Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.

UNIT- 2
DATA TRANSMISSION, TELEMETRY & D A S
Data Transmission Media
The data is transmitted from one place to other through different mediums. All transmission system has
two devices i.e. transmitting and receiving end devices. These two devices are connected through a
medium. There are two types of transmission i.e.
1. Baseband transmission
2. Broadband transmission
Baseband transmission
When data are sent without modulation, usually over wires or cables, it is called baseband transmission.
Broadband transmission
When data are modulated and sent through a wireless medium, it is called broadband transmission.
1. Wire Connections
 These are wires or trace on a printed circuit board (PCB).
 Used in internal circuits or nearby devices like computer and/or peripherals.
 Used for very short distances.
2. Coaxial Cable

Fig. Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable (coax) consists of a conductor, Dielectric, Metallic shield, and Outer jacket.
 The metallic shield protects the conductor against electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Used for frequency upto 1 GHz.
 Applications are cable TV and Internet connections.
3. Twisted Pair Cable
It is of two types,
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable

Fig. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable

 The two wires in each pair are twisted so that they cross each other at nearly 90°. This will cancel
the electromagnetic fields generated by the signals. Due to which Cross talk, a type of distortion,
is minimized.
 UTP is color coded according to a standard 25-pair color code.
 Applications in indoor telephone lines, USB cables, computer networks, security cameras, etc.
 Used for frequency upto 1 MHz.
 STP cable is enclosed in a metal sleeve which provides more EMI protection as compared to UTP
cable.
4. Optical Fiber Cable
The single optical fiber is shown in the figure below.
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Fig. Single optical fiber

The Optical Fiber Cable consists of hundreds of single optical fiber. It is shown in the figure below.

Fig. Optical Fiber Cable

 It uses light pulses transmitted through optical fibers.
 It works on the principle called total internal reflection.
 It has faster data rates, higher signal capacity (more signals at a time), and better transmission over
longer distances.
 It is not susceptible to EMI.
 They are costly.
 It is used for telecommunication and networking for longer distance transmission.
 Used for frequency upto 100 GHz.
5. Wireless Transmission
 In this method, data is transferred through air and space via electromagnetic waves without the use
of physical connections.
 Here the air is the transmission medium.
 Communications occur within the radio wave, microwave, and infrared frequencies.

Telemetry Systems
In modern measurement systems, the various components comprising the system are usually
located at the distance from each other. It is, therefore, becomes necessary to transmit the data and
information between them through some form of communication channel.
Telemetry may be defined as measurement at a distance.
Telemetry is indicating, recording, integrating a quantity at a distance by electrical means.
Telemetry is a technology which enables a user to collect data from several measurement points
that are an inaccessible or inconvenient source, to transmit the data to a convenient location and present
the several individual measurements in a usable form.
The general block diagram of a telemetry system is shown in fig.1. The telemetry system
consists of the primary sensing element, telemeter transmitter, telemeter channel, telemeter receiver, and
end device.

Block diagram of a telemetry system

Why it is necessary to use telemetry in an instrumentation system?
The transmission of a measured variable to a remote point is an important function in
instrumentation system because of the size and complexity of modern industrial plants. The most
common variables encountered in industrial plants are temperature, pressure and flow and transmission of
data of these systems take great length from the place of measurement to the place of data recording or

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display. This will result in excessive measurement lags. Hence there is a need for fast transmission of
data.
Classification of Telemetry (or data transmission)
1. On the basis of Domain
A. Hydraulic transmission Telemetry
B. Pneumatic Telemetry
C. Electrical & Electronic Telemetry
2. On the basis of characteristics of an electrical signal
A. Current Telemetry
B. Voltage Telemetry
C. Frequency Telemetry
D. Position Telemetry
E. Pulse Telemetry
3. On the basis of the type of transmission
A. Analog Telemetry
B. Digital Telemetry
4. On the basis of Distance
A. Short distance Telemetry
B. Long distance Telemetry
5. On the Basis of Signal Transmission Medium
The connecting link between transmitter and the receiver may be direct or indirect link. Base on the
link the telemetry system may be classified as given below:
1. Land Line Telemetry System. The land line telemetry system transmits data with direct physical
link. The link can be wire used for telephone or power carrier line. Classification of land line
telemetry system is basis on the character of electrical signal like voltage, current, frequency,
position and pulse.
2. Radio Frequency (R.F) Telemetry System. In this telemetry system there is no physical link
between telemeter transmitter and telemeter receiver. It transmits the data through the radio link.

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What is Modulation?
Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of the wave to be transmitted by
superimposing the message signal on the high frequency signal. In this process video, voice and other
data signals modify high frequency signals – also known as carrier wave. This carrier wave can be DC or
AC or pulse chain depending on the application used. Usually high frequency sine wave is used as a
carrier wave

.
Modulation is normally applied to electromagnetic signals like radio laser and optical signals. The
Audio, video, images and text data are added to the carrier signal for transmission over
telecommunication.
Types of Modulation
Modulation is categorized into two types depending on the type of signal.
 Continuous-wave Modulation
 Pulse Modulation
Continuous-wave modulation and Pulse modulation are further categorized as shown below.
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Types of Modulations
Continuous-wave Modulation
In continuous wave modulation signal is used as a carrier signal which modulates the message
signal. There are three parameters that can be altered to achieve modulation namely, frequency, amplitude
and phase. Thus, there are three types of modulations.
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation

Amplitude Modulation, applications

The earliest AM signal was broadcasted in the year 1901 by an engineer Reginald Fessenden. He
is a Canadian and he took a nonstop sparkle transmission as well as located a carbon-based microphone
within the lead of an antenna. The sound waves affect the microphone by changing its resistance, and
transmission intensity. Even though very simple, signals were easy to hear over a few hundred meters of
distance, though there was a harsh sound will occur with the sparkle. By the beginning of nonstop sine
wave signals, broadcasting improved extensively, and amplitude modulation will become common for
voice transmissions. Currently, the amplitude is used in broadcasting the audio on the short-wave, long
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medium bands, as well as for bi-directional radio communication on VHF used for aircraft.
What is Amplitude Modulation?
The amplitude modulation definition is, an amplitude of the carrier signal is proportional to (in
accordance with) the amplitude of the input modulating signal. In AM, there is a modulating signal. This
is also called an input signal or baseband signal (Speech for example). This is a low-frequency signal as
we have seen earlier. There is another high-frequency signal called carrier. The purpose of AM is to
translate the low-frequency baseband signal to a higher freq signal using the carrier. As discussed earlier,
high-frequency signals can be propagated over longer distances than lower frequency signals.
The derivatives of amplitude modulation include the following.

Amplitude Modulation Waveforms

Advantages & Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation
The advantages of amplitude modulation include the following.
 Amplitude modulation is economical as well as easily obtainable
 It is so simple to implement, and by using a circuit with fewer components it can be demodulated.
 The receivers of AM are inexpensive because it doesn‟t require any specialized components.
The disadvantages of amplitude modulation include the following.
 The efficiency of this modulation is very low because it uses a lot of power
 This modulation uses amplitude frequency several times to modulate the signal by a carrier signal.
 This declines the original signal quality on the receiving end & causes troubles in the signal quality.
 AM systems are susceptible toward the generation of noise generation.
 The applications of amplitude modulation limits to VHF, radios, & applicable one to one
communication only

AM Telemetry System
Principle: Transmission signal for this telemetry system is an amplitude-modulated AC signal. Generally
an AF sinusoidal signal is used as the carrier and a wire line as the transmission medium.
Sending-End Scheme: This system is preferably used with variable-inductance transducers, either single
or complimentary-paired ones. These transducers need to be connected in an AC- excited Wheatstone
bridge. The best frequency of excitation is typically a few kHz, which falls in AF range. A simple AM
telemetry system based on these considerations is shown in the figure below. A complementary pair of
inductive transducers, T1 & T2, forms two adjoining arms of the bridge, while the remaining arms are two
fixed identical resistances, R1 & R2. The output of the bridge, which is the out-of-balance voltage, has
obviously the same frequency as that of the excitation source (oscillator), while its amplitude increases
with the variation of the transducer inductance, or in other words with the value of the measurand applied
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to it. Thus the bridge output is an amplitude-modulated AF signal, where the value of the measurand is
causing the modulation. This signal is amplified in an AC amplifier to the desired level of amplitude
before sending it on the wire line.
Receiving-End Scheme: For the reasons given under Direct Voltage Telemetry System, the end device is
a PMMC voltmeter. Since it can read only a DC or a unidirectional voltage, a rectifier is placed before the
meter. Because of the mechanical inertia of its moving parts, the meter responds to the average or peak
value of the rectified voltage waveform. Its scale is calibrated in terms of the measurand (M), so that the
user can read the value of M directly.

Transmission Error: If we compare the performance of the AM telemetry system with that of the direct
voltage telemetry system, the voltage drop in the present case will be more because the line inductance
in addition to line resistance will cause this drop. Consequently the variation in voltage drop and the
error will also be higher.
The measures to be taken to minimize transmission error in the AM telemetry system are
identical to those identified for the direct voltage system. These are as follows:
(a) The resistance of the PMMC voltmeter should be maximum for a minimum value of the line
current.
(b) The telemetry system should be used for short distances only to ensure a low value of the
line impedance.
(c) Only an underground cable, as against open wires, should be used because the former is not
directly exposed to the usually large variations in ambient temperature.
Merits/ Advantages: The obvious merits of AM telemetry system are
1. Simplicity of the system and its components
2. Low cost of the system as there are no specialized components
Demerits/ Disadvantages: The demerits of AM telemetry system are
1. It can be used only for short distances as both the error and the cost of line increase with
the length of the wire line.
2. As the line current is small, the leakage currents could become comparable and thereby
cause a large error in the meter reading.
Application: Because of the above demerits, AM telemetry systems are not in common use. It may be
useful only where inductive transducer suits the given measurand and the distance is short.

Frequency Modulation and Its Applications

The FM or Frequency modulation has been available approximately since AM (Amplitude
Modulation) although it has only some issues. FM itself didn‟t have a problem apart from we couldn‟t
recognize the FM transmitter potential. In the earlier time of wireless communication, it was measured
that the required bandwidth of this was narrower, and necessary to decrease noise as well as
interference. Under such a measure, frequency modulation was suffered whereas AM increased. After
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that, an American Engineer- “Edwin Armstrong” finished the conscious attempt to discover the intensity
of FM transmitters. Edwin initiated the design of using FM intended for transmitting which was not in
favour of the trend at that moment in time.
What is a Frequency Modulation?
The frequency modulation can be defined as; the frequency of the carrier signal is varied
proportional to (in accordance with) the Amplitude of the input modulating signal. The input is a single
tone sine wave. The carrier and the FM waveforms also are shown in the following figure.

Frequency Modulation Generation

The frequency of a carrier (fc) will increase as the amplitude of modulating (input) signal
increases. The carrier frequency will be maximum (fc max) when the input signal is at its peak. The
carrier deviates maximum from its normal value. The frequency of a carrier will decrease as the
amplitude of the modulating (input) signal decreases. The carrier frequency will be minimum (fc min)
when the input signal is at its lowest. The carrier deviates minimum from its normal value. The frequency
of the carrier will be at its normal value (free running) fc when the input signal value is 0V. There is no
deviation in the carrier. The figure shows the frequency of the FM wave when the input is at its max, 0V
and at its min.
Frequency Deviation
 The amount of change in the carrier frequency produced, by the amplitude of the input modulating
signal, is called frequency deviation.
 The Carrier frequency swings between fmax and fmin as the input varries in its amplitude.
 The difference between fmax and fc is known as frequency deviation. fd = fmax – fc
 Similarly, the difference between fc and fmin also is known as frequency deviation. fd = fc –fmin
 It is denoted by Δf. Therefore Δf = fmax – fc = fc – fmin
 Therefore fd = fmax – fc = fc – fmin

The applications of frequency modulation include in FM radio broadcasting, radar, seismic

prospecting, telemetry, & observing infants for seizure through EEG, music synthesis, two-way radio
systems, magnetic tape recording systems, video broadcast systems, etc. From the above information,
finally, we can conclude that, in frequency modulation, both efficiencies as well as bandwidth depends
on the maximum the modulation index and modulating frequency. Contrasted to amplitude modulation,
the frequency modulation signal has a larger bandwidth, superior efficiency, & improved immunity
toward the noise.

FM Telemetry System
Principle: Transmission signal for this telemetry system is a frequency-modulated AC signal. Generally a
RF sinusoidal signal is used as the carrier and a radio link as the transmission medium.
Sending-End Scheme: FM telemetry has been largely used for short range radio telemetry and a simple
telemetry system of this type is shown in the figure below. It can be best understood with reference to the
basic telemetry system given in the first Section. A transducer converts the given physical variable

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(measurand) into an electrical output, which is conditioned/ processed by an appropriate signal
conditioner to yield a dc voltage proportional to the value of the measurand, M. This voltage signal is
used for the frequency modulation (FM) of a radio-frequency (RF) carrier. The frequency-modulated
radio-frequency (FM-RF) signal is applied to a transmitting antenna through a band-pass filter (BPF) so
as to pass only the desired frequency band. Power amplification after modulation is generally not required
as a small transmitter power is sufficient for sort-range radio transmission.
Receiving-End Scheme: The receiver selects the desired signal by employing a band-pass filter. This
signal, being a FM-RF signal, is demodulated using a frequency demodulator thereby recovering the
information signal. Signal conditioner-2 conditions/ processes the information signal to make it
compatible to the given end device. The end device thus gets the intended information, that is, the value
of the measurand.
Transmission Error: Since the information (value of M) resides in the frequency, and not the amplitude
of the transmission signal, no telemetry error results from the attenuation or variations in the attenuation
of this signal during its propagation. However, some error can occur due to selective fading of the radio
signal during bad weathers if the telemetry system is used outdoor and due to high-frequency noise.
Standard solutions to both the problems are available with radio communication engineers and, therefore,
not dealt with here.

Merits/ Advantages: The merits of FM telemetry system are as under:

1. The most important advantage is that it can be used conveniently wherever it is difficult or
impossible to access the sensor output with wire leads.
2. The system and its components are quite simple.
3. The system is inexpensive as only ordinary/ standard components are used.
4. As the information (value of M) resides in the frequency, and not the amplitude of the transmission
signal, no telemetry error results from the attenuation or variations in the attenuation of this signal
during its propagation.
5. It can be easily extended to a multi-channel telemetry system using frequency division multiplexing
(FDM), in which case each channel uses a carrier of different radio frequency.
Demerits/ Disadvantages
1. In outdoor telemetry applications, its performance can be problematic in bad weathers
2. It can become expensive when used with long range-range transmissions in commercial radio
frequency band.
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Application: Because of the above merits, almost all short-range radio telemetry systems are FM telemetry
systems.

What is Phase Modulation : Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications

In our day by day life, we can see many entertainment media sources for communication such as
radio, TV, newspaper, mobile phone, internet, and with a lot of people. Communication can be defined
as; it is the procedure of two ways or one-way communication of information from one place to another
or one person to another person. For example, if we take a basic communication system it comprises of
three components namely transmitter (Tx), receiver (Rx), and a communication channel in between them.
The designing of a transmitter and a receiver in a communication system can be built with a set
of electronic circuits. A transmitter converts the data into a signal to transmit over a communication
medium. A receiver is used to change the signal reverse to the original data. The channel is the medium
that transmits the signal from one place to another. If we want to transmit a signal from one place to
another, then we need to make the signal stronger. Once the signal strengthening process is done then the
signal can transmit to a long distance. This is known as the modulation process.
What is Phase Modulation?
The term PM or phase modulation definition is a type of modulation intended for transmitting
communication signals. It changes message signal in accordance with the carrier signal due to differences
in the immediate phase. This modulation is the combination of two principal forms such as frequency
modulation and angle modulation.
The carrier signal‟s phase is modulated to follow the amplitude of the message signal. Both
pinnacle amplitude, as well as the carrier signal‟s frequency, is maintained stable, although when the
message signal‟s amplitude changes, then the carrier signals phase also changes. Phase Modulation can
be defined as the Phase of the carrier (Ø) signal is varied proportional to (in accordance with) the
Amplitude of the input modulating signal.

Phase Modulation Waveforms

PM Equation:
V = A sin [ wct + Ø ]
V = A sin [ wct + mp sin wmt ]
A = Amplitude of PM signal
mp = Modulation Index of PM
wm = 2π fm wc = 2π fc
V = A sin [2π fct + mp sin2π fmt]
The phase modulation diagram is shown above. The carrier phase deviation will be more if the
input signal amplitude increases and vice versa. When the input amplitude increases (+ve slope) the
carrier undergoes phase lead. When the input amplitude decreases (-ve slope) the carrier undergoes phase
lag.

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Therefore as the input amplitude increases, the magnitude of the phase lead also goes on
increasing from instant to instant. For example, if the phase lead was 30 degrees at t =1 sec, the phase
lead increases to 35 degrees at t = 1.1 sec and so on. Increase in phase lead is equivalent to an increase in
frequency.
Similarly, as the input amplitude decreases, the magnitude of the phase lag also goes on increasing
from instant to instant. For example, if the phase lag was 30 degrees at t =1 sec, the phase lag increases to
35 degrees at t = 1.1 sec and so on. Increase in phase lag is equivalent to decrease frequency.
Therefore phase modulation waveform will be similar to FM waveform in all aspects.
Forms of Phase Modulation
Even though PM is used in analog transmissions, it is widely used as a digital type of modulation
wherever it controls among dissimilar phases, which is known as PSK (phase shift keying), and there are
several forms are available in this.
It is still possible to merge PSK (phase shift keying) & AK (amplitude keying) in a type of
modulation is also called as QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation). Some of the forms of FM that
are used are listed below.
 Phase Modulation (PM)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
 8-Point Phase Shift Keying (8 PSK)
 16-Point Phase Shift Keying (16 PSK)
 Offset Phase Shift Keying (OPSK)
The above showed list is some of the forms of PM which are frequently used in the applications of radio.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Phase Modulation
The advantages of phase modulation include the following.
 Phase modulation (PM) is a simple contrasted to Frequency modulation (FM).
 It is used to find out the velocity of a target by removing Doppler data. This needs constant carrier
which is achievable during phase modulation however not in FM (frequency modulation).
 The main benefit of this modulation is signal modulation because it permits computer for
communicating on high-speed using a telephone system.
 When the information is being transmitted without intrusion then the speed rates can be observed.
 And one more advantage of PM (phase modulation) is improved immunity toward the noise.
The disadvantages of phase modulation include the following.
 Phase modulation needs two signals by a phase variation among them. Through this, both the two
patterns are required like a reference as well as a signal.
 This type of modulation requires hardware which obtains more complex due to its conversion
technique.
 Phase ambiguity arrives if we exceed index pi radian of modulation (1800).
 Phase modulation index can be enhanced by employing frequency multiplier.
Phase Modulation Applications
The applications of phase modulation include the following.
 This modulation is very useful in radio waves transmission, and it is an essential element in several
digital transmission coding schemes.
 Phase modulation is widely used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral element of many digital
transmission coding schemes that support an ample range of wireless technologies such as GSM,
Satellite television, and Wi-Fi.
 Phase modulation is used in digital synthesizers for generating waveform and signal
 PM is used for signal and waveform generation in digital synthesizers like Yamaha DX7 for phase
modulation synthesis implementation, and Casio CZ for sound synthesis which is known as phase
distortion.

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Pulse Modulation
Pulse modulation is a technique in which the signal is transmitted with the information by pulses.
This is divided into Analog Pulse Modulation and Digital Pulse Modulation.
Analog pulse modulation is classified as
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Digital modulation is classified as
 Pulse Code Modulation
 Delta Modulation

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Pulse amplitude modulation is a technique in which the amplitude of each pulse is controlled by the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal. It is a modulation system in which the signal is
sampled at regular intervals and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the
instant of sampling. This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of a series of signal
pulses.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation Signal

There are two types of sampling techniques for transmitting a signal using PAM. They are:
1. Flat Top PAM
2. Natural PAM
Flat Top PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude at
the time of pulse occurrence. The amplitude of the signal cannot be changed with respect to the analog
signal to be sampled. The tops of the amplitude remain flat.

Flat Top PAM

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Natural PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude at the
time of pulse occurrence. Then follows the amplitude of the pulse for the rest of the half-cycle.

Natural PAM
Types of PAM
Pulse amplitude modulation is categorized into two types
1. Single Polarity PAM
2. Double Polarity PAM
Single polarity PAM is a situation where a suitable fixed DC bias is added to the signal to ensure that all
the pulses are positive.
Double polarity PAM is a situation where the pulses are both positive and negative.
Demodulation of PAM
For the demodulation of the PAM signal, the PAM signal is fed to the low pass filter. The low
pass filter eliminates the high-frequency ripples and generates the demodulated signal. This signal is then
applied to the inverting amplifier to amplify its signal level to have the demodulated output with almost
equal amplitude with the modulating signal.

Demodulation of PAM signal

Applications of PAM
 It is used in Ethernet communication.
 It is used in many micro-controllers for generating the control signals.
 It is used in Photo-biology.
 It is used as an electronic driver for LED lighting.
Advantages
 It is a simple process for both modulation and demodulation.
 Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to construct.
 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message at the same time.
Disadvantages
 Bandwidth should be large for transmission PAM modulation.
 Noise will be great.
 Pulse amplitude signal varies so the power required for transmission will be more.

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Multi-Channel TDM-PAM Telemetry System

Principle: Transmission signal for PAM telemetry takes the form of amplitude-modulated pulses and
multi-channel operation is achieved through time-division multiplexing (TDM).

Sending-End Scheme: A 4-channel PAM telemetry system is shown in the figure below. It can be seen
that the four physical variables or measurands, M1 to M4, are applied to appropriate transducers, T1 to T4,
respectively. The transducer outputs are processed in suitable signal conditioners, SC-1 to SC-4,
respectively, such that their outputs are the dc voltages, V1 to V4, proportional to M1 to M4, respectively.

These voltage signals are applied to a 4-channel multiplexing switch (which is an integrated circuit
device) at its input terminals, IN1 to IN4. The multiplexing switch functions under the control of a clock
and makes one of the inputs available at a time at the output terminal, OUT, for a short duration equal to
the time period of the clock. The switch normally functions in a cyclic order. The output of the switch is
thus pulses with their amplitudes modulated by the input signals in cyclic order. The output is thus a
time-multiplexed PAM signal, shown in the figure as a sequence of amplitude-modulated pulses, P1 to P4.

It is expected that the first telemetry channel should always connect the first measurand at the
sending end to the first PMMC voltmeter at the receiving end. Similar thing should be true for other
channels too. To that end, the de-multiplexing switch in the receiving station should run in synchronism
(both in terms of frequency or rate and phase or position). This is achieved by generating a
synchronization pulse (sync pulse) before the start of each cycle of the multiplexing switch and adding
this pulse to PAM signals before transmitting them to the receiving end, as shown in the block schematic.
The sync pulse has the same width or duration as do the PAM pulses, but its amplitude is much larger
than the maximum amplitude of any PAM pulse.

Receiving-End Scheme: The receiver gets the sync pulse as well as PAM signals. The sync pulse is
identified by a sync pulse detector (on the basis of amplitude) and delivered to the synchronization circuit,
which acts on the de-multiplexing switch to synchronize it in frequency and phase with the multiplexing
switch. The time-multiplexed PAM signal (sequence of amplitude-modulated pulses, P1 to P4) is applied
to the de--multiplexing switch, which outputs the pulses P1 to P4 at its output terminals, OUT1 to OUT4,
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respectively. These pulsed signals are interpolated by the signal interpolators, SI-1 to SI-4 thereby
producing continuous voltage signals, V1 to V4, proportional to P1 to P4, respectively. Finally, these
voltages are read on respective PMMC voltmeters, which are calibrated in terms of values of the
measurands, M1 to M4.
Merits/ Advantages: The advantage of PAM telemetry system over the PWM and PCM telemetry
systems is that it is relatively simpler and cheaper.
Demerits/ Disadvantages: The disadvantage can be understood from the simple fact that attenuation and
changes in attenuation of the signal can result in much larger errors with PAM signals (because
information is contained in the amplitude of the pulses) than with PWM and PCM signals (as no
information is contained in the amplitude of the pulses).
Application: Because of the above disadvantage, PAM telemetry systems are rarely used.

Difference Between PAM, PWM and PPM

In a communication system, the modulation is an important step. Modulation is the process of
transmitting a message signal (Baseband signal with low frequency) from transmitter to receiver without
changing its characteristics (like amplitude, frequency, phase) by using a carrier signal (high frequency)
which varies in accordance with the instantaneous values of the low frequency wave by keeping its
frequency and phase constant.
The modulation techniques are classified into two major types: analog and digital or pulse
modulation. We have discussed previously the different types of modulation techniques, let us understand
the basic difference between PAM, PWM, and PPM.
Before going to discuss the difference between PAM, PWM, and PPM, let us discuss individually
each. All these are pulse analog modulation techniques.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
By varying the amplitude of the pulses (the carrier signal) in proportion to the instantaneous
values of the analog signal (the message signal).

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Signals

The above figure illustrates the time-domain representation of the PAM technique which mentions
the analog message and PAM modulated signal as an output.
Pulse amplitude modulation is used in the popular Ethernet communication standard. The PAM
modulator and demodulator circuits simple compared to other kinds of modulation and demodulation
techniques.
There are two categories of PAM techniques, one is the pulses have the same polarity and the
other in which the pulses can have both positive and negative polarities according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Pulse Width Modulation
The Pulse width Modulation– By varying the width of the pulses (the carrier signal) in proportion to the
instantaneous values of the analog signal (the message signal).
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The width of the pulse varies, but the amplitude of the pulse remains constant. Amplitude limiters
are used to make the amplitude constant. These circuits clip-off the amplitude, to a preferred level and
hence the noise is limited.
There are three types of PWM. They are
 The leading edge of the pulse being constant, the trailing edge varies according to the message signal.
 The trailing edge of the pulse being constant, the leading edge varies according to the message signal.
 The center of the pulse being constant, the leading edge and the trailing edge varies according to the
message signal.
Pulse Position Modulation
By varying the position of the pulses (the carrier signal) in proportion to the instantaneous values
of the analog signal (the message signal).
Pulse position modulation is done in accordance with the pulse width modulated signal. Each
trailing of the pulse width modulated signal becomes the starting point for pulses in the PPM signal.
Hence, the position of these pulses is proportional to the width of the PWM pulses. But the main
disadvantage of the PPM modulation technique is, The synchronization between transmitter and
receiver must be needed.

Difference Between PAM, PWM, and PPM

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In all the above cases, we detect the message of the pulse modulated signal and reconstruct the
original analog signal.
Difference Between PAM, PWM, and PPM
The below table gives a detailed difference between PWM, PAM, and PPM.
Sr. No. Parameter PAM PWM PPM
1 Type of Carrier Train of Pulses Train of Pulses Train of Pulses
Variable Characteristic of the
2 Pulsed Carrier Amplitude Width Position
3 Bandwidth Requirement Low High High
4 Noise Immunity Low High High
Amplitude
5 Information Contained in Variations Width Variations Position Variations
6 Power efficiency (SNR) Low Moderate High
Varies with an
amplitude of Varies with
7 Transmitted Power pulses variation in width Remains Constant
Need to transmit synchronizing
8 pulses Not needed Not needed Necessary
Bandwidth Bandwidth depends Bandwidth depends
depends on the on the rise time of on the rise time of
9 Bandwidth depends on width of the pulse the pulse the pulse
Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous
transmitter power transmitter power transmitter power
varies with the varies with the remains constant
amplitude of the amplitude and with the width of
10 Transmitter power pulses width of the pulses the pulses
The complexity of generation
11 and detection Complex Easy Complex
Similarity with other
12 Modulation Systems Similar to AM Similar to FM Similar to PM

Pulse Code Modulation And Demodulation

Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital signal, so
that modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication network. PCM is in
binary form ,so there will be only two possible states high and low(0 and 1). We can also get back our
analog signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps Sampling,
Quantization, and Coding. There are two specific types of pulse code modulations such as differential
pulse code modulation(DPCM) and adaptive differential pulse code modulation(ADPCM)

Block diagram of PCM

Here is a block diagram of the steps which are included in PCM.
In sampling we are using PAM sampler that is Pulse Amplitude Modulation Sampler which
converts continuous amplitude signal into Discrete-time- continuous signal (PAM pulses).Basic block
diagram of PCM is given below for better understanding.

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What is a Pulse Code Modulation?

To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at the transmitter end (source)
of a communications circuit, the amplitude of the analog signal samples at regular time intervals. The
sampling rate or number of samples per second is several times the maximum frequency. The message
signal converted into binary form will be usually in the number of levels which is always to a power of 2.
This process is called quantization.

Basic Elements of PCM System

At the receiver end, a pulse code demodulator decodes the binary signal back into pulses with
same quantum levels as those in the modulator. By further processes we can restore the original analog
waveform.
Pulse Code Modulation Theory
This above block diagram describes the whole process of PCM. The source of continuous time
message signal is passed through a low pass filter and then sampling, Quantization, Encoding will be
done. We will see in detail step by step.
Sampling
Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants,
converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example, conversion of a sound wave to a
sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be spaced. Sampler
extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces samples which are
equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified various points. The
Sampling process generates flat- top Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.

Analog and Sampled Signal

Sampling frequency, Fs is the number of average samples per second also known as Sampling
rate. According to the Nyquist Theorem sampling rate should be at least 2 times the upper cutoff

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frequency. Sampling frequency, Fs>=2*fmax to avoid Aliasing Effect. If the sampling frequency is very
higher than the Nyquist rate it become Oversampling, theoretically a bandwidth limited signal can be
reconstructed if sampled at above the Nyquist rate. If the sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist rate
it will become Undersampling.
Basically two types of techniques are used for the sampling process. Those are 1. Natural
Sampling and 2. Flat- top Sampling.
Quantization
In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital sample with an
amplitude that takes one of a specific defined set of quantization values. Quantization is done by dividing
the range of possible values of the analog samples into some different levels, and assigning the center
value of each level to any sample in quantization interval. Quantization approximates the analog sample
values with the nearest quantization values. So almost all the quantized samples will differ from the
original samples by a small amount. That amount is called as quantization error. The result of this
quantization error is we will hear hissing noise when play a random signal. Converting analog samples
into binary numbers that is 0 and 1.
In most of the cases we will use uniform quantizers. Uniform quantization is applicable when the
sample values are in a finite range (Fmin, Fmax). The total data range is divided into 2n levels, let it be L
intervals. They will have an equal length Q. Q is known as Quantization interval or quantization step size.
In uniform quantization there will be no quantization error.

Uniformly Quantized Signal

As we know,
L=2n, then Step size Q = (Fmax – Fmin) / L
Interval i is mapped to the middle value. We will store or send only index value of quantized value.
An Index value of quantized value Qi (F) = [F – Fmin / Q]
Quantized value Q (F) = Qi (F) Q + Q / 2 + Fmin
But there are some problems raised in uniform quantization those are
 Only optimal for uniformly distributed signal.
 Real audio signals are more concentrated near zeros.
 The Human ear is more sensitive to quantization errors at small values.
The solution for this problem is using Non- uniform quantization. In this Process quantization interval is
smaller near zero.
Coding
The encoder encodes the quantized samples. Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8-bit code
word by using A-law in the encoding process.
 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample. “1” represents positive
polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.

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 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of sample value. These three bits together form linear curve for
low level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments quantized value.
Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.
PCM is two types Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) and Adaptive Differential Pulse
Code Modulation (ADPCM).
In DPCM only the difference between a sample and the previous value is encoded. The difference
will be much smaller than the total sample value so we need some bits for getting same accuracy as in
ordinary PCM. So that the required bit rate will also reduce. For example, in 5 bit code 1 bit is for polarity
and the remaining 4 bits for 16 quantum levels.
ADPCM is achieved by adapting the quantizing levels to analog signal characteristics. We can
estimate the values with preceding sample values. Error estimation is done as same as in DPCM. In
32Kbps ADPCM method difference between predicted value and sample value is coded with 4 bits, so
that we‟ll get 15 quantum levels. In this method data rate is half of the conventional PCM.
Pulse Code Demodulation
Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse. Demodulation
starts with decoding process, during transmission the PCM signal will effected by the noise interference.
So, before the PCM signal sends into the PCM demodulator, we have to recover the signal into the
original level for that we are using a comparator. The PCM signal is a series pulse wave signal, but for
demodulation we need wave to be parallel.
By using a serial to parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be converted into a parallel
digital signal. After that the signal will pass through n-bits decoder, it should be a Digital to Analog
converter. Decoder recovers the original quantization values of the digital signal. This quantization value
also includes a lot of high frequency harmonics with original audio signals. For avoiding unnecessary
signals we utilize a low-pass filter at the final part.
Pulse Code Modulation Advantages
 Analog signal can be transmitted over a high- speed digital communication system.
 Probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of appropriate coding methods.
 PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized video special effects, digital video,
voice mail.
 PCM is also used in Radio control units as transmitter and also receiver for remote controlled cars,
boats, planes.
 The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal signal.

Single-Channel PCM/Digital Telemetry System

Principle: The transmission signal in PCM telemetry system takes the form of a coded sequence of
binary pulses. Thus the information represented by the transmitted pulses is digital. None of the attributes
of these pulses, like amplitude, width or phase, is analogous to the information.
Sending-End Scheme: Block schematic of a single-channel PCM telemetry system is shown in the figure
below. The physical variable or measurand M is applied to an appropriate transducer, the output of which
is processed suitably by the signal conditioner to produce a dc voltage, Vdc, proportional (analogous) to
M. This analog voltage is sampled at regular intervals (or sampling frequency) and converted to its
equivalent digital value by an analog to digital converter (ADC). Generally a successive-approximation
type ADC is used in this type of application and its resolution ranges from 8 to 16 bits. As the analog
voltage follows the time-variations in the value of the measurand, its value changes continuously. Any
change in the analog input to the ADC of successive-approximation type, while A-to-D conversion is
going on, can cause serious error in the output of the ADC. The problem is avoided by using a sample-
and-hold circuit (S/H circuit), rather than a simple sampling circuit, before the ADC as shown in the
block schematic. The ADC is followed by the circuits described below in that order:

Parity/CRC Bits Adder: The data transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In case of
asynchronous transmission, this circuit adds a parity bit to each character, that is, n-bit data output of the

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ADC. In case of synchronous transmission, the circuit adds a certain number of cyclic-redundancy-check
bits (CRC bits) at the end of the data bits.

PCM Modulator: It encodes the augmented data (comprising data bits and parity/CRC bits) into a series
of coded pulses using a certain PCM code
Transmitter: The transmitter has two functions to perform:
a) Addition of Synchronization Information: In case of asynchronous transmission, it adds start and stop
pulses before and after each data character. In case of synchronous transmission, it adds a
synchronization (sync) bit pattern in front of the entire data block.

b) Signal Conversion: The transmitter converts the coded voltage pulses (PCM signal) into a
transmission signal to suit the given transmission medium and the desired range of transmission.
Since the S/H circuit, ADC and all other circuits mentioned above operate in tandem, their
operations need to be synchronized using a common reference clock, as shown in the diagram.

Receiving-End Scheme: The receiver has two functions to perform here:

(a) It synchronizes its own operation with the transmitter by using the start and stop pulses (for
asynchronous transmission) or the sync bit pattern (for synchronous transmission).
(b) It carries out reverse signal conversion, that is, it converts the transmission signal received by
it into coded voltage pulses (PCM signal).
Thereafter, a PCM demodulator decodes the coded voltage pulses back into „augmented data‟ and
converts them into parallel bits. This data is passed on to an error detector, which verifies the correctness
of the data from the parity or CRC bits. In case an error is detected, the information is passed on to the
error control system for suitable action. If no error is found, then the data bits alone are passed on to the
end devices. All the circuits, including the end devices, operating in tandem, are synchronized by a clock
in the receiving end of the telemetry system, as shown in the diagram. This clock has the same frequency
as the one in the sending end.

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Merits/ Advantages: As compared to analog telemetry systems in general, the digital or PCM telemetry
system has the following advantages:
1. Like all digital systems in general, the digital telemetry system has high immunity to noise.
2. Like digital communication systems, the digital telemetry uses error control techniques as a standard
feature thereby ensuring that the data reaching the end devices is error free.

Demerits/ Disadvantages: The only disadvantage of digital telemetry, when compared with analog
telemetry systems, for very simple or ordinary applications not demanding high accuracies, may be its
higher cost.

Application: Because of the above advantages, PCM telemetry systems are now generally preferred over
analog telemetry systems.
Multi-Channel PCM/Digital Telemetry System
Principle: The transmission signal in PCM telemetry system takes the form of a coded sequence of
binary pulses. Thus the information represented by the transmitted pulses is digital. None of the attributes
of these pulses, like amplitude, width or phase, is analogous to the information. The multi-channel
operation is achieved through time-division multiplexing (TDM) as in the cases of PAM and PWM
telemetry systems discussed earlier.

Sending-End Scheme: A 4-channel PCM telemetry system is shown in the figure below. The initial part
of the sending end scheme of this system is quite similar to that of the PAM telemetry system upto the
point of obtaining PAM signal. The subsequent components have their roles as under:

Sample-and Hold (S/H) Circuit: The amplitude of PAM signal, for example P1, follows the variations in
the magnitude of the continuous (analog) signal V1. Similar is the case with the other PAM signals, P2, P3
and P4. This can cause serious error in the output of an ADC of successive-approximation type, which is
commonly used in applications like PCM telemetry. To overcome the problem, a sample-and-hold circuit
is placed before the ADC to sample the signal and hold the sample at a constant value.

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): The sampled value of the analog signal is converted to its equivalent
digital value by an ADC, which is generally of successive-approximation type. The width or resolution of
the ADC usually ranges from 8 to 16 bits.

Parity/CRC Bits Adder: The data transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In case of
asynchronous transmission, this circuit adds a parity bit to each character, that is, n-bit data output of the
ADC. In case of synchronous transmission, the circuit adds a certain number of cyclic-redundancy-check
bits (CRC bits) at the end of the complete data block.

PCM Modulator: It encodes the augmented data (comprising data bits and parity/CRC bits) into a series
of coded pulses using a certain PCM code.

Transmitter: The transmitter has two functions to perform:

a) Addition of Synchronization Information: In case of asynchronous transmission, it adds start and stop
pulses before and after each data character. In case of synchronous transmission, it adds a
synchronization (sync) bit pattern in front of the entire data block.
b) Signal Conversion: The transmitter converts the coded voltage pulses (PCM signal) into a
transmission signal to suit the given transmission medium and the desired range of transmission.
Since the S/H circuit, ADC and all other circuits mentioned above operate in tandem, their
operations need to be synchronized using a common reference clock, as shown in the diagram.

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Receiving-End Scheme: The receiver has two functions to perform here:

(a) It synchronizes its own operation with the transmitter by using the start and stop pulses (for
asynchronous transmission) or the sync bit pattern (for synchronous transmission).
(b) It carries out reverse signal conversion, that is, it converts the transmission signal received by
it into coded voltage pulses (PCM signal).
Thereafter, a PCM demodulator decodes the coded voltage pulses back into „augmented data‟ and
converts them into parallel bits. This data is passed on to an error detector, which verifies the correctness
of the data from the parity or CRC bits. In case an error is detected, the information is passed on to the
error control system for suitable action. If no error is found, then the data bits alone are passed on to the
end devices. All the circuits, including the end devices, operating in tandem, are synchronized by a clock
in the receiving end of the telemetry system, as shown in the diagram. This clock has the same frequency
as the one in the sending end.

In the block schematic given here, three commonly used end devices are shown:
(a) A multiplexed digital display unit for displaying the values of the measurands one by one.
(b) A digital storage unit for storing values of all the measurands for a later analysis.
(c) A data processor for analyzing the data immediately.
The receiver sends channel information along with data (for identifying the channel number for each
data) to these end devices so that the data reaches the correct end device.

Merits/ Advantages: As compared to analog telemetry systems in general, the digital or PCM telemetry
system has the following advantages:
1. Like all digital systems in general, the digital telemetry system has high immunity to noise.
2. Like digital communication systems, the digital telemetry uses error control techniques as a
standard feature thereby ensuring that the data reaching the end devices is error free.

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Demerits/ Disadvantages: The only disadvantage of digital telemetry in very simple or ordinary
applications can be its higher cost when compared with analog telemetry.

Application: Because of the above advantages, PCM telemetry systems are used in all applications
demanding high performance and/or involving large number of channels.

Multiplexer | Applications & Advantages

The multiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of several input lines to a
single common output line by the application of a control logic. The input has a maximum of 2N data
inputs (where N = selection or control lines) and single output line.

Fig. 1 Mux Block diagram

In short, Multiplexer is also known as Mux or data selector or many to one circuit or universal
logic circuit or parallel to serial circuit.
The relation between the selection/control lines and the input lines is given as
M = 2N
In simple language, a multiplexer is a circuit that selects only one output from multiple inputs.
Figure 2(a) shows 2×1 mux symbol. Figure 2(b) shows its equivalent circuit.

Fig.2 Multiplexer symbol

4×1 Multiplexer
number of selection/control input, N = 2 (S1 & S0)
number of data inputs =2N = 22 = 4 (I3, I2, I1 & I0)
number of output = 1 (Y)

Fig. 2 4×1 Mux

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One of these four inputs (I3, I2, I1 & I0) will be connected to the output (Y) based on the
combination of inputs present at these two selection lines (S1 & S0). The truth table of 4×1 Mux is as
follows.
Selection/Control Lines Output

S1 S0 Y

0 0 I0

0 1 I1

1 0 I2

1 1 I3
As from Truth table, we can directly write the Boolean function for output, Y as

4×1 Mux can be implemented by using Inverters, AND gates & OR gate as shown in figure 3.

Fig. 3 Logic Diagram

Applications of Multiplexer
Mux is implemented in various domains where there is a necessity of transmitting a large amount
of data with the use of single line.
1. Communication System
A Mux is implemented in this system to increase efficiency. Using a single transmission line,
various types of data (audio, video, etc.) are transmitted at the same instant.
2. Computer Memory
In a computer, the huge quantity of memory is implemented by means of the Mux. It also has an
advantage of a reduction in the number of copper lines which are used for the connection of memory to
other parts of the computer.
3. Computer System of a Satellite Transmission
Mux is used for the data signals to be transmitted from spacecraft or computer system of a satellite
to the earth by means of GPS.
4. Telephone Network
In a telephone network, the multiple audio signals are brought into a single line and transmitted
with the implementation of a Mux. By this way, the numerous audio signals are made isolated and
ultimately the recipient will receive the required audio signals.
Advantages of Multiplexer
1. Mux makes the transmission circuit economical and less complex.
2. Analog switching current is low of order 10mA-20mA. Due to such a low magnitude of the current, the
heat dissipation is very low.
3. The ability of Mux to switch digital signals can be extended to switch to a video signal, audio signals
etc.
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Time Division Multiplexing | Types & Advantages

In order to transmit a large number of signals from one location to other, multiplexing is used.
Communication channels are costly so it is not economical to use separate channel per signal. Signals
can be transmitted over a single communication channel by either dividing the time slots between
various signals and transmitting it in turns (time sharing) or by assigning different bandwidth to each
signal and transmitting at once (frequency sharing).
Time Division Multiplexing
In time division multiplexing(TDM), a number of channels are interleaved in time into a single
digital system. Each channel input is periodically sampled and assigned a certain time slot. At the
transmitting end, input channels are sequentially sampled by a switch resulting in a train of amplitude
samples. The coder then sequentially converts each sample into a binary code using analogue to digital
conversion techniques. TDM can be used with digital signals or analog signals carrying digital data.
In TDM, the channel/link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of time.
The Coder output is the string of binary digits representing channel 1, channel 2, and so on. These
channels are combined with framing bits for MUX/DEMUX synchronisation.

Fig. Time Division Multiplexing

The smallest group of bits containing at least one channel from each signal plus framing bit is
known as a frame.
The framing bits forms a repetitive pattern i.e. combine with channel bits within the MUX. DEMUX
then successfully recognise the contents of framing pattern to distribute incoming bits to the proper
channel.
 If a MUX assigns each channel a time slot equal to 1 bit, the arrangement is known as bit
interleaving.
 If a MUX assigns each channel a time slot equal to one word, the arrangement is known as word
interleaving.
A buffer storage is necessary for word interleaving to accumulate a group of bits from each channel
while waiting for transfer to the MUX. This type of interleaving is used for word oriented data.
If a fixed relationship exists between the Channel rates, the frame length is determined by a lowest
common multiple of incoming channel width.

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

It Periodically generates the frame consisting of a constant number of time slots, each time slot of
constant length. A starting delimiter (flag) is used for frame synchronisation which is needed to
differentiate One Frame from next frame. Because of a flag, individual time slots can be identified by
position within a frame.

Fig. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

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Advantages
1. An order is maintained.
2. No addressing information is required channel capacity should be large.
Disadvantages
1. High bitrate is required.
2. If no input signal is present at one channel since a fixed time Slot is assigned to each channel, that
time slot for that channel does not carry any information and there is wastage of bandwidth.
2. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
When data from different channels is not available at fixed predetermined rates rather it is
available at the rates which are statistically determined, then their multiplexing is known
as asynchronous time division multiplexing or statistical time division multiplexing.
In this, data may send from a channel at any time and for different duration. In this type of multiplexing,
time slots are not fixed i.e. the slots are flexible. The clocks of MUX and DEMUX are not synchronised
whether the channel of incoming data is identified by an address that included in the frame.
In asynchronous TDM, slots are not predefined, the slots are allocated to any of the channels that have
data to send.

Fig. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Advantages
1. Code utilisation of communication channel.
2. TDM circuitry is not very complex.
3. Communication link of low capacity is used.
4. The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
5. Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
6. intermodulation distortion is absent.
Disadvantages
1. Frames have different sizes
2. Requires buffer
3. Address information is needed
Frequency Division Multiplexing | Advantages & Applications
The frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is based on sharing the available bandwidth of a
communication channel among the signals to be transmitted. Let us understand with the help of an
example.
A frequency division multiplexing operates in a similar way to radio broadcasting where a
number of different stations will broadcast simultaneously but on different frequencies. One (People) can
then “tune” their radio so that it captures the frequency or station they want.
Many signals are transmitted simultaneously with each signal occupying a different frequency slot
within a common bandwidth. FDM can be used with analog signals. The spectrum of FDM signal is
shown in the figure below.
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Fig1. Spectrum of FDM Signal

Frequency Division Multiplexing system consists of a transmitter and a receiver.

Fig2. FDM Transmitter

First of all, Each signal to be transmitted modulates with a different carrier frequency as shown in
figure2. The modulation can be Amplitude Modulation(AM), Frequency Modulation(FM), Pulse
Modulation(PM) or SSB.
The modulated signals are then added together with a linear mixer or adder to form a composite
signal (as shown in figure1) which is transmitted over a single channel.
The output of the mixer is then transmitted over the single communication channel.

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Fig3. FDM receiver

At the receiving end, the composite signal is received using FDM receiver as shown in figure3. It
is followed by different bandpass filters. Each BPF has a center frequency corresponding to one of the
carriers. Each filter will pass only its channel and rejects all the other channels. After this, the signal
passes through demodulator that removes the carrier signal and separates original signal.
What is a Guard Band?
For FDM to work properly frequency overlap must be avoided. A guard band is a narrow
frequency range that separates two ranges of wider frequency. This ensures that simultaneously used
communication channels do not experience interference which would result in decreased quality of both
transmissions. The guard band is shown in the figure below.

Example of FDM: Cable television

It is achieved with coaxial cable or fibre-optic cable.
A multiplexer is used to combine many channels to maximize the use of the available bandwidth.
A demultiplexer built into the television or set top box will separate the channel that the viewer wants to
watch.
Advantages of FDM
i. The frequency division multiplexing does not need synchronization between its transmitter and
receiver for proper operation.
ii. A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
iii. Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.
iv. The Demodulation process of frequency division multiplexing is easy.
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Disadvantages of FDM
i. All the frequency division multiplexing channels get affected due to wideband fading.
ii. A large number of modulators and filters are required.
iii. The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
iv. The frequency division multiplexing suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
v. Intermodulation distortion takes place.
Applications of FDM
i. FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
ii. FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
iii. First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

Data Acquisition Systems

The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data acquisition systems. These data acquisition
systems will perform the tasks such as conversion of data, storage of data, transmission of data and
processing of data.
Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.
 Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct measurement of electrical quantities such as
DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
 Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as LVDT, Thermocouple & etc.
Types of Data Acquisition Systems
Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two types.
 Analog Data Acquisition Systems
 Digital Data Acquisition Systems
Now, let us discuss about these two types of data acquisition systems one by one.
Analog Data Acquisition Systems
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals are known as analog data
acquisition systems. Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection of desired portion
of the signal.
 Display device − It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
 Graphic recording instruments − These can be used to make the record of input data
permanently.
 Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for acquiring, storing & reproducing of input data.
Digital Data Acquisition Systems
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals are known as digital
data acquisition systems. So, they use digital components for storing or displaying the information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquisition.
 Acquisition of analog signals
 Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
 Processing of digital signals or digital data
Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection of desired portion
of the signal.
 Multiplexer − connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts as parallel to serial
converter.
 Analog to Digital Converter − It converts the analog input into its equivalent digital output.
 Display device − It displays the data in digital format.
 Digital Recorder − It is used to record the data in digital format.
Data acquisition systems are being used in various applications such as biomedical and aerospace. So,
we can choose either analog data acquisition systems or digital data acquisition systems based on the
requirement.
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Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.
The digital data have more advantages over analog data. Some of those are:
 easy and fast processing,
 easy and fast transmission,
 easy display,
 less storage space is required,
 more accurate.
Due to these advantages, mostly the digital data acquisition system is preferred.

Data Acquisition System Block Diagram

A generalized data acquisition system block diagram is shown in Figure.

The function of each block is as under:

Transducers: They are converting physical quantities (such as temperature, pressure, etc.) into electrical
quantities, or measuring electrical quantities directly. They collect data from the physical world.

The most commonly used transducers are:

 RTDs, thermocouples, and thermistors for temperature measurements.
 Photosensors for light measurements.
 Strain gages, piezoelectric transducers for force and pressure measurements.
 Microphone for sound measurements.
 Potentiometer, LVDT, optical encoder for position and displacement measurements.
Signal Conditioning Unit: The signal produced by the transducers may or may not be very suitable for
our system to work properly. It may be very weak, very strong or may have some noise.

To convert this signal into the most suitable form, amplification, and filtration is done respectively by
signal conditioning unit. So the signal conditioning unit converts electrical signals in the most suitable
form.
Multiplexer: The multiplexer receives multiple analog inputs and provides a single output signal
according to the requirements.

If a separate channel is used for each quantity, the cost of installation, maintenance, and periodic
replacement becomes high. Therefore, a single channel is used which is shared by various quantities.

Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters: The data is converted into digital form by A/D converters. After
the conversion of data into digital form, it is displayed with the help of oscilloscopes, numerical displays,
panel meters to monitor the complete system.

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Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.

Also, the data can be either permanently or temporarily stored or recorded according to the requirement.
The data is recorded on optical, ultraviolet, stylus or ink recorders for future use.

Objectives of Data Acquisition System

 It must collect the necessary data at the correct speed.

 It must use all the data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the system.
 It must monitor the complete system operation to maintain on-line optimum and safe operations.
 It must be able to summarize and store data for the diagnosis of operation and record purpose.
 It must be flexible for future requirements.
 It must be reliable and not have a downtime of more than 0.1%.
 It must provide an effective communication system.
Applications of Data Acquisition System
The data acquisition system is used in industrial and scientific fields like aerospace, biomedical
and telemetry industries.

***Signal Conditioning
What is “Signal Conditioning”?
There are many factors which may prevent a signal produced by one device or circuit from being
usable by another device or circuit, requiring some intermediate circuitry to bridge the gap. This kind of
“bridging” function is doing what I call “signal conditioning”.
Type of Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning may be divided into 4 types:
1. analog ; analog signal in, analog signal out
2. digital ; digital signal in, digital signal out
3. either ; either kind of signal in; same type out
4. interface; involves both analog and digital signals in some way
Analog Signal Conditioning
• amplification or attenuation
• level shifting
• filtering
• impedance changing
All of the above functions can be performed by operational amplifier circuits. A couple of additional
functions are
• clipping
• clamping
Clipping
Often it‟s necessary to ensure that a signal does not exceed a certain voltage in order to avoid
harming circuitry which follows. For instance, a sensor inside the engine of a car may pick up electrical
noise of hundreds of volts occasionally which could destroy a microprocessor. To avoid this, the signal
may be clipped so that it never goes above a fixed voltage. This can be done using a Zener diode as
shown in Figure 6.1.

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Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.
Since the Zener diode will conduct once the voltage exceeds the Zener voltage, VZ, the output
voltage will follow the input until the input exceeds V Z, and from then on the output will not increase.
The resistor should be chosen so that the maximum current through the diode is within the specified limits.

Clamping
It may sometimes be necessary to ensure that a signal does not become negative. Again, using the
car sensor example, a negative voltage due to noise could destroy a microprocessor. To avoid this, the signal
may be clamped
so that it never goes below zero. This can be done using a diode as shown in Figure 6.2

Since the diode will conduct once it is forward biased, the output voltage will follow the input until
the input goes below about 0.7V , and from then on the output will − not decrease. (This slight negative
voltage will not be a problem for most electronics.) The resistor should be chosen so that the maximum
current through the diode is within the specified limits.

Digital Signal Conditioning

Sometimes digital signals in a system need to be cleaned up. This can be in order to do one or both
of:
• remove noise from the signal
• change the duration of the signal These two cases will now be discussed.
Removing Noise
Detecting the state of a digital signal can be difficult if the signal contains noise. A Schmitt
trigger is a gate which uses hysteresis to remove noise from a signal. The effect of a Schmitt trigger is
shown in Figure 6.3. In contrast to an ordinary gate, where the output changes state as the input passes
some unknown voltage between the manufacturer‟s specified Vilmax and Vihmin , for a Schmitt trigger,
there are two separate voltages. When the output is low, the input has to go above Von before the output
will go high, and when the output is high, the input has to go below Voff before the output will go low. The
farther apart Von and Voff are, the more noise immunity is provided. (For a normal gate, is it as though Von
and Voff are the same.)

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Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.
Changing Pulse Width
A common situation occurs when a signal needs to be extended in time so that it will be detected
by a microprocessor. This can be accomplished by the use of a one shot. When a trigger pulse (ie. the
signal) is received by a one shot, its output will produce a pulse of a fixed length. There are two types of
one shots:
• retriggerable
• non-retriggerable
With a retriggerable one shot, if a second trigger pulse occurs while the output is active (ie.
during a pulse created by a previous trigger pulse), the output will be extended for a further period. In
this way a pulse can be extended indefinitely. With a non-retriggerable one shot, any trigger pulses
occurring while the output is active, (ie. during a pulse created by a previous trigger pulse), will be ignored.
In other words, the output pulse is always the same length.

Either
Isolation
The purpose of isolation is to remove large DC offsets from a signal. (Of course it could be to add a
DC offset instead.) An op-amp can be used to remove small DC offsets, of the same order of voltage as the
supply voltage, but sometimes hundreds or thousands of volts must be removed. (For in- stance, inside a
car engine, the ignition system produces sparks of thousands of volts, while the electronics runs on normal
logic levels. The spark plug voltages could not be directly sensed by the microprocessor. At least more
than once )
• inductive using a transformer
– cannot transmit DC (ie. steady-state) values
– 2 way
– can transmit power
– the above two conditions mean that care must be taken as voltage spikes at the input end can be
transmitted to the input end and vice versa
Inductive isolation is shown in Figure 6.4. Keep in mind that differ- ent numbers of windings in the
two coils allow the input signal to be increased or decreased while any DC offset is removed.
• optical using an LED and a phototransistor or photodiode
– can transmit DC (ie. steady-state values)
– only one way

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Instrumentation Department of E.E.E.
– cannot transmit power
– the above two conditions mean that there is no danger of voltage spikes as there is with
inductive isolation
An optoisolator is shown in Figure 6.5. The resistors are used because effectively the LED and the
phototransistor are current devices, and usually signals are processed as voltages. The values chosen for
the resistors should be consistent with the current specifications for the device. The amount of DC
isolation provided by an optoisolator is usually in the range of kV. At some point the insulation will
break down and arcs can occur.

Whenever sensors are in a place where it is possible for high voltages to be induced, optical
isolation should be used to protect electronic devices which follow.

Interface
Analog Comparators
Two analog voltages can be compared with an analog comparator. This device is basically an
operational amplifier with a digital output, so that the output indicates which of the inputs is higher.

Analog Switches and Multiplexers

An analog switch works just like a mechanical switch in allowing an analog signal to flow between two
points in a circuit when it is closed, and preventing the flow when it is open. The difference with an analog
switch is that the control of the opening and closing of the switch is provided by a digital signal. Like
mechanical switches, there are a variety of switch types, such as SPST, SPDT, DPDT, and so on. A
simple SPST analog switch is shown in Figure 6.6. The resistor Ron is to indicate a finite resistance
between the input and output when the switch is closed. The value of Ron should be in the device
specifications.
An analog multiplexer is similar to a digital multiplexer in that a set of digital signals controls which
analog signal is passed through to the output. Since the internal construction is similar to that of an
analog switch, there is an on resistance as before.

Prepared By: N.Sudarshan Rao.