Weld assessments and

weld properties
Subjects of Interest

Part I Weld assessment

Destructive testing
Non destructive testing

Part II Weld properties

Mechanical properties
Corrosion in weldment

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Objectives
This chapter aims to:

This chapter provides information on weld mechanical

assessments: Destructive testing and non destructive testing
(NDT).
Students are required to analyse mechanical properties
and corrosion of weldments, such that information can be
used for the selection of the weldments in service.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Sep-Dec 2007

 Weld assessments
Weldments normally contain defects.
However we need to keep weld defects
at a minimum level to maintain reliable
products.

Swing arm

Longitudinal crack

Pressure vessel weld joint heat treatment Crater cracking

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 Weld assessments

Appropriate Specifications
welding method Reliable products Quality control method

Destructive testing Non destructive testing

Mechanical testing, i.e., tensile, Weldments are not destroyed.
fracture toughness, impact, Many NDT techniques are
fatigue tests. expensive and have their own
Expensive, require specimen limitations.
preparation under standard Inspection should be carefully
specifications. planned to make sure the
technique used is capable of
detecting the concerned defects.

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Destructive testing
Mechanical tests are destructive testing, which are expensive since it requires
specimen preparation and then destroying it.
The orientation of the weld in the testpiece must be recorded.
Requires standard specimen dimension for each specification used.

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 Destructive testing

Mechanical tests are

destructive testing, which are
expensive since it requires
specimen preparation and
destroying it.
The orientation of the weld in
the testpiece must be recorded.
Requires standard specimen
dimensions for each
specification used.

Method of cutting test-pieces from

procedure approval plate.
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Destructive testing

Tensile test specimen

AWS all-weld metal test

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Destructive testing

Three types of bend test

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Destructive testing

AWS fillet break test.

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Destructive testing

Impact Charpy V notch specimens

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Destructive testing

P PN

PQ

N NQ

Q NP

N = Normal to the weld direction

P = Parallel to the weld direction
Q = Weld thickness direction

First letter : the direction normal to the crack plane

Second letter: the expected direction of crack propagation

Specimen orientations NP and PN are referred to as through-thickness notched

Specimen orientations NQ and PQ are referred to as surface notched
(c) EB and TIG welds

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Non-destructive testing
We must remember that NDT result itself cannot guarantee whether the weld
is acceptable, but can only report what types of defects we discover.

There are a range of NDT techniques available;

Visual inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection
Magnetic-particle inspection
Radiography
Ultrasonic inspection

Note: At least one of the NDT methods should be taken for

weld inspections.

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Visual inspection
Weld defects can often be Check on defects
discovered by naked eyes and
can be repaired at this stage: Surface cracks
Crater cracks
Incomplete root penetration
Weld dimensions Undercut
Joint penetration Underfill on face, groove, or fillet
Surface defects (concave)
Underfill of root (suck back)
Excessive face reinforcement,
groove, or fillet (convex)
Excessive root reinforcement
Overlap
Misalignment
Arc strikes
Excessive spatter
Warpage (distortion)
Simple fillet-weld gauges Base metal defects
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 Weld size measurements
It is important to measure weld size.
Size of fillet welds can be easily
measured by using weld gauges (different
standard gauges used:

Fillet weld size and method of checking

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 Liquid-penetrant inspection
Used to detect minute discontinuities such as
cracks, pores, which are open to the surface.
Can be applied to ferrous & non ferrous metals,
glass and plastics.
The surface must be clean.
Low surface tension
Properties Low viscosity Liquid panetrant
Can be dye or fluorescence

Liquid penetrant inspection is portable

Principle of penetrant examination
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and very easy to use on site.
Required appropriate protections
because the liquid used might be toxic.
Limited on surface inspection and
should be used in combination of other
NDT techniques.
Tapany Udomphol Sep-Dec 2007
 Method and applications
The liquid penetrant (normally red) is
applied on the surface containing cracks.
Waiting for the liquid penetrates into the
cracks.
Clean off the excess liquid from the surface,
but some liquid still remains in the cracks.
Developer (chalk emulsion) is applied to
enhance the visible indication of cracks.

Principle of liquid-penetrate inspection

Note: Ultraviolet or black light source are

used for the inspection of fluorescence liquid
penetrant. Sound areas appear deep violet
while the defects will glow a brilliant
yellowish green.
www.instytutgamma.com
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Liquid penetrant indication Sep-Dec 2007
Method and applications

Used to detect defects in aluminium, magnesium, and stainless

steel weldments, when magnetic particle inspection cannot be used.
Locating the cracks, leaks in all types of welds, weld in pressure,
storage vessels, piping for petroleum industry.

www.bbrail.com

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Magnetic particle inspection
Magnetic particle inspection is used to detect cracks porosity, seams,
inclusions lack of fusion and other discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Used on the surface and shallow subsurface.
The lines of force within the magnet run smoothly from S to N.
When a crack is present, N and S poles are set up at the edges of the crack.
The magnetic particles will be attracted to the crack (poles).

Magnetic fields around bar Accumulation of magnetic

magnet and a crack particles on defects

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Method and applications
Establishing a magnetic field in the test object.
Applying magnetic particles to the surface of
the test object.
Examining the surface by detecting
accumulation of magnetic particles
where
Cracks
the defects are.

Accumulation of magnetic powder indicating

the location of the cracks or defects.

Iron particles can be applied dry or wet.

Applying magnetic particles
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Detecting fluid is normally particles of
magnetic iron oxide suspended in
kerosene and may be coated with
fluorescence compound for viewing
under ultraviolet light.
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Method and applications
Magnetic particle inspection
can be applied to any kinds of
welds.
Can be used to detect defects
on each pass in multi-pass
welding after it has been
deposited.
Parts may have to
demagnetized after inspection.

Magnetic particle inspection using alternating current

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 Radiographic examination
Interior defects (porosity, cracks, voids) can be examined by using X-ray or
gamma ray, which can penetrate through materials and its intensity depends
on materials thickness and density.
Provide a permanent film record which is easy to interpret.
Slow and expensive, however this method is positive to determine defect size.
X-ray is generated by electron
bombardment on tungsten.
Gamma ray is emitted by
radioactive elements.

X-ray or gamma ray is absorbed during

transmission through the materials.
Pores or defects absorb less energy
than uniform areas
giving a variation
of intensity of the beam generated on
the film placed underneath the
materials. Principal of radiography
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Method and applications
Exposure time: X-ray
10 s to 10 mins,
gamma ray
1 min to 24 hours
After exposure, the cassette is developed and
fixed in the dark room.
The film is then view against the bright light.

Radiogram

Setting up to take radiograph

Examination of radiograph

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 Method and applications
Different intensity of the beam due
to discontinuities or defects in
the weld shown on the film.

Sound area Light

Defect Dark
Typical radiograph

Radiography detection also

depends on orientation of the flaw
with respect to the beam.
Used to detect defects in all types
of weldments and materials such as
aluminium, steel, magnesium.
Used in pipeline industry.

Orientation of flaw with respect to X-rays

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Precautions
www.arrowheadproducts.net
Require concrete, steel, lead-
lined bricks to house the X-ray to
protect the operator from
exposure.
On site operation is carried out
in distance.
X-ray is more manageable than
gamma ray. The area is safe when
switching off the X-ray source
while a radioactive isotope emits
radiation continuously and must be
kept in a shield container.

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 Ultrasonic inspection
A beam of ultrasonic vibration produced by
quartz crystal is directed into the specimen to
detect defects or discontinuities.
Sound area gives small loss of signal, except
when the ultrasonic is intercepted and reflected
by defects.
www.instytutgamma.com

Ultrasonic inspection of aluminium

Ultrasonic inspection

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 Ultrasonic inspection
There are two ways of using ultrasonic waves for welded joint inspection.

Transmission Reflection

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Method and applications
The location of the defect in the weld can be calculated.
Can be used to test all kinds of metals and materials, complex
weldments.
widely used.

www.olympusndt.com

Moving the probe to scan the thickness of Ultrasonic inspection in pipeline

the weld with an angle probe.

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Guide to weld quality control techniques

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Weld properties
Weldments normally possess a degradation of weld properties due to
changes in microstructures and defects.
Weld properties should be assessed in order to correctly select the
weldment, which can satisfy the condition in service.

Tensile properties
Hardness
Toughness
Fatigue
Corrosion

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Mechanical properties of weldments

Hardness profile

Hardness test orientation in the weld joint of

AISI 1040 friction weld
Hardness profile

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Mechanical properties of weldments
Tensile properties

Crack initiated at the weld zone

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Mechanical properties of weldments
Impact properties

Fractography of
weldments tested at (a)
Room temperature (b)
700oC
Fractography of base
metal at (a) Room
temperature (b) 700oC

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Mechanical properties of weldments

Impact properties

Charpy Impact Energy vTemperature

160

140

120

100
Im p act En erg y (J)

As Deposited
80
Reheated

60

40

20

0
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Temperature (oC)

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 Mechanical properties of weldments

Fatigue properties 1000

R = Pmin/Pmax = 0.1
Frequency ~ 70 Hz

800

Lower fatigue limit

max, MPa
600
was observed in
autogenous TIG weld
of titanium alloys in 400
comparison to the
base metal.
200

1e+3 1e+4 1e+5 1e+6 1e+7 1e+8

Number of cycle

TIMET bar III, AR

Autogenous BuRTi TIG weld, HT
Ti679-BuRTi-Ti679 TIG weld, AR

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Mechanical properties of weldments

Fatigue properties

1e-1

R = Pmin/Pmax = 0.1
Fatigue crack growth is Frequency = 0.25 Hz
1e-2
faster in the weld joint than TIMET bar III
m = 2.02
in the base metal.

da/dN, mm/cycle
BuRTi EBW01
m = 9.05
1e-3
Factors affecting the FCG BuRTi EBW02
m = 2.35
results are coarsening Ti679-BuRTi-TI679 TIG01
m = 6.84
microstructure, 1e-4
Ti679-BuRTi-Ti679 TIG02
embrittlement, precipitation m = 10.18

hardening, etc. 1e-5

1e-6
1 10 100

K, MPa.m1/2

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Corrosion of weldments
www.forensicmetallurgy.com

PLUMBING - PIPING Corrosion in

weld joint

Corrosion failure of underground propane pipe

Broken stainless steel air injection pipes in a sewage treatment plant
Cracking of brass inserts in fire sprinkler head adaptors
Freeze failure of copper plumbing and air conditioner fittings

Dry solder joints in copper plumbing fittings

Pitting corrosion of copper pipes using well water
Pitting of air conditioner copper heat exchanger chillier water tubing
Corrosion of steam boilers
Rust clogging of high rise building steam heating systems
Leakage of propane from a connector fitting with a worn rubber seal
Corrosion failures of underground fuel tanks

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References
Gourd, L.M., Principles of welding technology, 3rd edition, 1995,
Edward Arnold, ISBN 0 340 61399 8.
Cary, H.B., Modern welding technology, 4th edition, 1998, Prentice
Hall, ISBN 0-13-241803-7.
Sahin, M., Akata, H.E., Gulmez, T., Characterization of mechanical
properties in AISI 1040 parts welded by friction welding. 2006.
K.S. Guana, X.D. Xub, Y.Y. Zhangb and Z.W. Wang, Cracks and
precipitate phases in 321 stainless steel weld of flue gas pipe,
2005, Vol.12, Issue 4, p 623-633.

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