Unit I. A.

Social research and

its basic components

Alternatives Sources of
Knowledge to Social Science
Research

Dr Mani Ram Banjade

Dr Eak Rana
16-17 February 2020
 Methodology vs Method

 Methodology means understanding the entire research

process—including its social-organizational context,
philosophical assumptions, ethical principles, and the political
impact of new knowledge from the research enterprise.

 Methods refer to the collection of specific techniques we use

in a study to select cases, measure and observe social life,
gather and refine data, analyze data, and report on results.
 Concepts

Variable

 Variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time period, or any other type of
category you are trying to measure

Hypothesis

 The statement from a causal explanation or a proposition that has at least

one independent and one dependent variable, but it has yet to be
empirically tested.
Independent vs dependent variables

 Independent Variable: The first variable that causes or produces the effect
in other variables and is stand alone. Age of a person doesn’t depend on
what he/she eats or does.

 Dependent variable depends on other variables/factors. Total marks a

student scores depends on so many factors e.g. time spent in studying
Social Science Research

New knowledge could be accumulated in various ways

but research stands out: coherence of methods, principles
and findings makes it more reliable than other alternatives
 Alternatives Sources knowledge to
Social Science Research

 Knowledge from personal experience and common sense

 Knowledge from experts and authorities

 Knowledge based on popular and media messages

 Knowledge subordinated to ideological beliefs and values

 Knowledge from personal experience and
common sense
 “Seeing is believing” is a powerful type of knowledge. Unfortunately, it may be an illusion
and can lead us to wrong direction.
 A few people even purposely use the distortions of personal experience to mislead others
through propaganda, cons or fraud, magic tricks, political manipulation, and advertising
gimmicks.
 Researches are devoted to uncovering the ways we misjudge, over- or underestimate,
and make mistakes.
 Knowledge from personal experience, common sense “facts,” and reasoning might be
correct, but they can lead us astray (off track)
 Ex. response on racist behavior: What We Think We Will Do and What We Actually Do is
different
 Common sense:
 distributing condoms in schools will encourage teens to engage in sexual activity
 Imposing harsh punishment, such as the death penalty, decreases violent crimes
Problem of Common Sense

Erroneous “common sense” misperceptions have real

consequences. Moreover, the media often repeat and
spread the misperceptions, schools or businesses make
decisions based on them, and lawmakers and politicians
advance new laws or policies founded on them.
Problem of Personal Experience
 Overgeneralisation
Overgeneralization occurs when we have some believable evidence and
then assume that it applies to many other situations as well.

Examples

 You met three people from Oman: they behaved with you very nicely

 You met a Sherpa: she was very clever

 Over the years, I have personally known five people who are blind. All of
them were very outgoing and friendly. Can I conclude that all people who
are blind are friendly? Do the five people with whom I had personal
experience fully represent all people on the planet who are blind?
 Selective Observation
 We focus on particular cases or situations, especially when
they fit with our preconceived ideas. That is, we seek out
evidence that confirms what we already believe and
overlook the entire picture.
 If so, we dismiss contradictory information (consider them as
outliers or exceptions)
 For example, I used to believe that people who have fond
of eating are overweight. I observed my friends who are
overweight, they all were food lovers.
 Overweight people are outgoing and friendly. And thin
people are looking serious, distracted, or angry.
Halo Effect
 We take a report from Harward University more seriously
than reports from Tribhuvan University. We form an
opinion in advance, and I do not approach each report
on its own merits alone.

 Movie actors (hero and heroin) win elections in India

 We buy products endorsed by people we admire.

 Amir Khan promotes Coca Cola and we consider it as a

‘good’ drink.
False Consciousness

 We tend to see the views of most other people as

being similar to our own views

 Or, our own views are “normal” or “ordinary” in

comparison with others

 In terms of social events and issues, studies suggest

that most of us are not very good at judging the
thoughts of people around us.
 Knowledge from experts and authorities
 Source of what we know: parents, teachers, and experts as well as from books, film, television, the
Internet, and other media.
 Often we accept something as being true when told by an expert or a person with a position of
authority.
 A quick, simple, and inexpensive way to learn something, since an expert may have spent a great
amount of time to learn something.
 Problem: we may overestimate someone’s expertise, or authorities may speak on fields they know
little about; they can be plain wrong.
 Using the halo effect, an expert on one area may illegitimately act as an authority in a different area.
 Look at the commercials in which a movie star or football hero tries to convince you to buy a
product.
 Think thanks: some are genuine but others are the face of wealthy interest groups.
 Gastritis patients: Drinking luke warm water in the morning; drinking milk or black tea. When you have
cough: should you drink hot water? Can you have icecream? When you have swollen body part:
treatment with warm water or ice?
 More than finding an expert, it is important for us to learn how to think independently and evaluate
research on our own.
 Knowledge based on Popular and
Media Messages
 Talking to other people and from print and electronic media
 How many of us locate our 8 highest picks in Nepal’s map?
 A 2006 survey of young men and women ages 18–24 found about half could not
locate the states of New York or Ohio on a U.S. map (50% and 43%, respectively)
and a majority (63%) could not find Iraq on a map of the Middle East.
 Do we believe in witchcraft, horoscopes and astrology, ghosts (science has proved
them all wrong)
 धेरै मान्छे को विचार “कागले कान लग्यो भनेर कसैले भनेको आधारमा कागको पछछ दगन
ु े” खालको
हुन्छ ।
 Many people “follow the herd,” or rely on mass opinion. The mass media often
echoes mass opinion without serious evaluation.
 Many of us rely on the mass media (i.e., film, television, newspapers, magazines,
and Internet sources) for information but media can distort information and
exaggerate social events or issues.
Knowledge Subordinated to
Ideological Beliefs and Values

Despite the strength and availability of social

science research, some managers and decision
makers consciously reject it and instead promote
and defend actions based on their political,
religious, or ideological beliefs.
कपडा धन
ु ेकाममा को पोख्तः महहला िा परू
ु ष

 Common Sense: महहलाहरू सरसफाइमा अब्बल हुन्छन ् । कपडाको

रे खदे ख, रङ र पहहरन बारे जानकार हुन्छन ् । हामीले सानैदेखख दे खेको….

 Media: TVs, Movies – women enjoy and men mess up

 Experts: As children women are forced to make, select, mend

and clean clothings

 Ideological beliefs: Division of labor