PAO Tel afoda) COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAM CHEM & GEN SCI TEST SECRETS STUDY GUIDE Your Key to Exam Successee Table of Contents cHemistRY MATTER sen 5 ‘SUBSTANCES. 5 MoxTuRes. 6 ‘CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 6 ENERGY . iin ‘TYPES OF ENERGY . 7 [ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS. 8 PHASES OF MATTER. 9 ‘ASES.. 9 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY 9 PRESSURE, _ " 10 BOYLE'S LAW 0 ‘TEMPERATURE. z Se eee ree AL [STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (STP) : 7 2 COMBINED GAS LAW, : : wi oe DDALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES. 2 AVOGADRO'S LAW. B IDEAL GAS LAW-—RELATING PRESSURE, VOLUME, TEMPERATURE, AND MOLES. nee \VALENCE ELECTRONS AND DOT DIAGRAMS. ‘QUANTUM NUMBERS. IONS AND THE OCTET RULE.. ‘THE PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC TRENDS. [ARRANGEMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE METALS, NONMETALS, AND SEMIMETALS.. THE FAMILIES cnn ELECTRONEGATIVITY. IONIZATION ENERGY.. ATOMIC RADIUS omic Rabius. on BONDING. = INTRAMOLECULAR BOND VERSUS INTERMOLECULAR BONDS. JONI BONDING. Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/2998S64COVALENT BONDING. [NETWORK, COORDINATE COVALENT, AND METALLIC BONDS. 4 DIPOLE FORCES AND POLARITIES OF MOLECULES.. HYDROGEN BONDING \VAN DER WAALS (LONDON DISPERSION) FORCES.. ‘STOICHIOMETRY AND SOLUTION CHEMISTRY... ‘BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS. [MOLE RATIOS... Test 1 CHEMISTRY. Tost 2 CHEMISTRY. - : 35 Test 3 CHEMISTRY. GENERAL SCIENCE (MEASUREMENT. SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE TecuwoLocy Force. FRICTION. WATER... : 62 ‘AiR POLLUTANT. MATERIALS’ PROPERTIES. MELTING POINT, BOILING POINT. DIFFUSION vs OsMosis sonannnnnennnsnens 68 Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057703/3998564eaten semen: | ‘CAPILLARITY. ‘CHERMICAL ENERGY RADIANT ENERGY NUCLEAR FISSION/ NUCLEAR FUSION. HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY OR POWER. (GEOTHERMAL ENERGY . [NUCLEAR CHANGE... (WEATHER AND CLIMATE. ‘UPWELLING. ‘OBJECTS IN SPACE. Moon. SUN FACTS een PLANETS, LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ‘THE POSITION OF EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE. ‘THE MOTION OF THE EARTH IN SPACE.. LAYERS OF THE EARTH OBJECTS OF THE EARTH ROOK, (MINERALS GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES. [BRANCHES OF SCIENCE... FAMOUS SCIENTISTS... Test 1 GENERAL SCIENCE. ‘Test 2 GENERAL SCIENCE, Chemistry and Gen Sc 2014 09155057703/3996584PTS Tora and Review stems Kacipunon Branch | 2014 CHEMISTRY MATTER (Chemistry is the study of matter that i, anything that takes up space and has mass. Mass (0 ‘measure of the number of particles in an object) should not be confused with weight, which isthe influence of gravity on mass. Because gravitational forces can differ, an object that has the same mass fon Earth as it does on the moon will have 2 lower weight on the moon because there Is less of a _ravitational pull on the moon, Because matter has mass and takes up 2 certain volume (space), the density for any varety of ‘matter can be caleulated using the equation: ea Units typeally used to calculate density are grams (fr mass) and milter (mb for volume). Sometimes the unit cuble centimeters (em) is used instead of milters. Theze volumes ae equivalent. You will see an exception to the general ule when caleulating the density for gases later inthis book, ‘SUBSTANCES A substance can be defined as any variety of matter with identical properties and composition, Substances are cassie a either elements or compounds, Elements cannot be broken down chemically: made up of particular atom, the basic building block of matter ‘Compounds ~can be broken down chemically formed from the bonding of two or more elements ‘Consider the reactlon: CH, +20) > 24:0 + C02. ‘The reaction shows the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in diferent compounds. The chemical ‘equation also shows how the compounds change over the course of the reaction. Although the ‘compounds on the lft ofthe arrow are not the same ae those tothe right ofthe arrow, the elements in the reaction ae stl carbon, hydrogen, and exygen. sie. Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/399658%rs Tato ond Review Stems Katipunan Branch | 2014 MIXTURES ‘Migtures are the results ofthe combination of elements and/or compounds. na misture: ©The substances are not chemically combined (each substance retain its properties). (© The atios of substances can vary 1© The substances can be separated into the orginal elements and/or compounds Homogeneous have only one phase, or have a uniform appearance throughout, and any portion of the sample has the same properties and composition 1. solution ~ transparent; particle sizes atthe molecule or in level 2. colloid ~ homogeneous to the naked eye; wth particle sizes that consist of clumps of molecules; ‘examples ae fog and milk not separated by fitration 3. suspension ~ particles are large enough to be visible to the naked eye; examples are blood and _3erosol sprays; misture of particles can be separated by filtration, Heterogeneous - misturs that are made up of more than one phase or of different parts and can be separated physically. The different components are visibly distinguishable from one nother {An example of 2 homogeneous misture is homogenized mik. You do not have to shake mil before using it because al samples of homogenized milk willbe the same. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent and can be represented by a substance followed by the ‘symbol (ag) to show thatthe substance has formed homogeneous mixture with water (an aqueous solution. An example of a heterogeneous mbture Is a mixture of sand In water. The sand is sure to ‘tle to the bottom ofthe container ne matter how much you sir the mocture. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ‘All substances have physica and chemical properties. Physleal properties are the observable and measurable properties of substances, These Inlude ‘hase (sol liquor g35), color, odor density, bling or melting point. Chemical properties are the properties observed when a substance reacts with other substances. Chemical changes result in substances with diferent physical properties. For example, when iron (agra, solid metal) reacts with oxygen gas (an odorless, colorless gas} the resuitis iron oxide or rust (a solid that is orange-red in color. You could also note the changes inthe density, melting points, ‘and boling points ofthe iron, oxygen, and iron oxide. Chemistry and Gen Se 2014 09155057703/3998584rset eet | 204 ENERGY Chemistry le defined as the study of matter, but energy plays an important role in chemistry. Energy s defined asthe ability to do work. Eneray is conserved, that is, it snot created or destroyed ‘This means that the amount of energy lst by one system is clways equol to the amount of energy ‘gained by another. Energy can alko be converted from one form to another. For example, a toaster or a haldryer converts electrical energy Into heat energy. The units used for measuring amounts of energy are the joule or the calorie. Most people are more familar with the term calorie. This should not be a problem because the simple relationship between the two units that one calorie is equal to 4.18 joules. This ‘ati is helpful in seting up problems that ask for conversion of one unit to another. ‘TYPES OF ENERGY Energy 1s tound in many forms. AS mentioned above, energy can exist as heat or electri. (ther forms of energy are sound, ign, chemical energy, and nuclear energy. Probably the two most Important forms of energy in chemistry are potential energy and kinetic energy. 4. Potential energy - stored eneray 2. Kinetic energy - moving energy ‘Agood example is someone holding up 3 hammer, ready to strike anal. The hammer has the potential af alin onto the head of the nal As the hammer is swung downward and moves through the air, the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Because all of the energy is conserved, the potential energy stored in the harnmer i turned inte kinetic energy. As the hammer i ited to strike the rail again, the movement of the hammer upward becomes the potential energy stored forthe next strike on the head ofthe nal One thing to remember in chemistry i that neture prefers a lower enersy state. This rule ill be noted again and again inthis chemistry review. Chemistry ond Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/3998586Review Systems Katpunon Branch | 2014 FORMS OF ENERGY All forms of energy fall under two categories POTENTIAL KINETIC Potential energy is stared energy Kinetic eneray is onergy in mation. ‘Ris the metion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecles and substances + cuewicat ENERGY RADIANT ENERGY es samiincs nutes eNensy Scienermes eee ‘camel of wocoar seray. STORED MECHANICAL ENERGY GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY Suman ey nt ace ELECTRICAL ENERGY rca pg i mer of tet: pang ty re "cory caatoaoye ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS Energy may aso be absorbed or released ina reaction, When more energy is released then absorbed, the reaction is sad to be exothermic. When more energy is absorbed than released, the reaction is said ae nn aa 09155057703/3998584 (Chemistry and Gen Sc 2014rs Totariaand Review Stems Katipunon Branch | 2014 Notice that energy ls always absorbed and released in a reaction. The relative amounts are what ‘cause the reaction to be endothermic or exothermic. Also it takes energy to start the reaction. This called the activation energy (Ea). Finally, take nate ofthe difference In the energy ofthe reactants and ‘products. The change in the energy of the reactants or product i called the heat of reaction. This is designated by the symbol BH. This symbol stands forthe change in heat energy or enthalpy. (exts heat). PHASES OF MATTER ‘The basle properties of gases are these: ‘© Gases have no definite volume and can be compressed, (© Gases have no definite shape and take the shape of thelr container. (© Gasmolecules are spread far apart In adtion to these basic properties, there are a numberof theories and laws that tell more about how {g2ses behave. These are the major focus ofthis chapter. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY ‘The behavior of gases can further be explained with Kinetic Molecular Theory ot KMT. KM tells the faliowing: (© Gas molecules are individual particles that travel In a straight-line random motion. This wil continue until they colde o are acted upon by another force, sirae Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057705/3996580‘rs Tatra ond Review Stam Kospunan Branch | 2014 (©. Gas molecules continuously collide and transfer energy during these colsions. In an isolated ample of ga the net energy is conserved. (© The volume ofthe individual gas molecules i negligible compared tothe volume they occupy. 12 No forces of traction are considered to exist between the gas molecules, PRESSURE. {Gasos exert a pressure on other objects 2s they collide. This pressure exerted by a gas canbe defined as the amount of force exerted an an area. Anyone who has watched or Iistened to @ weather report can recall hearing about the barometric pressure oF atmospheric pressure. These pressures can difer as high and low pressure systems move across a particular region. There are two devices used to measure pressure exerted by gases, the mercury barometer and the manometer. The average pressure is called stondord pressure or normal barometric pressure. 7 “Three very common units that correspond to 760 mm Ng of pressure are: +10 atmospheres (atm) + 760 torr (after Evangelist Torricelli) +1013 kllopascals (kPa) (ne final unit encountered in measuring pressure is pounds per square {inch (ps). This unt is usualy reserved for measuring the ae pressure in 9 cars tires. BOYLE'S LAW Robert Boyle performed experiments to see how varying the pressure on a gas would affect the volume of the gas. Hs experiments showed that as the pressure on a gas was increased, the volume thatthe gas occupied decreased. Boyle was able to determine that, ata constant temperature, there was an inverse relationship between pressure and volume. That is, as the value of one factor Increased, the value of the other factor decreased. The graph below shows the mathematical relationship between pressure and volume. prose The equation PV = PiVz can be used to perform ealeulations using Boyle's Law to determine the fnal volume ofa gas after thas undergone a change in pressure. wipare Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/3998564‘15 Tuan ond Review stems Katipunn Branch | 2014 temperature ad volume, This relationship, unlke the relationship expressed by Bove's Law, was found tobe a direct relationship. That I, asthe temperature ofa gas Increased, so did the volume of the gas. “The graph below demonstrates a direct relationship: 250 vemperane °C 100 tis important o examine the topic of temperature before attempting to calculate using Charles’ Law: wv Ty Th ‘TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature Is defined asthe average kinetic energy of a sample. What does temperature really measure? Many people confuse temperature with heat. Temperature measures motion, hence the ‘definition “average kinetic energy.” There are two important temperature scales to know in chemistry, Celsius and KeWvin, 2. Celsius scale — based upon the freezing points an baling points of water, °C and 300°C respectively, 2. Kelvin scale ~ based upon the lowest temperature that can be achieved, 0 K or absolute zero. Ii believed that, at absolute 2er0 all motion of molecules stops. The Kelvin sale is used when solving problems because, unlike the Celsus scale, the Kelvin scale does not result ina negative number or 2 ze10 to multiply or divide by. °C+23=K (Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/3998564rnd ie te ot | 204 3. Fahrenheit scale ~ in the Fahrenheit scale of temperature the freezing polnt of water Is 32 degrees _and the bolting point is 212 degrees placing the bolting and melting points of water 180 degrees apart ‘Zero degrees Fahrenheit indicates the lowest temperature Fehrenhelt could obtain by a mixture of ice andsalt c= (F-32)x8 age epee F= Cx z+ 32 ‘STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (STP) Because experiments can involve wide range of conditions that can affect the experiment’s ‘outcome, a standard needs to be st t create» common st of conditions. Standard temperature and pressure, oF STP, is defined as O°C and 1 atm (273 Kand 760 tor). ‘Noel you encounter problems with phrases ike “at STP, youl have toute the aves 273K and atm a our solution. However the problem sas “at STP” but ges you vale, essay, fr temperature (eg. 2984), vou have to use the gen value 298K The STP conlton wil ony be appleable then to pressure COMBINED GAS LAW Charles’ and Boyle's Laws are used when the pressure and temperature of » system are held ‘constant, respectively. What happens if pressure, temperature, and volume are all changed Ina problem? The Combined Gas Law combines the laws of Charles and Boye. Notice that if you cover the ‘T's with your finger, Boyle's equation remains. Likewise, if you cover the P's, Charles’ equation remains. Rather than memorizing both equations for Charles’ and foyle's Laws, itis much easier to just ‘remember the Combined Gas Law and “cover” the varnbes that are being held constant apse Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/3998584P15 Tail ond Review Stems Katpunan Bron | 2014 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES Dalton discovered that when gases are mixed in the same container and they have the same temperature, the total pressure exerted by the gases is equal tothe sum ofthe pressures exerted by the individual gases. This can be seen in the equation: Ptotal = Pgast + Pyas2 + Pyos3. Consider a container that has a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gas. Ifthe pressure of the ‘oxygen gas s 400 tore and the pressure ofthe nitrogen gas is 360 torr, what is the total pressure? Using Doton’s Law of Pail Pressures, the total pressures the sum ofthese individual pressures, 760 torr. pone ; ‘eter xampe ge stove Wee an equation othe para ress trogen eas pee ee ae Stor what the par prev ofthe trogen a AVOGADRO'S LAW Equal volumes of gases will contribute to the total pressure equally. For example, suppose a container is filed with 0% neon gas and SOK argon g3s and the total pressure ofthe gases is 760 torr. ‘The pressure of each gas would be 380 tor. If the volumes of the gases are not equal, the percentage of ‘the volume that each gos occupies wil contribute an equal percentage tothe total volume. IDEAL GAS LAW—RELATING PRESSURE, VOLUME, TEMPERATURE, AND MOLES. ‘The Ideal Gas Low is derived from Kinetic Molecular Theory. Now that you have examined some 425 laws, you can rephrase KMT and realize that idealy, gas molecules: + Should be as for apart os possible low pressures and high temperatures are best for this condition) + Should have os ittle mass as possible ke H or He) + Should have no attraction foreach other, "should be noted that gases do deviate from dealty, and there are equations that ean adjust caleulations to compensate for nonideal situations. These equations, however, are complex and are beyond the focus of this review. PV =nRT ‘You will notice two new variables in this equation, n and R. The variable n stands forthe number of moles ofthe gas and Ris constant, Before you can use this equation you must frst become familar with the mole and what t stands for. air Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 109185057703/3998504PS Tri and Review Stems Kt you buy a dozen eggs you expect to open the carton and find 12 eggs inside, The term “dozen” {is used as a substitute for the word “twelve.” The same idea applies when using the term “mole.” A ‘mole af “something” fs equal to 6.02 » 1023 of those “things.” For example 2 mole of carbon atoms is {6.02 « 10" carbon atoms. The number 6.02 x 10" is also known as Avogadro's Number. [As for the constant, 8, the value of this constant depends upon the units being used for pressure, temperature, and volume. When you use the conventional units of liters, atmospheres, and Kelvin, the value nd unite are 0.0820 (Leatm/(molek) Liquips Liquids are characterized by thei definite volume. Unlike gases, liquids (for the most part) cannot be compressed. Liquids, like gases, donot have a definite shape and wil take the shape of the container they re placed in The molecules ofa liquid are constantly touching one another because of the forces that exist between them and hold them together. These forces are not strong enough to hold the molecules in fixed postion a isthe case fer solids. Liquide are constantly evaporating t their zurface. Thetis, the molecules at the surface of the liquid can achieve enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces between them and they can move into the gas phase. This process s called vaporization ar evaporation. As the molecules of the Hquld enter the fas phase, they leave the ligud phase witha certain amount of force. This amount of force is called the ‘vapor pressure. Vapor pressure depends upon the temperature of the liquid. Think about a pot of water ‘thats beng heated in preparation for dinner. The water starts out cold and you do not see any steam. ‘As the temperature of the water increases you begin to see more steam. As the temperature of the ‘water molecules increases, the molecules have more kinetic energy, which allows them to leave the liquid phase with more force and pressure. You can then conclude that as the temperature of liquid Increases, the vapor pressure increases as wel This direct relationship, BOILING POINT ‘As mentioned earlier, the bolling point of water I 100°C or 373 K. Why does this phenomenon ‘cur at ths temperature? Does it always occur at this temperature? Is I true that water will oll at 100°C or 373 K provided that the atmospheric pressure Is 760 tor? A temperature of 100°C or 373 Kis iat is referred to as the normal bling point of wate, the temperature at which water wil boil when the atmospheric pressure is 760 tor. But why does water bol at this temperature? When water is heated to 373K, the vapor pressure ofthe water molecules is 760 tor, a vapor pressure that is exactly the same asthe atmospheric pressurel That answers the question: Aliqu bolls when the atmospheric pressure Is equal tothe vapor pressure af the liquid. Does water always boll at 100°C? No, it does not, because atmospheric pressure can change. if low pressure system is over the region where you lve, atmospheric pressure fz lower and water will boil at 2 temperature below 100°C because @ lower temperature s needed to achieve the lower required vapor pressure. Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 (09185057703/3998504Review Systems Ratiponon Brock | 2016 ‘SOLIDS Solids are characterized by their definite shape and volume. The atoms Ina Solid have a rild, ‘xed, reguiar geometric patter. These properties result fom the fact that atoms in a solid constant vibrate, but vibrate in place. When solids are heated to high enough temperatures they have enough kinetic energy to undergo the process of melting and tuning into a liquid. The meting point ofa sold is the temperature at which this occurs. When aliquid changes into a sold the process called freeing. It should be polted out that the melting snd freezing points of» solid are the exact same temperature. For example, ice melts at 273 K and water freezes at 273 K ‘SUBLIMATION AND DEPOSITION “Dry ice isthe term for solid carbon dioxide. Dry ice can change fom the solid phase right to a {25 phase, without any apparent lquld phase in between. This process called sublimation. Some other substances that can sublime are mothballs (naphthalene) and solid iodine. Deposition can be thought of boing the opposite of sublimation. In this process gas will form a slid, again without any apparent liquid phase in between, ATOMIC STRUCTURE ‘SuBATOMIC PARTICLES - Protons Neutrons Electrons Wass T atomic mass_unit TAMU T7iase amu (amu) Charge “ wo charge = Loeation udeus ‘Nucleus Principal energy Tevele orbiting around the cleus \soropes ‘Quite often you encounter an element's symbol written with a few numbers. These numbers tell ‘quite abit about the nucous ofthe element in question. Look at ths common example: B¢ ‘The number 12, shown as a superscript, is called the mass number for the element. The mass ‘number Is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. Because protons and neutrons are the particles in the nucleus ofthe atom, they make up the mass of the atom because the ‘masses ofthe electrons are minimal in comparison. The number 6, shown as a subscript, is called the ‘atomic number. This can be defined as the number of protons in the nucleus, the nuclear charge (protons are the only nucleons witha charge), or the number of electrons in a neural atom. Haw many neutrons are in carbon-12? To find the number af neutrons inthe atom, subtract the atomic number ‘rom the mass number. In this case there ae 6 neutrons inthis atom. asirore Chemistry ond Gen Sci2014 (09185057703/3998584rs eet Review stem Katipunan Branch | 2014 ‘There exst other carbon atoms with diferent mass numbers: arbon-13 and carbon-18. Here is 8 comparison ofthese carbon atoms: Carboni? cs Carboni Number of Protons / Atomic Number 6 6 6 Number of Neutrons 6 7 a Maze Number 2 2 uu Notice that there is something diferent about the nucleus of these carbon atoms. These atoms are ‘sotopes of one another. The similarities and diferences are shown below: 'wotopes have the same: Isotopes havea different: ‘Atomic number ‘= Number of neutrons + Number of protons + Mass number Name ofthe element Isotopes can help determine the atomic moss (aot mass number) of an element. The atomic ‘mass for an eloment can be found on the periosi table. The atomic mass is 2 number that contains ‘decimal places. Why? Can there be 2 fraction ofa proton or neutron? The atomic mass isnot a whole number because the atomic mass takes into account all of the masses ofthe isotopes ofan atom and ther relative abundance. For example, bromine has two isotopes, bromine-79 and bromine-8. thas ‘been dscovered that 50% of al bromine atoms are bromine-78 and 50% are bromine-81. From this you can calculate why the atomle mass of bromine i 80. VALENCE ELECTRONS AND DOT DIAGRAMS ‘Valence electrons play 2 huge role in bonding, as wl be shown later. Valence electrons are the electrons that are in the outermost principal energy level (not to be confused with the outermost subshal). These electrons are important because they are the electrons that are lst, gained, or shared ‘when forming chemical Bonds. The valence electrons ofan atom ae the electrons that interact withthe valence electrons of anather atom to form these bonds. ‘PROBLEM: How many valence electrons aren the elements Na, P, Cl, and Ca? ‘Solution: Look 3 the electron configurations fst ‘Na = 15'262p"3s!, Nahas one valence electron 1s'26 2p'3e'3p" Phas five valence electrons. l= 15'2629°3s?3p. cl has seven valence electrons. a= 1s'25'2p°33p%4s. Ca has two volence electrons Chemisry and Gem Set 2014 09155057703/399658%rrr nare ttt pie epen rt | 300 When dlagramming the shapes and structures of atoms tis important to have corect valence dot diagrams. These diagrams are easy to draw because they follow a simple pattern. There are two rules you need to remember when drawing valence dot diagrams ©The frst two electrons go tagether on the same side of the symbol os if they were fling the = corbito. (©The nes six electrons fl singly then pair up according to Hun’ rule, os if they were filing the p ‘orbital. A good way to remember this rue 1 to say to yourself, “Single, single, single, then poire, paired, paired.” QUANTUM NUMBERS “To help keep track of each electron present In an atom, four quantum numbers are assigned to ‘each electron. The rules for asigring quantum numbers are as follows: ©The frst number is called the principal quantum number, n, and It can be any whole number Integer. The fist quantum number, n, represents the principal energy level thatthe electron in ‘question isin. For example the one electron in Hs is! and n wil equal 1. The valence electron ‘oft, 15°25, will have n equal to ‘© The second number Is called the angular momentum quantum number, , and it can be an Integer fom 0 to 1. The second quantum number represent the subleve that the electron {sin Ifthe electrons in the orbital then /= 0 An electron inthe p orbital wil have /= 2, and $0 10 The third number is called the magnetic quantum number, ml, and it ean be an integer that ranges from ~ to + | The third quantum number hel us identify in which region of exch sublovel the electron in question i located. These regions are specifi orbitals © The fourth quantum number is ms and it can only be a value of +1/2 oF -1/2. The fourth ‘quantum number represents the direction ofthe electrons spin. The opposite signs represent the opposite spins. ‘©. Assigning quantum numbers tothe electrons of 2 few simple atoms wil help us learn how to assign these numbers PROBLEM. An atom of hydrogen hat one electron and ite labeled 2. What will the quantum number be? Solution: nhs ease, 'n will be equa to 1 because the electron Is in prinelpal energy level. must be O because i 2 number fom Oto n~ 1. ‘mlis equal to O because the value of is 0 mss equal to +1/2 ‘The quantum numbers ae 1,0, 0,41/2. ae Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 (09185057703 /3998564Review tems Katpunn Branch | 2014 PROBLEM. Assign quantum numbers to the valence electron of ithum atom. Solution: The soe valence electron for ithium hasan electron configuration of [Hel2s!, From this we can see thet n= 2 because the valence electron is In the second principal energy level ‘can be either 0 or 1 (2 1 = 1). We assign the 0 fist as |= 1 ‘because it wil not be used until we start to fil the p orbitals. mis equal to O because the value of 1's. mss equal to+1/2 ‘The quantum numbers are 2, 0, 0, 44/2. PROBLEM: Assign quantum numbers forthe tenth electron to fil neon atom. Solution: = 2,!= 1, l= Land ms = 1/2, IONS AND THE OCTET RULE ‘The number of electrons in an atom can be found by looking atthe atomic number, provided the atom is neutral. In a neutral atom the numberof protons equal tothe numberof electrons. The balancing ofthe postive and negative charge is what makes the atom neutral, But what happens if an atom gains or loses electrons? When an atom loses of tains electrons it becomes an ion. The atom now has an Snequal number of protons end electrons (the number Of protons does not change). When an atom loses electrons, it loses negative charges. n this ease, the protons outnumber the electrons and the ion is positvely charged. An ion with a positive charge is Called 2 cotion. When an atom gains electrons it gains negative charges. n this case, the electrons outnumber ‘the protons and the ion is negatively charged. An fon with a negative charge is called an anion Just how many electrons wil an atom gain or lose? How much ofa charge will an lon take on? There fa simple pattern to folow but in the end you will ee that i all depends upon the numberof valence electrons that an atom has. There is one thing ‘that al ons have in common: They form so that they have eight valence electrons in the outermost principal eneray level. Ths is called the octet rule. Having eight electrons inthe valence shell gives the atom a stable electron configuration. Once eight valence lectrons have been achieved, itis very dificult to modify this stable configuration. To determine the charge an atom wil take on 25 anion ist look at the electron configuration of the atom. Sodium, for example, has 11 electrons and the electron configuration of 15°25'2p°3s, In order to achieve an octet, sodium has two options—gain seven electrons or lose jst one, Losing one electron isa much easer task than gaining seven electrons, When ‘the sodium atom loses one electron loses a negative charge, the sodium lon has a charge of 1+ and the stom is written 2s Nal. After the one electron has been lost, the new electron configuration of sodium te 12'262p°, The eight valence electrons are shown in bold to emphasize the octet rule. Another example would be the ion formed for sulfur. Sulfur has the electron configuration of 1<'2¢2p°3s'3p*, Chemistry and Gen St 2014 09155057703/3996584Sulfur has sic valence electrons a shown in bol. For sulfur to achleve a stable octet It could elthe lose Six electrons or gan two electrons. Ganing two electrons is 2 more feasible tsk, and the gan of two clectrons wil pve sulfur a2 charge. The new electron configuration for sulfur is 1:2s'25°3'3p°, Again, the eight valence electrons have been emphasized. PROBLEM: What lle the charges ofthe fllowing elements when they form an ion: Ca, AF, N, Ne? Solution: Start with the electron configurations for each atom: contslaeaptastaptast Alnts2'2p'3s"3p! Foas2s'op* N=1s!26'29? Ne—1025'2p° Now look atthe configurations and decide which i the easest way to obtain a stable octet Calcium wil lose two electrons and become Ca™. Aluminum wil ose three electrons and become Al". Fluorine will gain one electron and become F. Nitrogen wil gain three electrons and become N™. Neon wil not lose or gain any electrons because ofits stable octet EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE ‘There are exceptions ta the octet rule. Helm, for example, is incredibly stable with just two valence electrons i its outermost principal energy level. The same holds tru for lithium and berylium ‘23s wall. This indicates that it isn’t co much having an octet that stabilizes the ator, as Iti the issue of ‘having 2 full outermost principal enery level. One last exception to the octet rule isin the bonding of the atom boron. Boron prefers si electrons in Its outermost principal energy level. This allows compounds containing boron to make three bonds ina trigonal planar arrangement. Chemistry and Gon Sci2014 09155057703/3990564‘PS Tartana Review Sto Ktpunan Branch | 2014 THE PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC TRENDS ARRANGEMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE ‘The periodic table contains a number of periods and groups. The periods are the horizontal ‘ows. They are numbered 1 through 7. The groups (or families) are the vertical columns. They are ‘numbered 1 through 18, You don’t have to memorize the period table. Ifyou willbe asked 2 question ‘that needs information fom the periodic table, you wl be provided withthe given. METALS, NONMETALS, AND SEMIMETALS ‘wo categories of elements on the periodic tale are the metols and the nonmetols. ‘Their properties are summarized inthe chart below: ‘wet Nonmetaie ‘Are ductile and canbe rolled into Are soft and brite Chin wires sLackluster + Are malleable and can be hammered ‘Are poor conductors of heat Into thin sheets ‘+ Are poor conductors of electricity += Conduct heat + Tend to gain electrons and form ‘Conduct elecrety anions Have a shiny ster + Tend to lose electrons and became cations {Make up two-thirds of the period table ‘The semimetal, or metalods, ae known to exhibit some ofthe properties of metals and some (of those of nonmetals. The semimetals are B i, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and At. The elements located tothe left Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 109155057703/399856415 Tutrotond Review sts Katipunan Branch | 2014 ‘ofthe semimatals ae the metals; those tothe right ofthe semimetals are the nonmetal. ldentiving an element as a metal, nonmetal, oF semimetals important in identifying periodic trends and in identifying the types of bonds that toms wil form with eachother. ‘THE FAMILIES Name | Group Namiber ‘Special Properties ‘kal Metals | Group 1 “A group etal have one valence electron, When they form ions, they wil have charge of 1+ Group 1 alkali metals ars highly reactive and wil enc vigorous with water. ‘kaline Grou? ‘All group 2 metals have two valence electrons. When they arth Meta {orm ions, they wil have a charge of 2+. Group 2 alkaline earth metals are highly reactive and willeact with water. Transition | Groupe 350, d| Transition metale are famous for the colored sake and Metals block ‘colored solitons they form. Many gems contain numerous ‘ranstion metals. tls hard to predict the charge of ‘ranstion metal ion because the transition metals have multiple oxidation tates. One transition metal Hg exists ae a guid a room temperature, Talogens ‘Group? Halogen (sat formers) have seven valence electrons and form ions with a charge of 2-. The halogens exist in three [phases at room temperature. Fluorine isa pale yellow gs, Chlorine sa green gs, bromine sa brown-orange quid, and Fodine ia purple soi. Table (ner) | Group 8 "Noble gases Rave a full outer shell and wil ot react to form ares ons o share electrons, lanthanides | Flock “These elements have their valence electrons cated W the F and Actinides orttas and are radioactive in nature ‘There are important periodic trends that occur across the periods and up and down the groups. It is best to remember the trends of just a few elements. This wil simplify the trends greatly and make the periodic trend questions the easiest to answer on the test. ELECTRONEGATIVITY lectronegativity's a measure ofan atom's ably to attract electrons. The electronegativts of the elements are given a value of Between 0.0 and 4.0. The greatest electronegativty value goes to fluorine, 4.0. So where i the element withthe lowest electronegativity? Look furthest fom fverine and across tothe bottom left ofthe periodic table. Francium, Fr, has an electronegativity of 0.7. This should make sense because nonmetals tend to gain electrons and have 2 higher electronegativiy value, whereas metas tend to lose electrons and have 2 lower eletronegatiity value. Secause they don't Feact, the noble gases do not have a vale for eletronegatiity PROBLEM: Whichis expected to have a lower electronegativty, Na or S? Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 99155057703/399658¢Ps Tra ond Review tee Ktpunan Branch | 2014 IONIZATION ENERGY Ionization energy, as its name suggests, is the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom and form an lon. This concept should be easy to recognize inthe periodic table once you have lrasped the idea of electronegativiy lt takes alot of energy to remove electrons from the very stable ‘octets ofthe noble gases. For example, for helium the fst lonlzation eneray is 2372 ki/mol, whereas ‘eon has a first ionization energy of 2081 ki/mol. Fluorine, with the highest electronegativity and the ality t “hold onto” electrons has ist ionization energy of 1681 k/mol. You might have guessed by ‘ow thatthe opposite holds true forthe metals as you move further away from fluorine and the noble {ases, The proof lies inthe fist ionization energies for iron (762 kl/mol) and potassium (439 ki/mel). ‘These values ae ust a fraction ofthe fst ionization energies for certain nonmetals. PROBLEM: Which is expected to have a greater lonzation energy, C3 or Br? ATOMIC RADIUS ‘The atomie radius of an atom can be defied asthe stance from Is nucleus tothe outermost clectron ofthat ator. As you go down a group, the radus ofthe atoms will increase asthe atoms fil ‘more principal energy levels with electrons. The proaf for this trend can be seen in thium, which has an ‘atomic radius of 355 plcometers (10-12 meters), and cesium, which has an atomic radius of 267 picometers. You might expect the same to happen as you examine the elements from lft to right across ' period. lithium has fewer electrons than fluorine then ithium should havea smaller radius than ‘uorine, right? Wrong! Fluorine has nine electrons and lithium has just three, yt orine has an atomic radius of 57 picometers and lithium a radius 155 picometers. Why the difference? Fluorine has more protons and positive charge ints nucleus than does ithium, Ie tuns out that when looking at atomic ‘adi across 2 period, itis the nuclear charge (and not the numberof electrons) that determines the radius of the atom IONIC RADIUS ‘As covered in the previous chapter, atoms can gan of lose electrons. The resulting los can be expected ta be ofa diferent radus than that ofthe original atom. When 2 nonmetal gains an electron, ‘the ionic radius ofthe anion will be bigger than that ofthe nonmetal atom. The opposite holds true for ‘metal atoms and cations. Metalslose electrans and wil experience a decrease in their radius. BONDING INTRAMOLECULAR BOND VERSUS INTERMOLECULAR BONDS This chapter examines what itis that holds matter together. The “glues” that ae responsible for holding atoms together with other atoms and molecules with other molecules are called bonds Intramolecular bonds are the bonds that are found within molecules. In other words, Intramolecular bonds hold atoms to other atoms. These bonds vary depending onthe types of element involved inthe bonding process. Intermolecular honds ae the bonds between molecules. These bonds are what give substances their varying melting points, boing polns, and vapor pressures. Chemistry ond Gen Si 2014 09155057703/3996506‘The rules that govern bonds between atoms and molecules can be quite tricky. It may be worthwhile to review the chapters involving atomic structure and the periodic table/trends before you tackle the material presented here. 6.0 sear eay IONIC BONDING Tonic bonds are very strong bonds that are formed between a cation and an anion. The fone bond is formed when 2 metal loses or transfers an electron (or electrons) to 3 nonmetal so that the ‘metal and nonmetal form fons that have a full outermost principal energy level. The cations and anions ‘thus formed then attroet each other's opposite charges. The attraction between oppositely charged particles is called an electrostatic force. ‘The reaction between Na and Cl to form NaC! gies a good picture of how this works. Sodium thas an electron configuration of 1s'25!2p"3s", whereas chlorine has 2 configuration of 1s°25!2p's"3p" Sodium has one valence electron that needs to be given away to achieve an octet; chlorine has seven valence electrons and needs just one more to complete its outermast principal energy level. COVALENT BONDING Covalent bonds are formed when two nonmetal atoms share electrons in order to satiety their need to have a full outermost principal energy evel. Covalent bonds are not as strong asthe bonds formed between ions. For example, it would take a high flame and a temperature of almost 800 degrees Celsius to break the bonds between the sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride. The covalent bonds ‘ound in methane canbe broken instantly withthe introduction of ait match tis not enough to simply say that a compound has covalent bonds because there ae different types of covalent bonds. One type of covalent bond is called the nanpolar covalent bond, inthis case the sharing of electrons is equal between the atoms. This occurs because the electronegatiities of the atoms involved are (almost) the same. For example, hydrogen gas has an equal sharing of electrons ‘between ts two atoms: Hit. HO HH This diagram showing how the valence electrons interat i called a Lewis structure In ths e356 ‘both hydrogen atoms have stlsfied ther need to have a fll outermost principal energy level. Because both hydrogen atoms have the same electronegativity, the atoms will hare the electrons equal. This Broce Chemistry ond Gen Sci 2014 (09155057703/3998564will be the case with any diatomle molecule, such as chlorine gas. Because the hydrogen and chlorine atoms share a common pai of electrons, the two “dots” can be replaced with a “dash” to represent that ‘a bond has been made. The valence dot diagrams can be rewritten os: H—H and CI—-Cl. The bond thats represented by the “dash” is called 2 single bond because there is one pair of electrons being shared between the two atoms. The structure of elatomle nitrogen tells a different story. When you put two atoms of nitrogen next to each other, you see that each atom has three single electrons that want to air up. Te two ritrogen atoms share six electrons or three pais of electrons. This means that there are three bonds between the two nitrogen atoms, N2N. This is called a trple bod. The other case to be ‘examined is one that involves double bonds. Carbon dioxide ha two double bonds that form O=C=0. “The bonds found between carbon and oxygen raise 2-new Issue regarding bonding. Because the clactronagatties for carbon and exygen are diferent (they differ by 0 to 3.7), the bond ls called 2 ‘polar covalent bond. Te polar covalent bond is characterized by the atoms having an unequal sharing of slectrons Because the negatively charged electrons spend more time with the more-electronegative tlement, the morevelectronegative element will experience 2 negative charge, hence the reason it is called electronegativity. Hydrogen chloride has a polar covalent bond between the hydrogen and ehlorine atoms. NETWORK, COORDINATE COVALENT, AND METALLIC BONDS ‘There is another important type of covalent bonding besides the nonpolar and polar covalent ‘bonds just discussed ae —H+H" — H-N—# 4 In this example the fre pair of electrons that is located on the nitrogen atom donates two clectrons toward the bond that f formed with the hydrogen ion. Normally when @ covalent bond is formed, one electron comes from each of the atoms that are bonding. In ths case the hydrogen ion dl rot donate any electrons toward this bond. When one atom donates both electrons In the covalent bond the bond is called a coordinate covalent bond. Water provides another example of 2 coordinate covalent bandas chown here. In every example seen 40 far the covalent bonds have held atoms together inorder to make ‘molecules. However, there exist substances such as dlamond and graphite where the carbon atoms are covalently bonded but do nat bond to form molecules. Such cases are called network solids; the atoms bond to each other in a continuous network. The large network glves these solids avery high melting Chemistry and Gen Sc 2014 (09155057703 /3998504rte re ro | 204 Point Also note that because both diamond and graphite are made up of the same element and are ferent substances, they are labeled allotropes of eachother Finally, there isthe metollic Bond that occurs between metals. The atoms of metals hold onto their electrons very loosely, which s why metals conduct electrity so wel, The loosely bound electrons are often referred to as the "sea af electrns.” Tweet] Typesof | flection ]_ifferencein | Molecule | Strength of Inamotecular | Elements | Movement | Electronegatvity | Present? nd ‘Bond Involved Tooke Tatals ané | Eleevons are | Eletroneeativity | Wa Strong. Havea rnonmentals | transferred | lifferences are high making 1.8 and higher point x Noch ‘onpalar | Nonmetals | Plecirons are | Electronegatvty | Ver ‘weaker. Have Covalent | and nonmetals | shared evenly. diferences are low meting 0.4 and lower points. Polar Covalent | Nonmetals | Elecvonsare | Elecionegatuty | Yor ‘Weaker Have and nonmetals | notchared | aiferences are low melting evenly. o5t017 points. Electrons Ex water, ee spend more time with mare lectronegative clement ‘Coordinate | Wonmetals | Both electrons Yer Weaker, Can Covalent | and aeation | inthe bond be removed in camefrom one acid-base clement reactions ex Ho" Wetwork | Wonmetais Electrons are We ‘Strong. Haves ‘and nonmetal | shared high metting Ex. dlomond, etal ‘tale and | Electrons are Wo Strong. Haves metals loosely bound high melting bythe metal point. atoms Exiron DIPOLE FORCES AND POLARITIES OF MOLECULES Bisa Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/399856%Review Stems Kouparan Brack | 2014 Because bonds can be polar and molecules can have certain shapes, electrons can “bulld up" on ‘one side of a molecule and make one end carry a slight negative charge. When a molecule has this type ‘of “buildup” of negative charge on one side and a postive charge on another side, the molecule s said tobe a dipole. This isthe case with HCL. Ina molecule of HC, not only are the bonds polar covalent, but because the electrons spend more time with chlorine than hydrogen, the chlorine end ofthe molecule has @ negative charge on it. HCI is 2 dlpole, or polar, molecule becauce the diferences in lectronegativity have created the “two poles” HYDROGEN BONDING ‘ydrogen bonding is 2 weak force that comes about when hydragen is bonded to fluorine, ‘oxygen, oF nitrogen. A good mnemonic device to useis "We heard about hydrogen bonding on the FON (ohone}.* When hydrogen is bonded to fluorine, cxygen, oF nitrogen, the hydrogen will form a weak hhydrogen bond with 2 neighboring fuorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom. One important application of hydrogen boning les in our genetic code DNA. In molecule of ONA, two strands are held side by side at the nitrogen bases. It is hydrogen bonding that holds the nitrogen base of one strand to 2 nitrogen base of the second strand, Hydrogen bonds are strong enough in thelr greater numbers to hold ‘the strands side by side and help DNA create its double helix structure. However, when DNA replicates, ‘the hydrogen bonds are weak enough o be broken so that each strand can be replicated individually. Hydrogen bonds re also what give water an unusually high boiling point. ‘VAN DER WAALS (LONDON DISPERSION) FORCES Even though nonpolar molecules are not thought of as having any attraction between them, ‘there exists one very weak, temporary attraction called the Van der Waals force. You wil often hear this force called the dispersion force a8 well This fore is & temporary force that comes about from the ‘possiblity ofthe electrons moving randomly and creating an uneven charge around the atom. The most Important thing to know about the Van der Waals force &s that, besides existing between nonpolar ‘molecules, the force becomes stronger as the atomic masses of the nonpolar molecules becomes treater. This explains why the nonpolar diatomic molecular halogens exit in three diferent phases. As the atomic mass increases, so do the Van der Waals forces between the molecules. This causes the ‘molecules to be held together more tightly as the atomic masses increase. lodine, the heaviest of the halogens listed, has the greatest mass and the greatest Van der Waals forces and exists a 2 slid wires Chemistry and Gen Si 2014 09155057703/3996508Iron ReStmRte ch This chart provides a handy summary of intermolecular bonding. ‘Dipole Forces “The molecules polar if ‘© There exists poar bonds AND 10 The molecule isnot symmetrical AND ‘2 There sno counterbalance of the dpole arrows. ‘The molecule s nonpolar if ‘© There are no polar bonds at all OR ‘©. There ext polar bonds while the dipole arrows counterbalance because of symmetry inthe molecule, Hydrogen Bonding Fiydrogen bonding wil ewst there are hydrogen toms bonded tthe atoms fluorine, oxygen r nitrogen inna molecule, Remember: “FON.” Van der Waals "Nonpolr molecules wil experience temporary attractions (Condon Dispersion) as electrons move randomly. Van der Waals forces Forces become stronger as the atoms and molecules become heavier and heavier STOICHIOMETRY AND SOLUTION CHEMISTRY Stoichiometry isthe branch of chemistry that deals withthe amount of products produce from certain amounts of reactants. Most of the chemistry discussed so far inthis book has dealt with whet is present (qualitative chemistry). The next step is to examine how much is present (quantitative chemistry) (CHEMICAL FORMULAS (Chemical formulas net only tell which elements are present in a compound but also how much of each element is present. There are three different types of chemical formulas that need to be ‘examined. The chart below shows the major differences between them. ‘Symbols You right think that chemical symbols tll only which element & present. For ‘example, the chemical symbol C simply means the element carbon. In fact, the symbol Cin an equation tells you not only that carbon is present, but aso that one rote or one atom of carbon is present. ‘Molecular | Molecular formulas indicate the total number of stom of each element that are Formulae present in 2 covalently bonded molecule. An example is Ci which indicates that there is one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms in this covalently bonded molecule of methane, Empiieal Tonic compounds form latices that have an almost endless numberof fons Bonded Formulas together. Because its imposible to count every ion ina sample, the lowest ratio of the elements present in the compound is used. A great example of {hiss NaCl In every sample of NaC there Is one sodium lon to every chlorine ion. This does not mean that empirical formulas are limited to only ionic compounds | mirsse (Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/3998564| For example, you examine the empiical formula of glucose GAO, and see that Fis CH4O, then you can better understand the term carbohydrate to mean “hydrated carbon.” BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS. Balancing 2 chemical equation requires an understanding ofthe Low of Conservation of Moss, ‘which says that mass cannot be created or destroyed. The amount of mass n the reactants wil be the amount of mass in the products. The credit for this dscovery is gven to Antoine Lavoisier, who took ery careful measurements ofthe quantities of chemicals and equipment that he used. Conservation of mass also holds true when balancing equations. The number of atoms ofeach element in the reactants will be equal tothe number of atoms of each element in the products. A useful mnemonic device for Conservation of mass is "What goes in, must come out.” ‘The two most important rues to remember when balancing equations are: (© You may change only the coefcents. (2 Youu must use the lowest whole number coefcients Now add one more unofficial rule to those listed above: (© Leave the simplest substance unt las. ‘Step by step you can naw balance an equation. Try this example Al+ 0,9 AlsOs Inspection shows that you should leave the reactant Al for last because its the “simplest” and rot bonded to any other elements. Inspection also shows that two oxygen atoms enter the reaction and three leave the reaction. The numbers twa and three are factors ofthe number six, Therefore you can alter the coeficients that are before the substances cantaning oxygen and get Al + 302-> 2ALO3 “This now shows 2 total of six oxygen atoms as reactants and six oxygen atoms 2s products. The coefficients are multipliers and not only modify the number of angen atoms, but modify the number of ‘aluminum atoms as well in aluminum oxide. Now you have four atoms of aluminum onthe right side of ‘the equation. To balance this, place 3 coeticient of 8 before the Al onthe reactant side and et 4Al+ 303-9 241,05 Does it all add up? Four aluminum atoms and six oxygen atoms are on the reactant side of the equation and four aluminum and si oxygen atoms are onthe product side ofthe equation. Chemistry and Gen Set 2014 (09155057703/3998584eat en aeet none In addition to balancing chemical equations, you can also classify the types of reactions that ‘occur. There are four types of reactions: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, and double replacement. Explanations and examples ofeach ae a follows (© Inasynthesis reaction, many substances come together to form one compound: A+B AB (© Ima decomposition reaction, one compound breaks down into many substances: Y2>Y42 © Inatsingle replacement reaction, one element replaces one other element, AB+C>CB+A © Ina double replacement reaction, two elements “switch partners” AB 4+XY > AY4+ XB MOLE RATIOS ‘Armole ratio isthe ratio ofthe number of males of one substance to the number of moles of another substance, Because coefficients can represent moles, molecules, or atoms, you can thnk of 3 mmole rato as a “coeffcent ratio” For example, look at the equation for aluminum oxide, AA + 302 -> 2AL,Os. You can pick any two substances from the equation and determine thelr mole ratio. The mole ratio of Alto ALO i 442 of 21, while the mole ratio of 0: to ALO, is 3:2, This leads to another type of problem that you ‘might encounter. Suppose you were asked to produce 1,000 moles of AO for abi chemical company. How much aluminum and oxygen would you need te purchase? Start with the balanced equation: 4AI + 30 -> 2s. . sion te = 2103 stu 2 PrOpOrtON AL 1,000Al203 diraee Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057705/399658¢rs Taro ond Review coms Kotipunan Branch | 2014 solving forX, X=2,000 moles of Al To solve forthe number of moles of oxygen gas, use a dimensional analysis: 3 moles of O2 1,000 moles of l.03 = 7 Tres of BOs 1,500 moles of Oz soirsee Chemistry and Gen Sc 2014 109185057703/3998564P15 Twa nd Review Systems Katipunan Branch | 2014 Test 1 CHEMISTRY 2oitems. score 7 Periodic Table of the Elements wre simeuinnws on [3] oe eeeem 7 2 ve ac | afar «los el | tar els xa] [rae Fe] ns] no] For nos 1-3, refer tothe folowing electronic contiguration a 9 astastapt BL Mg 1582s! 2p at © 3 asta 4. "We 19°28” 1, Identify the neutral ator in the ground state 2. Which of these element isan anion? 3. Which of these elements is cation? 4 When the elactranegativty differance between two atom 2, what typeof bond can be predicted? covalent bond Hbond b. < metalc bond 4 lonlebond 5. Which bond explains water's high boing point? ‘2 London forces b. Hebond covalent bond 1d. ionic bond | Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 99155057703/3996568rs Tetoratond Review rtm Kopunon Branch | 2014 6. Thehardness of waters due to presence of 3. acid base © soap 4. certan dissolved sate 7. Given the érawing below, which ofthe following statements is correct? > liquid A fo specimen +> liquid 8 liquid Ais dencer than quid ® the specimen is denser than 8 butless dense than A the specimen is less dense than 8 but denser than A liquid Bis denser than liquid A 8, ‘The existence of cH and Cs an example of what law? '2. Law of Multiple Proportions 1b. Law of Definite Composition © Lawof Conservation of Enerey 4. Lawof Conservation of Mass 9. Acompound may be separated into its elements by 3. decompostion b. evaporation © filtration synthesis 10, Aris 2 miture because it a. becoerless b. Isoderess does not have a uniform composition 4. maybe liquefied 11, An example of physical change is ‘3. burning decaying meting rusting nips Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057703/39965647S Tatra ond Review tom Kapur Branch 12, Asubstance which cannot be further simpiied or decomposed by ordinary chemical means is a. amiaure . acompound . anelement 4. a molecule 13, The smallest possible unt of» chemical compound that retains the properties ofthe entire compounds 2. a proton b. anatom < amolecule 1. aruceus 14, tak isan example of a(n) element . compound 4. conglomerate 15. The property which compares the density ofa substance with that of waters known as its volume specific gravity © shape 4. weight 16, Which substance can be decomposed chemical? ‘3. Ammonia . ron ©. Neon Fluorine 17, Which units could be used to express the amount of energy absorbed or released during 2 chemical rection? ‘a. Degreeand gram Torr and mig _Gaorie and joule . Meter and cm? 18, Which somple represents homogeneous mixture? 2. COM b. cHoH(aq) © cH0H) 4. cHOHIs) nairace (Chemistry and Gon Sei 2014 09155057705/3996584ee 18, A book lifted off ofthe floor and placed ona table that sone meter above the floor. The book has 2. gained sound energy blest chemical energy © gained potential energy 4. gained kinetic energy 20, Which statement i incorrect regarding energy? Energy can be given off ina reaction Energy can be gained Ina reaction Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy has mass and takes up space. Chemistry and Gen $2014 09155057703/3998564rs word Review Stems Katipunn Branch | 2014 Test 2 CHEMISTRY 20Kems. score: 4 Whatis the volume occupied by 2.00gofH, gas as STP? a RAL a9 Maat a24L Cannot be determined 22. When a reaction requires heat, which ofthe followings correct? ‘There ean endathermic reaction ‘There isan exothermic reaction The eneray ofthe reactants less than that of the products Both Aand c Both Band ¢ paogse 3._ A gasconfined ina container has a pressure of 0.5 atm. It isheated to thrice its intial temperature and reduced to haf of ts volume, What its final pressure? 2 10am b. 30am 20am 4. 25am Cannot be determined 4. When a gas flows through a smal hole container, hiss called. 2. Diffusion ». effusion Osmosis 4. Capillarity fe. Flucty 5. Carbon dioxide may be produced by the following except ‘3. Reacting a carbonate with an acd '. Fermentation of elucose Heating all carbonates 4. Complete combustion of hydrocarbon ‘None of the above Blrare (Chemistry ond Gen Sci 2018 09155057703/39965866. An example ofa physical change isthe 2. fermenting of sugar alcohol burning of paper Separation of alcohol and water by dstilation 4. rusting of ron fe none ofthe above 7. The fllowing are processes which removes insoluble solid rom a slution except 2. Sedimentation Coaguiation Fatration Chlorination None ofthe above 8. The energy ofa system can be a. easly changed to mase bb measured only as potential energy measured only askinetic energy 4. transformed into aiffeent form none ofthe above 9, Ifthe Alf ofa reaction sa negative quantity, the reaction s defintely endothermic reversible unstable exothermic ane of the above paoge 10. The two main parts ofan atom are the ‘2. principal energy and energy sublevels ‘uceus and electron orbitals, planetary electrons and energy levels rncleus and kernel none ofthe above 11. Atrial pressure a. Anidea gas becomes a solid Aliquid becomes a solid ‘Ages becomes. liquid Aol becomes a gas Aliquid becomes 2 gas Mleoee Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/3998504£12. Soluble solids may be more really dissolved in water by the following except: a. Stiering . Powdering the solute Heating Increasing the pressure fe. None ofthe above 413. The addtional of erystal of solute toa given solution ofthat solute results in the formation of many crstasin the solution, The orginal solution Ie 2. Dilute b. Unsaturated ‘eSaturated 4. Supersaturated fe. None of the above 14, An ideal gas needs to follow which laws perfecty? ‘2. John Dalton’ aw, Faraday's law Charles's law, Boyle's law, Avogadro's law Raoult’ law, Charles's law Boyle's low, Gaydussac's low Allof the above 45, What s the volume occupied by 1 mol of gas at O°C and 760 torr? 2 2240 a6. mat wat Cannot be determined 16, How many molecules of NaOH are in 4.08 NaOH? 291X108 6.02 x10" 79x 10" 79x10" Cannot be determined 17, The metal which does not revet with iti acidis 2. Zine siver Platinum copper Magnesium, Peer Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/3998586eee anes ston | 18, What isthe pl ofthe solution formed when 1 M of NaOH ie mixed with an equal volume of 1M hydrochloric aid? a7 be 7 4. Cannot be determined fe None ofthe above 19. When sold magnesium is solved in sulfur aid, what gas is released? 3. Oxygen . Sulfurdioxide Carbon dioxide 1d. Hydrogen None ofthe above 20, Find the oxidation number af Crin K:Cr0, 8 “4 6 2 None ofthe above 21, A pupil bleaches a pink carnation by immersing In a water solution of sulfur dioxide, Upon placing the bleached carnation in hydrogen peroxide, he finds that ts original ear is restored. From these results, he concludes thatthe orignal bleaching was caused by ‘2 ondation reduction catalysis dehydration one of the above 22. Given the unbalanced chemical reaction _H;+_0-> __H.0, what should be the coefficient of 0; if has. a coeiclent of? forthe balanced equation? 2 0 ®. é Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057703/3998584PTS Tutor ond Rei Stems Kotpuran Branch 23. Which isinconsstent with the Kinetic Molecular Theory? ‘Gas molecules have forces of attraction foreach other. Gas molecules move in a random, straight-line motion ‘Gas molecules have a negligible volume compared te the volume they occupy. ‘All ofthe above statements are correct. [None ofthe above statements are correc. 24, An ideal gas a STP occupies 224 ters. the pressure onthe gas s increased to 1000 torr andthe temperature ofthe gas i educed to 250K, what can be sad about the gas? ‘2. Themumber of moles of the gas has changed b. Thevolume ofthe gas has increased. © The volume of the gas has deceased, 44. The pressure and the temperature have an inversely proportional relationship.” fe None ofthe above 25, Which gas is expected to have the highest rate of efusion? 3. 0 b 6 26, Whatis the correct chemical formula for aluminum sulfate? a Al (S0.) b. A406 © ABO: ASO, fe ANSO, 27. Given the unbalanced Chemical reaction _H;+__07->__H.0, what should be the coeficentof2 forthe balanced reaction? 20 ba ea 4% fe. None ofthe above 28. A compound that can be decomposed to produced oxygen gasin the aboratorys a ho b. cos © $00 NaOH None ofthe above (Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/3998564rs Tatrotond Review stems Katpunon Branch | 208 29, The process of separating components of a mbcure by making use f difference in thelr bolting points called Precipitation Distation Filtration Boling "None ofthe above 30. Ina graphic representation of the energy contents of reactants and resulting products, ‘which would have a higher energy content in an exothermic reaction? b. 4 ‘The reactants Both are the same ether one The products ‘None of the above Chemistry and Gen Sc 2014 09185057703/3998564Test 3 CHEMISTRY Soitems. Score: 4. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. This propery is not exhibited by tungsten aluminum 4. sulfur 2. Which ofthe following sa compound? >. mk b. gold tables 4. ink 3. Gold's atomic number 78. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are therein 2.79 protons, 18 neutrons, 118 electrons b, 79 rotons, 118 neutrons, 79 electrons © 79protons, 79 neutrons, 118 electrons 44118 protons, 79 neutrons, 79 electrons 4. Which ofthe following isthe empirical formula for glucose, a substance known as blood sugar and as dextrose, whase molecular formula is Ci:0,? 2. G0 &. Ho © GHW0r 4. CHO, 5. MglCH.0,)isnamed as ‘3 manganese ghcoside magnesium glucoside manganese acetate 4 magnesium acetate 6. Which configuration isin an excited state? a ate 18 bo 1s'2s! ap Ne 1s 28 29h 40 1282p" ap Chemistry ond Gen Sei 2014 09185057703/3998504a x. Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 rs Tetra and Review tems Which ofthe following isthe correct set ofcoeicients that wil balance the equation ‘Na(s) + H;0(D -+ NaOH(ag) + H(g)? a 24, 2.2) 2, 4 4 ares \What is the mass of 1 mole of potassium sulfate? The atomic masses of potasslum, sulfur, and oxygen are 33.0 amu, 32.0 amu, 16.0 amu, 113amu 135amu YAame What isthe molarity of solution made by dssoving 61.8 g calcium nitrate in enough water to form 125 mi solution? 301M 485M 0.003 m1 0.005 M Whatisthe kinetic energy, in calories, ofa 6.0 kg object moving ata speed of 50 m/s? 20cal ial 12eal 046 eat Predict the molecular geometry ofa compound with & bonding pars and has no one pair tetrahedral trigonal planar linear coctahedeal What isthe volume of exactly 1 mole of gas at STP? 3 27aal baat ce ail d. a7aat ‘Which of the following substances is most likely to ext a5 gas at room temperature and normal atmosphere pressure? 2 POs bch Ag ah 09155057703/3998584PTS Tutarit and Review Stems Kaipunan Bron | 2014 14. Which ofthe following will happen ifa gas nan enclosed container Is heated? 2. pressure increases volume decreases & botha and’ 4d. nonecof the above 15. Filing the orbitals inthe order of increasing energy i known as 13 Pauls Exclusion Principle Aufbau Principle © Hund rule 4. Octet rule 16. Thenatural fragrance of plants is attributed to the presence of 3. alkanes b. esters alcohols 4. ketones 17. solution s made containing 12g of NSHCO, per 100 gof water. What isthe welght percentage of solute inthis solution? 2. 935% b. 89.7% © 120% 4 107% 18, Which ofthe following isnot a nenconventional source of biomass? 2. animal manure ‘petroleum itil 4. human waste 19, Whatis the mass of 3.0 x10¥atoms of neon 2. 108 b 7e © ie 458 20. LPG orliquetied petroleum gas is a misture of CMs 2nd CMe Ths mixture is ‘and propane, butane ‘thane, methane propane, methane ‘octane, butane wlrare ‘Chemistry ond Gen Sci 2014 99155057703/3998586ed 21, Interms of total mass, carbon monoxide isthe most abundant of al pollutant gases. The most serious source of carbon monoxide poisoning comes fom 2. cigarette smoking smoke from factories smoke from vehicles 1d. Smoke fom forest fies 22. When mercury placed in atest tube, 2 convexsurface may be seen. This shows that ‘cohesive force is stronger than adhesive force Cohesive force is weaker than adhesive force Cohesive and adhesive forces are the ame cohesive force is stronger atthe bottom ange 23, Whatkind of substance turns blue litmus paper into red and is classifies 28a proton donor? a asalt b. anacid c abase . ametal 24. Which units used to express the amount of energy absorbed or released during aa chemical reaction? 3. degree b. tor © calor 4. logram 25. Which ofthe following is nonpolar molecule? a. crcl bo Ni a 0 26. How many moles of water are contained in 0.250 mole of CuS04+5H,0 2 625 bos © 125 a5 27. The numberof calories per gram required to meltice atts melting points called ‘sublimation heat of fusion vapor pressure 4. heat of vaporization Mirae Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09155057703/399858428. 30. 31 2 3. 34 when a battery isin use, stored chemical energy sist changed to_ 3. ght be. electrical ©. Mechanical . Nuclear enerey. Inthe reaction Zn(s) + Cu?*(aq) + Zn? (aq) + Cu(s) the reducing agent is a Zn(=) b. cute) © cut*(aq) 4 Zn*(aq) ne ofthe followings nota characteristic ofa colli. ‘2 Colloids exhibit Tyndall effect b. Colloids absor foreign molecules or lons on thelr surface, (¢_The particles canbe separated by ftration <4, The particles ae smaller than those ina suspension, ‘An example of heterogeneous miture i. ». soll sugar 4. carbon monoxide ‘The gas that wil ditfuse really through a porous containers. a. Hcl bok em Ne The Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases states that 2. The distance between molecules is greater as compared to the diameter ofthe molecules b. When molecules collide with the walls ofthe container, they exert pressure therefore, they lose energy All gases consist of minute particles called molecules which are in constant ‘mation. 4. Alefthe above Which is most aide? 3 pOH = b. pOH=7 © pOH=10 4 pon =33 Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 09155057703/3998584rs Tuarialand Review tm Kotpunon Branch | 2014 35. Ghen CaCta(s) + Ca04(a9) = CaCO, + 2H1CI(aq) Which ofthe fllowing would dsslve the precipitate of CaC0,? adding more CaCl adding more HCO, stirring the misture adding concentrated HCI 36. Which of the following species has the highest ionization energy? a Me be ed de 37. How many unpaired electrons ae there in AS? 1 ba e 3 a4 38 Whi 39, Which ofthe fllowing statements struc? 2. Theiodine atom hasa greater electron affinity than the fluorine atom. The magnesium atom hasa higher ionization energy than the cesium atom, The sodlum lon is smaller i sie than the thium ator. 4d. The fluoride fons smaller in size than the fluorine atom. 40, Thetotal number of electrons inthe fourth energy level i a8 b a2 © 18 4.50 441, Which compound contains both covalent bonds and ionic bonds? a. Hl b. M0, NaCl 4. NaNO, Chemistry and Gen Set 2014 09155057703/3998564PTS Tuto and Review Stems Katipunan Branch | 2014 42, Thewillingness ofan atom to receive electrons ie measured by its ‘lectron affinity atomic size eletronegativty Ionization potential, 43. To what Celsius temperature must 580 mi of oxygen at 17°C be raised to increase its volume to 700 mt? a 7c b. 350°C moc 4. 208 44, Adding solutes to pure solvents will cause 8. elevation of frezing point elevation of bling point {& elevation of vapor pressure 4. allot the above 45. When the pressure is exerted on a confined gas at constant temperature is doubles the volume ofthe gasis 2. constant b. halved © tipled quartered 46. Given solute + solvent # solution + heat lowering the temperature will Increase in solubility eerease in solubility hhaveno effect Increase the volume 47. Imapolar bond 13 electrons ae transferred be. electrons are equally shared there are London forces 4. there is unequal charge distribution 48, Who proposed the dualistic nature of ight and extended this idea to electrons? ‘Newton Rutherford © Planck 4. deBrogie Chemistry and Gen Sci2014 09155057703/399658¢stn pn | 204 49. Which isan example of solidiquid colloid? 2. alcohol solution mayonnaise © dowd gelatin 50. Aprocess where several unstable nuclides undergo several types of nuclear transformation to form more stable species radioactwvty radioactive decay nuclear fusion bond energy ange Chemistry and Gen ci 2014 09155037703/3998504Ps Twa nd Rese tems Kaipne GENERAL SCIENCE “STRATEGIES FOR THE SCIENCE SUBTEST ‘+ Carefully read the passage, graph, chart figure, and/or information on which the questions are based. Then rea the frst question, + Make sure you cleary understand what the question i asking. Misinterpreting a question will ‘ost you time and points. Scan the passage, graph, chart or figure again to make sure the answer is accurately based on this given information + fa word is unfamiliar to you, tr to figure out Its meaning from the context in which ts used + When a question asks you to apply an unfamiliar idea or principe, ty to apply I to a familar situation frst. Next, apply the principe, in the sme manner, tothe gven question. This often 2ids inthe understanding of the problem. + Often, when an answer choice repeats information from a passage, It sa tick. Be sure to read allofthe choles before making 2 hasty decision, ‘+ Although the answer you choose may seem logical and corect, make sure itis supported by the ven information SCIENCE. Definition “SCIENCE is a systematic tudy that i concerned with facts, principles and methods that could be observed in our natural or physi! environment. It comet from the Latin word ‘cclenta' which means ‘to know. A sclentie study is a wel-planned and rigorously reasoned study which can be repeated many times over and yield almost the same result. Science and technology are interrelated but some are distinct from eachother. Science consists ofall the knowledge gained through careful observations and experiments or by the ute of scientific ‘method. Using this scentfc knowledge taimarave life or satlfy needs is technology. SCIENTIFIC METHOD “The scientific method isthe logical method used by sclentis to acquire knowledge that is used to explain diferent phenomena in nature. & thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; 2 Sclentifialy tested observation i ale fot. ‘The scientific method has six bate steps, namely |A. Mentify and clearly state the problem. Questions ste from something observed as unusual problem that is specifi, measurable and attainable is dente, 1. Gather information that is pertinent to the problem. Thisis done by recaling past experiences concerning the problem, interviewing people who are knowledgeable of the problem, and researching in lbrares and research centers. Formulate hypothesis/ hypotheses. 82sed on information oF dato gathered, an ‘educated guess’ can be made; may or may nat be correct (can be proven by experiment wire Chemistry and Gen Sei 2014 109155057703/3998584PTs Tari nd Review atoms Katipunan Branch | 2014 hypothesis/hypotheses SHOULD BE BASED on past observations or experiments * Null Hypothesis ~ hypothesis aimed to be disproved; easer to disprove something than prove something tobe true (28. the rate at which gras grows s not dependent on the amount flight recelves) 1. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out the experiment. ‘Controlled experiment ~ manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may affect, the result ofthe experiment. b, ‘Trlals=the numberof times and experiment is repented © Controls factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment 4. Variables ~ the factors that change during the experiment, |. Independent or Experimental factors that ae changed. Ti. Dependent ~ factors that change as a result of changes In the independent variable i, Presentation of Data 1. Tables~easyto read, organized presentations 2. Graphs readily show patterns of data. {Une ~ proper use when comparing two continuously changing variables. Bar appropriate to use when comparing a changing value with an unchanging value _ Drawa generalization or conclusion. ‘Conclusion a statement about the result ofthe experiment. b. Law-a statement which desribes what happens but does not explain the cause ofthe ‘occurrence; generalized body of observations Theory — hypothesis that can be explained from observations; valid as long as there i no evidence to disprove it; an accepted good explanation ofa phenomenon Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations Example. Problem: What i the effect ofthe amount of sunlight tothe growth of plants? Hypothesis 1a plant is exposed to sunlight, then the plant wil grow healthy. Hypothesis 2: The more the amount of sunlight given to plants, the healthier and faster they will grow. Experiment: Compare and analyze set-ups. Setup setups Setup ind of pont tomato tomato “Tomato ind of St humus humus urs “Amount of water | 300ml per day 300 mt per di 300 ml per day ‘Amount of sunght | None we Much solnaee Chemistry and Gen Si 2014 09185057703 /3998564P15 Tait nd Review Stems Kanan Branch | 2014 ‘Answer the following: 1. dependent variables/ controled ~ 2. independent varibles/experimental ~ 3. Formulate a probable Null Hypothesis- Practice Questions: 1. Apattem orrlitonshp that hasbeen stable based on age amount exprimenta data a ‘you can prove ohyottesiobe ae € you eon excepto eject hypthes, bu never prove ito bere excepting or ejecting a hypothesis th same o proving whether or hot the hypothesis ise 2 data ond vests re wo nes forthe same thing dato are te fots you collet rom your experiment, whe Ress re your interpretation of what the date |. patho can eur to pad the outcome offre ting, Which typeof patent ier ttt? ‘The ul paths, or o-dfference hypothe, because sealer t show something tbe alse han to emoncrote iste. [hse spect on tet foro trance beeen two utes: 5.1 the rent of your experiments very high (tata probaby, which means that great suppor Your hupothess, consti be wrong? ‘Ye, the ypotese col tbe incre. 1. No, igh cegree ofa stitial robb basal proves a hypothesis. 6. tthe ests of your experiment doesnot support your hypothe, hen {You pabobWy did not follow the scent method > Yourerperinent wr ofa © You need treo your experiment nt th reutsogrees with your hypothe. You shout explore he possible reson fr this intheConcson prt of our experimental wit. sore stiraee Chemistry ond Gen Sei 2014 (09155057703/3998504smart psn re | 284 MEASUREMENT. ‘Measurement i the process of comparing 2 quantity witha chosen standard. The International ‘System (Ss the system of units that sclentsts have agreed upon and is legally enforced in almost, allparts ofthe word Length Meters (m) Mass ‘Klograms (kg) Time Seconds (] Electric current ‘amperes (A) Temperature Kelvin ‘Amount of substance Moles (ml) ‘Luminous intensity Canes (ed) Force, Weight Newton (N) ‘Work, Meat, Energy Joule) Pressure Pascal (Pa) Power Watt (W) Electric charge coulomb) ‘Two factors affect the degree of accuracy of measurements. They are: ) the abilty rouse the ‘measuring instruments propery; and (b) the precision ofthe instrument. [Accuracy ~ how closely 8 measurement or series of measurements reflects the actual value Precision — involves repeatability of 2 measurement; how close. several ‘measurements are to each other Po dots showing poor ccrcy nd poor precion at dots homing god acaac and god recon Chemistry and Gen Sci 2014 09185057703/3990584PTS Twit na Review stems Katipunen Branch | 2014 ‘The unt factor method i a systematic technique for solving numerical problems. The factors are derived from fixed relationship between quantities. The main purpose is to cancel units not