psychological, philosophical,
and other tools; in this regard, it stands clearly
in the tradition of Religious Studies, perhaps as
a more engaged aspect of Comparative Religion.
However, it can be seen as something more,
standing neither in Theology per se, nor simply
Religious Studies, with some people involved in
the research area sitting more comfortably in
Sociology or Global Studies. Concerns with the
social issues, political concerns, and other fac-
tors related to religious interaction make it
a transdisciplinary or interdisciplinary subject
area. While many involved may come from one
particular background, Interreligious Studies
involves the recognition that as a subject area
it interacts with many disciplines and areas of
life and study.
1077 I
Self-identification
Science
In the broad sense of an area of study, or field of
knowledge, Interreligious Studies can be seen as
a science like the fields of Religious Studies and
Theology. However, in the more restricted
sense commonly used today, in reference to the
natural and mathematical sciences, it is not
a science. Nevertheless, in the mainland Euro-
pean context at least, many of those committed
to Interreligious Studies may see their work as
“scientific” in that it holds to strict qualitative
and/or quantitative methodologies, criteria, and
disciplinary guidelines that prescribe it as
a genuine academic area of study.
I
Religion
It is not a religion, however, as outlined in
section “Description”; there may be those who
see its study as providing important details
about the contemporary activity of their own
religion.
Characteristics
As noted above, Interreligious Studies is a new
term, and this has implications for its recognition.
It could be argued that it is a development from
the older, and well-established, field of Compar-
ative Religion. However, whereas this sought to
simply provide an objective historical or phe-
nomenological account of similarities or points
of meeting between religious traditions (notwith-
standing criticisms of its quasi-theological func-
tion under such luminaries in the field as Mircea
Eliade), Interreligious Studies is more expressly
focused on the dynamic encounter and engage-
ment between religious traditions and persons.
Moreover, it can be seen as going beyond Theol-
ogy and Religious Studies as a transdisciplinary
area. Certainly the resurgence of religion in
recent decades has seen it growing in importance
in relation to areas such as politics, economics,
and sociology; therefore, it may be suggested that
there is room for a new research field that cuts
across subject borders.
I 1078
Relevance to Science and Religion
The issue of “Science and Religion” is one that
would not necessarily be of interest within
Interreligious Studies; however, at the same
time, it could within certain contexts become
a key focus for specific studies. For instance, in
studying the historical encounter between
Christianity and Islam the passing of Greek
wisdom as interpreted and developed by Islamic
scholars could be a fruitful area for exploration. It
could certainly be usefully employed as an exer-
cise in helping contemporary communities
engage more closely in dialogue and understand-
ing. In contemporary concerns, practical issues of
interreligious activism may involve issues such
as climate change, and as such would again
involve directly scientific questions and issues.
Sources of Authority
There are no foundational texts for Interreligious
Studies. While, as an interdisciplinary area it is,
perhaps, best seen as an approach to looking at
things and/or a methodological focus rather than
something focused in a specific corpus of works.
Nevertheless, it is possible to define scholars
whose work fits readily into this research area,
some of whom may see themselves as scholars of
Interreligious Studies, some are even Professors of
Interreligious Studies, whereas others would self-
identify in different ways. These figures include
Gary Bouma, Marcus Braybrooke, Diana L. Eck,
Francis Clooney, Reuven Firestone, Paul Knitter,
Oddbjørn Leirvik, Perry Schmidt-Leukel, Paul
Weller, Hendrik Vroom, and Frans Wijsen.
Ethical Principles
As an academic discipline those involved in
Interreligious Studies would follow any relevant
ethical guidelines applicable to their own subject
discipline, research methodology, etc. If
Interreligious Studies has its own distinct ethical
principles it would involve a sensitivity to the
varied cultural and religious traditions of its
Interreligious Studies
studies, while scholars involved would, normally,
be methodologically self-conscious and would,
as a principle, exercise a kind of hermeneutical
suspicion about privileged starting points.
Key Values
Given the diversity of perspectives encompassed,
key values would vary. However, by and large,
some guiding principles could be noted:
(1) respect for the other (religious, cultural,
etc.); (2) valuing and appreciating diversity;
(3) an awareness that truth is plural and diversely
expressed; and (4) an interest in social change,
particularly involving social cohesion and reli-
gious tolerance in society; for many this interest
could be spoken of in terms of commitment or
desire for these things as areas of scholarly study
and personal activism may overlap.
Conceptualization
As a varied academic discipline Interreligious
Studies would not have a set conceptualization
of any of the following; however, some notes on
each can be briefly observed.
Nature/World
These may be conceived from within the reli-
gious worldview of the traditions studied.
Human Being
Interreligious Studies will attach worth to the
human being qua a human being, possibly based
on humanistic ethics or on resources within the
religious traditions.
Life and Death
Again, perspectives may depend on the religions
studied.
Reality
Interreligious Studies may have a concern with
Ultimate Reality if viewed from a more theolog-
ical standpoint, from a more sociological one its
concern may be with the perceived phenomenal
Interreligious Studies
world, that is, how religions contribute, or deter,
social inclusion rather than with how they relate
metaphysically. However, these two perspectives
are not incompatible.
Knowledge
As with much else, attitudes here will depend
upon the researcher, their field, and methodology.
Some researchers may be very much concerned
with questions of how knowledge is obtained,
that is, in terms of such things as intercultural
hermeneutics, others may question the very
concept as an objective category at all follow-
ing, for instance, lines of thought inspired by the
French critical theorist Michel Foucault where
knowing is an act of power and what is known is
shaped and determined by the means of
knowing.
Truth
Questions of “truth” may not be of much concern
to people involved with the pragmatics of
interreligious social action, while the question
of getting results may be valued. However, within
religious contexts, truth may play a key role;
indeed, it is likely to be held that lasting benefits
must in some way be aligned with what is “true.”
Perception
Biological questions of what perception involves
are unlikely to be of concern. However, in philo-
sophical terms, what shapes what we perceive,
the way we perceive it, etc. Then it will be related
to some of the lines of thought discussed under
“knowledge” and “truth.”
Time
Unless issues about the different perceptions and
understandings of time between religious tradi-
tions are raised, that is, whether it is conceived in
linear or cyclic terms and the effects of this on
thought worlds, actions, etc. it would not often be
of much concern in most circumstances.
Consciousness
Concepts of this vary vastly between different
religious traditions, and social and cultural group-
ings and so may become a topic of discussion
1079 I
among those concerned with the more abstract
and metaphysical aspects of Interreligious Studies.
Relevant Themes
These would be strategically relevant issues
rather than ones intrinsic to Interreligious Studies
per se, and might include such things as follows:
Areas of common concern in activism, for
instance, where religious groups come
together to discuss climate change, global
warming, stewardship of the planet, etc.
The shared history of scientific endeavor that
links Islam and Christianity (and also Juda-
ism) could be a useful area to link these
religions in a sense of a shared history, which
I
would also bring it into intimate relation
with certain secular realms of thought.
For instance, the portrayal of religion as
“irrational,” “anti-religion,” and “dangerous”
by some of the New Atheists would be shown
to be erroneous if the role Islamic scholars
played in preserving and improving on the
Greek scientific legacy and passing this
to Europe, allowing that continent’s own
Renaissance and moves to modernity, was
more widely known.
Areas of scientific study could be applied in
specific instances, for example, studies
have been done on the brainwaves of people
meditating or praying, showing that this
activity alters the patterns. Comparative
studies of religious experience or near-death
experiences could also be undertaken which
would have a possible application within
Interreligious Studies.
Acknowledgments My thanks go to Dr. Anna Halafoff,
Deakin University, Australia, and Dr. David Cheetham,
Birmingham University, UK, for comments on an earlier
draft that has helped shaped this entry.
Cross-References
▶ Bodhisattva Ideal
▶ Daoism
I 1080 Interventional Neuroradiology

▶ Ecology in Islam
▶ Ecology in Judaism Islam and Medicine
▶ Feminist Philosophy of Religion
▶ Interbeing ▶ Medicine in Islam
▶ Liberation, Theology of
▶ Religion, Sociology of
▶ Religious Studies
▶ Science and Religion Dialogue and the Islam and Science
Interreligious Dialogue
▶ Physics, Science in Islam

References

Bouma, Gary. (2006). Australian soul: Religion and Islam: An Overview

spirituality in the twenty-first century. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Clooney, Francis (Ed.). (2010). The new comparative the-
ology: Interreligious insights from the next generation.
London: T&T Clark.
Cornille, Catherine, & Christopher, Conway (Eds.).
(2010). Interreligious hermeneutics. Eugene:
Cascade Books.
Eck, Diana L. (2001). A new religious America: How
a “Christian Country” has become the world’s most
religiously diverse nation. New York: HarperOne.
Hedges, P., & Halafoff, A. (Eds.). (forthcoming). Multifaith
societies: Governance, inclusion and social change.
Kearns, Laurel, & Keller, Catherine (Eds.). (2007).
Ecospirit: Religions and philosophies for the earth.
New York: Fordham University Press.
Knitter, Paul F. (1995). One earth many religions:
Multifaith dialogue and global responsibility.
Maryknoll: Orbis Books.
Patel, Eboo, & Brodeur, Patrice (Eds.). (2006). Building
the interfaith youth movement: Beyond dialogue to
action. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Vroom, Hendrik, Jansen, Henry, & Gort, Jerald (Eds.).
(2005). Religions view religions: Explorations in pur-
suit of understanding. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Weller, Paul. (2008). Religious diversity in the UK:
Contours and issues. London: Continuum.
Interventional Neuroradiology
▶ Neuroradiology
Inverse Problem
▶ Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Ismail K. Poonawala
University of California, Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, CA, USA
Related Terms
Koran; Qur’an
An Overview
The primary meaning of Islam is submission or
commitment to the Will of God. At the second
level, it refers to a religion, a system of beliefs
and practices. At the third level, it refers to a
culture and civilization created by Muslims.
Islam, the second largest of world religions, has
guided millions of people over the last 14 centu-
ries to live full and productive lives and given
consolation during misfortune and tragedy.
Today Muslims number more than one billion
and are scattered all over the world but are con-
centrated in the area stretching from Morocco to
Indonesia and from Central Asia to sub-Saharan
Africa. In recent years, Islam has grown signifi-
cantly in Europe and North America as a result of
Muslim immigration and local conversion. Many
Westerners have been attracted to Islam and find
that it satisfies their spiritual needs. This
entry will primarily focus on Islam as a religion
during its classical period (Shepard 2009;
Esposito 2011).