ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬

ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

ݸ¿°¬»® î‰ÎÛÏË×ÎÛÓÛÒÌÍ ÑÚ ß ÉÛÔÜ

ײ¬®±¼«½¬·±² Welds must meet a variety of requirements to provide a safe and economical
structure or weldment (see Figure 2.1). Requirements for welds can be speci-
fied in several different ways:

• Company design and quality requirements

• Codes and specifications

• Customer requirements and/or expectations

-·¦»

-·¦»

Ú·¹«®» îòï‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

λ¯«·®»³»²¬- º±® These requirements need to be well thought out and properly documented for
¿ Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼ shop use. Formulating these requirements into a welding workmanship stan-
dard along with weld sample boards and mock-ups is best way of doing this.
Quality cannot be a matter of opinion but should be defined by requirements
that mean the same to all those involved in welding operations. The quality
requirements should be both observable and measurable, and need to be effec-
tively communicated to the shop floor.

Quality requirements for shop use are specified by:

• Welding workmanship standards

• Weld sample boards

23
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

• Weld mock-ups

Weldment mock-ups and sample boards are effective communication tools.

Mock-ups can be a replica of the actual products being produced or a represen-
tation of typical welds. Mock-ups show how the parts fit together, where the
welds are placed, acceptable weld appearance and even weld sequence,
if appropriate. They provide a visual display of the weld bead and joint
requirements (see Figure 2.2).

Ú·¹«®» îòî‰É»´¼ Ó±½µóË°-

Sample boards on the other hand, represent acceptable and unacceptable welds
from a visual inspection perspective. Company expectations in terms of weld
quality are effectively communicated with weld sample boards (see Figure
2.3). In essence, mock-ups and sample boards are the visual representations of
the welding workmanship standard.

Requirements for welds can include:

• Size

• Length

• Profile and appearance

• Weld soundness

24
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

øß÷
øß÷

Ú·¹«®» îòí Í¿³°´» Þ±¿®¼

• Mechanical properties

• Leak tightness

• Corrosion properties and/or chemistry requirements

Ѿ¶»½¬·ª»- This chapter has the following objectives:

1. Learn the terms and definitions commonly referred to in welding

2. Understand how weld size is specified

3. Know how to use a welding gage

4. Understand the difference between a weld discontinuity and a defect

5. Learn the types of defects encountered in welding

É»´¼ Ì»®³·²±´±¹§ It is important to define the terminology used in the industry before discussing
welding requirements in detail. Figure 2.4 describes parts of a weld. Root of
joint vs. root of weld is shown in Figure 2.5.

25
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

É»´¼ Ó»¬¿´ ˲¿ºº»½¬»¼

Þ¿-» Ó»¬¿´

Ø»¿¬óߺº»½¬»¼ Ʊ²»

Ú·¹«®» îòì‰Ð¿®¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Þ¿-» ³»¬¿´

É»´¼ ·²¬»®º¿½»
É»´¼ ³»¬¿´
Ú«-·±² º¿½»

ᱬ ±º ¶±·²¬

ᱬ ±º ©»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòë‰Î±±¬ ±º Ö±·²¬ ª-ò ᱬ ±º É»´¼

Weld size and throat for flat, convex, and concave profile fillet welds are
shown in Figures 2.6–2.8.

Terminology for groove welds is illustrated in Figure 2.9.

26
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ô»¹ ú -·¦»

̸»±®»¬·½¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬ Ô»¹ ú -·¦»

ß½¬«¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòê‰É»´¼ Í·¦» ¿²¼ ̸®±¿¬ º±® ¿ Ú´¿¬ Ю±º·´» Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

Ô»¹ ú -·¦»

̸»±®»¬·½¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬ Ô»¹ ú -·¦»

ß½¬«¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòé‰É»´¼ Í·¦» ¿²¼ ̸®±¿¬ º±® ¿ ݱ²ª»¨ Ю±º·´» Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

É»´¼ Ú¿·´«®» How do welds fail? To understand how welds are sized we first need to know
how welds fail when overstressed. Which is the most likely failure plane for
the simple T-joint shown in Figure 2.10? Make a note of your answer. The
most likely plane of failure will become evident as you read the next few
pages.

É»´¼ Í·¦» The requirements of a weld are shown in Figure 2.11. Weld size determines the
strength of a weld. When a plate is loaded in tension as shown in Figure 2.12,
the load is transferred from one part to the next by the connecting welds.
Before the designer can correctly design the weld, he or she must first under-
stand how the joint will fail. Both the base metal and weld metal must be
designed to carry the intended loads.

27
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ô»¹

̸»±®»¬·½¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬ Ô»¹

ß½¬«¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòè‰Ô»¹ Í·¦» ¿²¼ ̸®±¿¬ º±® ¿ ݱ²½¿ª» Ю±º·´» Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

Í Ù

ó Ù®±±ª»
ß²¹´»

Þ»ª»´
ß²¹´»

Í ó Ü»°¬¸ ±º
Ю»°¿®¿¬·±²

ᱬ Ú¿½»

Ù ó ᱬ Ñ°»²·²¹
ᱬ Ù¿°

É»´¼ Ú¿½» É»´¼ Þ»¿¼-

ø°¿--»-÷ Ú¿½» λ·²º±®½»³»²¬
̱»

Ô¿§»®-
¬ ó ̸·½µ²»--
ó É»´¼ Í·¦»

Ø»¿¬óߺº»½¬»¼ Ʊ²» ̱»

ᱬ λ·²º±®½»³»²¬

Þ¿½µ É»´¼ ø¼±²» ¿º¬»®

©»´¼·²¹ °®»°¿®»¼ -·¼»÷

Ú·¹«®» îòç‰Ì»®³·²±´±¹§ º±® Ù®±±ª» É»´¼-

28
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

º¿·´«®» °´¿²»

º¿·´«®» °´¿²»

º¿·´«®» °´¿²»

Ú·¹«®» îòïð‰Û¨¿³°´»- ±º Ú¿·´«®» д¿²»- ·² Í·³°´» ÌóÖ±·²¬-

For a fillet weld, failure will occur through the weld throat, which is the short-
est distance from the root of the weld to the weld face. The weld throat is, in
fact, the weakest part of the weld (see Figure 2.13). Hence, the answer to the
question posed for Figure 2.10 is the # 3 failure plane.

29
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

-·¦»

-·¦»

Ú·¹«®» îòïï‰É»´¼ Ô»¹ Í·¦» ·- Ë-»¼ ¬± Í°»½·º§

¬¸» ͬ®»²¹¬¸ ±º ¬¸» Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòïî‰É»´¼- ¿®» Ë-»¼ ¬± Ì®¿²-º»® Ô±¿¼

Ú®¿½¬«®» -«®º¿½»
¿´±²¹ ¬¸» ©»´¼ ¬¸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòïí‰Ú®¿½¬«®» Í«®º¿½» ß´±²¹ É»´¼ ̸®±¿¬

30
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

When designing a fillet weld, the engineer works with weld throat but speci-
fies leg size in accordance with our standards. Similarly, when the shop deter-
mines the size of a weld by its leg size, it is really trying to ensure that the
weld throat is adequate. Caution must be exercised when measuring the size
of concave weld because the leg will not be representative of the throat (see
Figure 2.14).

Í·¦»

Ô»¹

Ú·¹«®» îòïì‰×² ݱ²½¿ª» É»´¼-ô Ô»¹ Í·¦» ·- Ò±¬ λ°®»-»²¬¿¬·ª» ±º ̸®±¿¬

A typical gage for measuring the size of a fillet weld is shown in Figure 2.15.

ðòïéé
ïñì

ïñì ÉÛÔÜ Ú×ÔÔÛÌ ÙßÙÛ

̸®±¿¬
Ô»¹ ³»¿-«®»³»²¬ Ó»¿-«®»³»²¬

Ú±® ¿ Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼

Ô»¹ Í·¦» ã ïòìï I ̸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòïë‰Ì§°·½¿´ É»´¼ Ú·´´»¬ Ù¿¹»

Proper use of a fillet gage to measure the size of a weld is shown in Figures
2.16 and 2.17. Examples of the proper use of a weld gage are shown in Figure
2.18.

31
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú±® ÝÑÒÊÛÈ ±® ÚÔßÌ º·´´»¬ ©»´¼-ô

«-» º·´´»¬ ¹¿¹» ¬± ³»¿-«®» ´»¹ ´»²¹¬¸ò

Ú±® ÝÑÒÝßÊÛ º·´´»¬ ©»´¼-ô «-»

º·´´»¬ ¹¿¹» ¬± ³»¿-«®» ¬¸» ¬¸®±¿¬ò

Ú·¹«®» îòïê‰Ø±© ¬± Ë-» ¿ Ú·´´»¬ Ù¿¹»

Ú·¹«®» îòïé‰Ý´±-»«° ±º ¿ Ú·´´»¬ Ù¿¹»

32
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

̸·- ¹¿¹» ½±®®»½¬´§ ̸·- ¹¿¹» ·²½±®®»½¬´§

³»¿-«®»- ¬¸» -¸±®¬»® ³»¿-«®»- ¬¸» ´±²¹»®
´»¹ ´»²¹¬¸ ´»¹ ´»²¹¬¸

Ú±® º·´´»¬ ©»´¼- ©·¬¸ «²»¯«¿´ ´»¹ -·¦»-

ø©¸»®» ¿² »¯«¿´ ´»¹ º·´´»¬ ©¿- -°»½·º·»¼÷
¿´©¿§- ³»¿-«®» ¬¸» -¸±®¬»® ´»¹ ´»²¹¬¸

ݱ®®»½¬ «-» ±º ײ½±®®»½¬ «-»

Ù¿¹» ±º Ù¿¹»

Ë-»® ½±®®»½¬´§ ³»¿-«®»- Ë-»® ·²½±®®»½¬´§ ³»¿-«®»-

¿ íñïê ·²ò ©»´¼ ¿ ïñì ·²ò ©»´¼

ïñì
íñïê
Ô»-- ¬¸¿²
ïñì ·²ò

Ú·´´»¬ ©»´¼ ´»¹ ³«-¬ ¿¬ ´»¿-¬ ¬±«½¸ ¬¸» ¹¿¹» ¬± ¾» ½±²-·¼»®»¼ ¬¸¿¬ -·¦» ±º ©»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòïè‰Û¨¿³°´»- ±º ¬¸» Ю±°»® Ë-» ±º ¿ É»´¼ Ù¿¹»

33
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Gaps between the base metals in a fillet welded connection present a special
problem. As shown in Figure 2.19, a gap can reduce the weld throat. This
reduction of weld throat lessens the load carrying capacity of the fillet weld.

Ì ¬

ײ½®»¿-» ©»´¼ -·¦» ¾§

¿³±«²¬ ±º -»°¿®¿¬·±²

Ì ã ®»¯«·®»¼ ¬¸®±¿¬
¬ ã ®»¼«½»¼ ¬¸®±¿¬

Ú·¹«®» îòïç‰Ù¿°- Þ»¬©»»² Þ¿-» Ó»¬¿´- Ý¿² λ¼«½» É»´¼ ̸®±¿¬

Û¨¿³°´»

When the gap is 1/16 in. or greater the weld size must be increased by the
amount of gap (see Figure 2.20).

ïñì
ïñè

íñè
Í°»½·º·»¼ Í·¦» λ¯«·®»¼ Í·¦»

Ú·¹«®» îòîð‰×²½®»¿-·²¹ É»´¼ Í·¦» ¾§ ß³±«²¬ ±º Ù¿°

34
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Welders should also be knowledgeable about the costs of overwelding. As

shown in Figure 2.21, the adjacent sidebar small changes in weld size can
make a big difference in weld volume and costs

û ײ½®»¿-» ·²
É»´¼ Í·¦» ײ½®»¿-» ß³±«²¬ ±º É»´¼ Ó»¬¿´

íêû

íñè éñïê

ììû

ëñïê íñè

ëêû

ïñì ëñïê

ééû

íñïê ïñì

Ú·¹«®» îòîï‰Ý±-¬ ±º Ѫ»®©»´¼·²¹

A very common overwelding problem, which can result from an incorrect

transverse electrode angle, is a horizontal leg that is larger than required. As
shown in the table in Figure 2.22, weld volume and costs are significantly
affected by this type of problem.

Excessive convexity can also lead to unnecessary extra costs. Welding posi-
tion, shielding gas, and other essential welding variables can affect the amount
of convexity (see Figure 2.23).

35
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

»¨¬®¿ ©»´¼ ³»¬¿´

ª»®¬·½¿´
´»¹

¸±®·¦±²¬¿´
´»¹

É»´¼ Í·¦» ر®·¦±²¬¿´ ײ½®»¿-» ·² ر®·¦±²¬¿´ ײ½®»¿-» ·²

Í°»½·º·»¼ Ô»¹ õïñïê É»´¼ ʱ´«³» Ô»¹ õïñè É»´¼ ʱ´«³»
íñïê ïñì ííû ëñïê êéû
ïñì ëñïê îëû íñè ëðû
ëñïê íñè îðû éñïê ìðû
íñè éñïê ïéû ïñî ííû
ïñî çñïê ïíû ëñè îëû

Ú·¹«®» îòîî‰Ø±© Ѫ»®©»´¼·²¹ ߺº»½¬- É»´¼ ʱ´«³» ¿²¼ ݱ-¬-

»¨¬®¿ ©»´¼ ³»¬¿´

-·¦»

-·¦»

Ú·¹«®» îòîí‰Û¨½»--·ª» ݱ²ª»¨·¬§ Ý¿² Ô»¿¼ ¬± ˲²»½»--¿®§ Û¨¬®¿ ݱ-¬-

É»´¼ Ô»²¹¬¸ Continuous welds run from one end of a joint to the other end. Craters must be
filled to ensure that the weld throat is continuous for this length. Similarly for
an intermittent weld (or stitch weld, which is a nonstandard term), craters need
to be filled within the required weld length (see Figure 2.24).

36
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

˲º·´´»¼ ½®¿¬»®- ®»¼«½»

¬¸» »ºº»½¬·ª» ´»²¹¬¸ ±º
¬¸» ©»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòîì‰Ûºº»½¬·ª» Ô»²¹¬¸ ±º É»´¼-

ß°°»¿®¿²½» ¿²¼ The shape or profile of a weld is also important. Welds with sharp edges or
É»´¼ Ю±º·´» sharp changes in direction cause a concentration of stress at these points. Stress
concentrations will produce higher stresses, which can be undesirable (see
Figure 2.25).

Ô·²»- ±º -¬®»--
Ù±±¼ °®±º·´»

ͬ®»-- ½±²½»²¬®¿¬·±²
°±·²¬ б±® °®±º·´»

Ø·¹¸
-¬®»--

Ú·¹«®» îòîë‰Ì¸» Ûºº»½¬ ±º É»´¼ Ю±º·´» ±² ͬ®»--

37
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

When loaded, rounded type discontinuities will be less likely to propagate or

fail than planar or sharp discontinuities. Rounded discontinuities have a lower
stress concentration effect (see Figure 2.26).

Ý·®½«´¿® ±® д¿²¿® ±® ½®¿½µ

¾´«²¬ ¼»º»½¬ ¬§°» ¼»º»½¬

Û¨¬»²-·±² Ú®¿½¬«®»

Ú·¹«®» îòîê‰Î±«²¼»¼ Ü·-½±²¬·²«·¬·»- ¿®» Ô»-- Ô·µ»´§ ¬± Ú¿·´

Some unacceptable welds are shown in Figure 2.27.

É»´¼ ͱ«²¼²»-- All welds contain discontinuities of one type or another. It is difficult to
deposit a perfect weld, however, in many cases small discontinuities have no
detrimental effect on the weld. Workmanship requirements take this fact into
consideration. A discontinuity is classified as a defect only when the disconti-
nuity exceeds a certain size or number (see Figure 2.28).

ײ½±³°´»¬» Ö±·²¬ л²»¬®¿¬·±²

Incomplete joint penetration is generally not acceptable (see Figures 2.29–

2.31).

ײ½±³°´»¬» Ú«-·±²

Incomplete fusion is generally not acceptable (see Figures 2.32 and 2.33).

38
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

®»¯«·®»¼ ®»¯«·®»¼
-·¦» -·¦»
б±® Û¨½»--·ª»
Ю±º·´» ݱ²ª»¨·¬§

®»¯«·®»¼ ®»¯«·®»¼
-·¦» -·¦»
Û¨½»--·ª» Ѫ»®´¿°
˲¼»®½«¬

®»¯«·®»¼ ®»¯«·®»¼
-·¦» -·¦»
ײ-«ºº·½·»²¬ ײ-«ºº·½·»²¬
Ô»¹ Ô»¹

Ú·¹«®» îòîé‰Ë²¿½½»°¬¿¾´» É»´¼-

Ü×ÍÝÑÒÌ×ÒË×ÌÇ

Ô»-- ¬¸¿² -°»½·º·»¼ Ù®»¿¬»® ¬¸¿² -°»½·º·»¼

-·¦» ±® º®»¯«»²½§ -·¦» ±® º®»¯«»²½§

ÜÛÚÛÝÌ

ÒÑ ßÝÌ×ÑÒ ÎÛÐß×Î
ÎÛÏË×ÎÛÜ ÎÛÏË×ÎÛÜ

Ú·¹«®» îòîè‰Ý´¿--·º·½¿¬·±² ±º É»´¼ Ü·-½±²¬·²«·¬§ ±® Ü»º»½¬

39
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

ײ½±³°´»¬» Ô¿½µ ±º Ú«-·±²

л²»¬®¿¬·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòîç‰Û¨¿³°´»- ±º ײ½±³°´»¬» л²»¬®¿¬·±² ¿²¼ Ô¿½µ ±º Ú«-·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòíð‰Ð¸±¬±¹®¿°¸ ±º ײ½±³°´»¬» л²»¬®¿¬·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòíï‰Î¿¼·±¹®¿°¸ ±º ײ½±³°´»¬» л²»¬®¿¬·±²

б®±-·¬§

Porosity can be acceptable if a certain size or frequency is not exceeded.

Where leak tightness is important, porosity of any size may be unacceptable
(see Figure 2.34).

40
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòíî‰Ð¸±¬±¹®¿°¸ ±º Ô¿½µ ±º Ú«-·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòíí‰Î¿¼·±¹®¿°¸ ±º Ô¿½µ ±º Ú«-·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòíì‰Ð±®±-·¬§

Unless it is highly excessive, porosity usually has little effect on weld strength
(see the fractured tensile specimen shown in Figure 2.35). Because porosity
can obscure and hide other more serious defects on a radiograph, there is usu-
ally some limit on the amount allowed. Excessive porosity can also be an indi-
cation of something wrong with the welding process (lack of shielding) or that
the welding was performed on dirty materials.

41
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòíë‰Ð±®±-·¬§ Ø¿- Ô·¬¬´» Ûºº»½¬ ±² É»´¼ ͬ®»²¹¬¸

Ý®¿½µ-

Cracks are never acceptable. They present a plane of separation with a sharp
stress concentration at the leading edge of the crack. Under stress the crack can
extend in length (see Figures 2.36–2.38). Refer to Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy,
for more information on this subject.

Ú·¹«®» îòíê‰Ý®¿½µ- ·² É»´¼- ¿®» ˲¿½½»°¬¿¾´»

Í´¿¹

Slag can be acceptable if a certain size or frequency is not exceeded (see

Figure 2.39–2.41). Slag is usually the result of inadequate cleaning between
passes.

ß®½ ͬ®·µ»-

Arc strikes can leave small hard spots or even cracks on the surface of base
metals. Avoid arc strikes as much as possible (see Figures 2.42 and 2.43).

42
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòíé‰Ð¸±¬±¹®¿°¸ ±º É»´¼ Ó»¬¿´ Ý®¿½µ·²¹

Ú·¹«®» îòíè‰Î¿¼·±¹®¿°¸ ±º É»´¼ Ó»¬¿´ Ý®¿½µ·²¹

Ú·¹«®» îòíç‰Û¨¿³°´» ±º Í´¿¹ ײ½´«-·±²-

Ú·¹«®» îòìð‰Ð¸±¬±¹®¿°¸ ±º Í´¿¹ ײ½´«-·±²-

43
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòìï‰Î¿¼·±¹®¿°¸ ±º Í´¿¹ ײ½´«-·±²-

Ú·¹«®» îòìî‰ß®½ ͬ®·µ»-

Ý´¿³°-

A work return (ground) clamp with inadequate clamping force can also leave
hard spots on the base metal surface due to arcing between the clamp and base
metal (see Figure 2.44).

Í°¿¬¬»®

Although spatter has little effect on the strength or performance of a weld, it

gives the impression of poor quality. Spatter can also be a sign that the welding
parameters are incorrectly set. This cosmetic type of discontinuity is usually
removed wherever it is exposed (see Figure 2.45).

Ó»½¸¿²·½¿´ To carry the required loads, the weld should be as strong and ductile as the
Ю±°»®¬·»- base metal (see Figures 2.46 and 2.47).

For some materials such as aluminum the welding wire is selected to avoid
cracking.

44
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòìí‰Ð¸±¬±¹®¿°¸- ±º ß®½ ͬ®·µ»-

Ú·¹«®» îòìì‰Ù®±«²¼ Ý´¿³°

Matching properties or other requirements are achieved by selecting the cor-

rect welding electrode for the materials to be welded. The American Welding
Society (AWS) classification for the welding electrode must be specified.
Refer to Chapter 7, Steel Metallurgy, for more information on this subject.

45
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Ú·¹«®» îòìë‰Í°¿¬¬»® ·- ¿ ݱ-³»¬·½ Ü»º»½¬

ïñè ·²ò ³¿¨

øß÷ Ì»²-·´» Ì»-¬ øÞ÷ Þ»²¼ Í°»½·³»²

Ú·¹«®» îòìê‰Û¨¿³°´»- ±º Ì»-¬- º±® ͬ®»²¹¬¸ ¿²¼ Ü«½¬·´·¬§

ݱ®®±-·±² When materials such as stainless steels are used, corrosion resistance is usually
λ-·-¬¿²½» an important factor. Ensure that the weld is as good, if not better than, the base
metals. The correct filler metal needs to be specified to achieve this result.

46
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

ß½¸·»ª·²¹ ¬¸» Our previous discussion described many of the requirements that a weld may
ݱ®®»½¬ have to meet—but how are these requirements actually achieved? Getting the
λ¯«·®»³»²¬- job done right the first time and every time is not a simple matter. As you
±º ¿ É»´¼ review this program, it becomes evident that there are many facets to a man-
agement system which can achieve these kinds of results on a consistent basis.
Just a few of the important considerations are as follows:

• Correct welding symbols on drawings

• Workmanship standards with communications tools

• Proper welding procedures

• Trained and qualified welders

• Proper supervision

É»´¼·²¹ Let us consider the use of welding procedures. When performed by different
Ю±½»¼«®»- people, most work requires some kind of direction or recipe to consistently get
the job done right. This is where written welding procedures play an important
role. Some key points about welding procedures are:

• They provide the essential information (or recipe) to make a weld that
meets the productivity and quality requirements.

• They list the seven essential welding variables that determine the produc-
tivity and quality of a deposited weld (see Figure 2.47).

ݱ²¬¿½¬ Ì·° ¬±
É·®» Ú»»¼ Í°»»¼ ʱ´¬¿¹» Ì®¿ª»´ Í°»»¼ ɱ®µ Ü·-¬¿²½»

Ì®¿ª»´ ß²¹´» Ì®¿²-ª»®-» ß²¹´» É·®» б-·¬·±²

Ú·¹«®» îòìé‰Í»ª»² Û--»²¬·¿´ É»´¼·²¹ Ê¿®·¿¾´»-

47
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

• They can be prequalified or be based on actual tests that prove whether the
productivity and quality requirements have been met. This information is
then documented in a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR).

ɸ§ Ø¿ª» É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»¼«®»-á

Welding procedures are necessary to ensure that:

• Welds will be made to the proper size.

• Welds will meet the arc time requirements.

• Welds will meet the quality requirements.

• Correct welding electrodes will be used.

• Welds will be consistent when all welders follow the same procedure
(recipe).

• A mechanism to constantly improve welding procedures will be provided.

Any new variable or change in variable can be applied to all welders (see
Figure 2.48).

ß É»´¼·²¹ ߨ·±³æ É»´¼»®- ½¿²²±¬ ³¿µ» ¿ ¾¿¼

©»´¼ ·º ¬¸»§ º±´´±© ¬¸» -»ª»² »--»²¬·¿´ ©»´¼·²¹
ª¿®·¿¾´»- ¿- -°»½·º·»¼ ·² ¬¸» ©»´¼·²¹ ¿°°´·½¿¬·±²
°®±½»¼«®»ò

Ú·¹«®» îòìè‰ß´©¿§- Ú±´´±© Ю±°»® É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»¼«®»-

48
 ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

Welding procedures that meet the requirements of specific codes or standards

(e.g., AWS D1.1) are described as Welding Procedure Specifications (WPSs).
A typical WPS in accordance with the requirements of AWS D1.1 is shown in
Figure 2.49, with some additional essential welding variables indicated under
“General Notes.”

ÉÛÔÜ×ÒÙ ÐÎÑÝÛÜËÎÛ ÍÐÛÝ×Ú×ÝßÌ×ÑÒ øÉÐÍ÷

ݱ³°¿²§ Ò¿³»æ ßÞÝ Ý±³°¿²§ ײ½òô É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»¼«®»æ É×óïóê¾
É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»--ø»-÷æ ÍÓßÉ É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»¼«®» Í°»½ò Ò±ò É×óï
̧°»-æ Ó¿²«¿´ ß°°´·½¿¾´» ͬ¿²¼¿®¼-æ ßÉÍ Üïòï
Ü¿¬» ×--«»¼ Ö¿²ò îìô îððî λª·-·±² Ò±ò ð Ü¿¬» λª·-»¼æ Ö¿² îìô îððî

Þ¿-» Ó»¬¿´æ ßëéî Ù®¿¼» ëð

Ì
Ì

Ú·´´»® Ó»¬¿´- Ö±·²¬ Ü»¬¿·´-

ßÉÍ -°»½·º·½¿¬·±²æ ßëòï Ö±·²¬ ̧°»æ Ì»» ±® Ô¿°
ßÉÍ ½´¿--·º·½¿¬·±²æ Ûéðïè É»´¼ ̧°»æ Ú·´´»¬ ©»´¼
Í·¦» ±º º·´´»® ³»¬¿´æ ïñè ·²ò Þ¿½µ·²¹æ Ò±²»
Ю»¸»¿¬ б-·¬·±²
Ю»¸»¿¬ ¬»³°»®¿¬«®»æ ïëðpÚ Ð±-·¬·±² ±º ¶±·²¬æ Ê»®¬·½¿´ øíÚ÷
ײ¬»®°¿-- ¬»³°»®¿¬«®»æ ìëðpÚ Ó¿¨ É»´¼ °®±¹®»--·±²æ Ê»®¬·½¿´ «°
Ю»¸»¿¬ ³¿·²¬»²¿²½»æ Ò±²» Ѭ¸»®æ Ò±²»

Û´»½¬®·½¿´ ݸ¿®¿½¬»®·-¬·½- ͸·»´¼·²¹ Ù¿-

Ý«®®»²¬ ¬§°»æ ÜÝ Ù¿- ¬§°»æ Òñß
б´¿®·¬§æ б-·¬·ª» ݱ³°±-·¬·±²æ Òñß

É»´¼ Í·¼» Ô¿§»® п-- Û´»½¬®±¼» É·®» ß³°- ʱ´¬- ÝÌÌÉÜ Ì®¿ª»´
Í·¦» Ò±ò Í·¦» Ú»»¼ Í°»»¼
Ì Í°»»¼
ïñì ï ï ï ïñè Òñß ïîðŠïìð îîŠîì Òñß ìŠë

ëñïê ï ï ï ïñè Òñß ïîðŠïìð îîŠîì Òñß îŠí

íñè ï ï ï ïñè Òñß ïîðŠïìð îîŠîì Òñß ïòëŠïòéë

Ù»²»®¿´ Ò±¬»- ß°°®±ª¿´-

Ì®¿ª»´ ¿²¹´» ã ð o ë Ì®¿²-ª»®-» ß²¹´» ã ìëp É·®» б-·¬·±² ã É»¿ª»

Ú·¹«®» îòìç‰Ì§°·½¿´ É»´¼·²¹ Ю±½»¼«®» Í°»½·º·½¿¬·±² øÉÐÍ÷

49
ßÉÍ ÝÉÍ Ó¿²«¿´ º±® Ï«¿´·¬§ ¿²¼ Ю±¼«½¬·ª·¬§ ׳°®±ª»³»²¬
ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

λº»®»²½»- AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds

AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions

Ù«·¼»- ¿²¼ To obtain maximum benefit from this program it is recommended that you fol-
Û¨»®½·-»- low this guide and complete the exercises. It is important that you thoroughly
study each section carefully before moving to the next section. The exercises are
designed to give you an indication of whether you understand the material pre-
sented. If you answer a question incorrectly, go back and read that section again.

1. Which of the following are ways in which a proper welding management

program can communicate weld quality requirements to shop floor
workers?
A. Welding workmanship standards
B. Equipment manufacturers information
C. Weld sample boards
D. Weld mock-ups
E. All of the above
F. A and C and D

2. List four possible requirements for a fillet weld.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

3. True or False?
For a concave fillet weld you only need to measure the leg to determine
the weld size. True False

4. A T-joint has a 1/4 in. fillet weld called for on the print. If there is a gap of
1/8 in., what should the final weld size be?
A. 1/4 in.
B. 5/16 in.
C. 3/8 in.
D. 1/2 in.

5. If a 1/4 in. fillet weld is overwelded by 1/16 in. on both the horizontal and
vertical legs, by how much is the weld volume increased?
__________________________________________________________

50
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ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

6. If a welder deposits a 3/16 in. specified fillet weld with a 3/16 in. vertical
leg and a 1/4 in. horizontal leg, by how much is the weld volume and
arcing time increased?

__________________________________________________________

7. Identify the parts of the following welds.

Ú´¿¬ ú ݱ²ª»¨ Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼-

8. An unfilled crater in a fillet weld has the following effect:

A. Increases overall weld size

B. Reduces overall weld size
C. Reduces the effective length
D. Has no effect
E. All of the above

9. True or False?

Stress concentrations are desirable in a weld. True False

10. Which of the following explains why a crack type defect can be more
dangerous than a slag type defect?

A. A crack is a planer defect

B. A crack will tend to propagate under load
C. A crack is a higher stress concentration
D. All of the above

11. True or False?

Arc strikes are so small they never have any effect on weld quality.
True False

51
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ݸ¿°¬»® î‰Î»¯«·®»³»²¬- ±º ¿ É»´¼

ß²-©»®- 1. F
2. Size, length, profile and appearance, weld soundness, mechanical proper-
ties, leak tightness
3. False
4. C
5. 56%
6. 33%
7.

Þ¿-» ³»¬¿´

ر®·¦±²¬¿´
Ú´¿¬ ¿²¼ ݱ²ª»¨ Ô»¹ ¿²¼ -·¦»
É»´¼ ·²¬»®º¿½»
Ú·´´»¬ É»´¼-
É»´¼ ³»¬¿´
Ú«-·±² º¿½»
̸»±®»¬·½¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬ Ê»®¬·½¿´
Ô»¹ ¿²¼ -·¦»
ß½¬«¿´ ¬¸®±¿¬

ᱬ ±º ¶±·²¬

ᱬ ±º ©»´¼

8. C
9. False
10. D
11. False

52