Review on Municipal Landfill Leachate and Sequencing Batch

Reactor (SBR) Technique

Amin Mojiri
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia,
E-mail: amin.mojiri@gmail.com

Hamidi Abdul Aziz

School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia,
Tel: +60-04-5996215; E-mail: cehamidi@eng.usm.my

Shuokr Qarani Aziz

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Salahaddin–Erbil,
Erbil, Iraq
E-mail: shoker71@yahoo.com

Nastaein Qamaruz Zaman

School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia,
E-mail: cenastaein@eng.usm.my

Abstract
The aim of this study was the review on the landfill leachate and sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process.
Leachate could include contaminants like organic substances, ammonia (NH3-N), heavy metals, inorganic salts,
total alkalinity, total acidity, total hardness, chloride, sulfide, phosphorus and phenols. Many investigations
reported young landfill leachates containing high amounts of volatile fatty acids, are easier to treat than old
leachates, since a fraction of the organic compounds in the latter is recalcitrant to biological treatment. The
biodegradable portion of organic contaminants in leachate decreases, as landfill age increases. For treatment of
leachate, different ways of biological treatment were used; SBR technology is a kind of biological treatment. In
many investigations, SBR was used for treatment of domestic, urban, dairy, industrial, synthetic, slaughterhouse
wastewaters and landfill lachates. Some investigator reported the ability of SBR in treating landfill leachate was
lower in comparison to urban and manufacturing wastes, because of high concentrations of chemical oxygen
demand (COD), NH3-N, and heavy metals, and low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)/COD in landfill
leachate, they suggested add some absorbent or ion exchanger like activated carbon in SBR reactor.
Keywords: Sanitary landfill, landfill leachate, biological treatment, sequencing batch reactor
1. Introduction
Today, sanitary landfills are prevalent way of solid waste treatment in the most countries. However, this way of
solid waste provides some benefits but it has a big defect which it is production of leachate (Aziz et al., 2011a).
Landfill leachates are reflected one of the kinds of wastewater with the utmost environmental influence. The
most serious features of leachate are connected of the high concentrations of some contaminants. Urban landfill
leachates enclose contaminants which can be separated into four key groups including dissolved organic matter
and inorganic compound like calcium, potassium, sodium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, sulphates,
chlorides, iron and heavy metals like nickel, lead, copper, chromium, cadmium, zinc, xenobiotic organic
materials (Aziz et al., 2010; Tengrui et al., 2007).
Leachate is created while water penetrates through the waste in a landfill, carrying some forms of pollutants like
ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD5), colour,
suspended solids and heavy metals. Leachate composition depends on some diversity parameters like sort of
waste, site hydrology, landfill age, landfill operation and landfill type. Momentous concentrations of suspended
solids, BOD5, COD, (NH3-N), heavy metals are commonly present in leachate (Aziz et al., 2010). Landfill
leachate could be a main foundation of water pollution, if not treated and disposed safely, because it could
penetrate through soil and subsoil. Therefore, before release, the treatment of hazardous leachate components has
been made a legitimate obligation to prevent contamination of water resources and to elude both acute and
chronic toxicities (Aziz et al., 2011a).
The ability of leachate to contaminate rivers and lakes is expressed by the BOD5 which approximation the
potential for use of oxygen. In fact, this potential is COD. The COD value is usually higher than BOD5. High
COD and NH3-N content, high COD/BOD5 ratio and the attendance of heavy metal ions can cause difficulties in
biological treatment of landfill leachate (Aziz et al., 2011b; Park et al., 1999).
The main applicable methods of landfill leachate treatment are biological, chemical, membrane separation and
thermal treatment processes. Organics removal (as BOD5 and COD) from landfill leachate has been investigated
by several researchers. The removal of specific organics from leachate is not broadly known. Biological ways
containing anaerobic and aerobic processes have been shown to be very effective for effective for treatment of
landfill leachate which had high BOD5/COD ratio. The nitrification/denitrification processes were typically
suggested for treatment leachate with the low COD/N ratio (Aziz et al., 2011c; Aziz et al., 2011d; Klimiuk and
Kulikowska, 2004).
The goal of the current study was to show composition and potential treatment techniques for municipal landfill
leachate. In addition, approaches and challenges in landfill leachate treatment using SBR process was another
aim of this work.
2. Landfill Leachate Characteristics
One selection principles of leachate treatment ways, which depends on the type of deposited wastes and landfill
age. In leachate-free volatile fatty acids signified the greatest group of organics, in the first years of landfill
operation, then this portion displayed a fast reduction increasing age of the landfill. Ammonium nitrogen
increased in leachate along with landfill age. It was detected that in mature landfill leachate this content was in
the range of 2000-3000 mg NNH4/L. The most firm group with increasing age was a fulvic-like material with a
comparatively high carboxyl and aromatic hydroxyl group density. Particular organic compounds recognized in
the leachate are phthalates, pesticides, BTEX, furans, halogenated aromatics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PHAs) and napthalensulfonates (Klimiuk and Kulikowska, 2004).
Leachates could include a vast of contaminants like organic substances (measured as COD and BOD5), NH3-N,
high concentrations of heavy metals, and inorganic salts. Leachate is also rich in phenols, total dissolved salts,
total alkalinity, total acidity, total hardness, chloride, sulfide and phosphorus. The biodegradable portion of
organic contaminants in leachate decreases, as landfill age increases, because of anaerobic decomposition
happening in a landfill site. Therefore, mature leachate includes much more refractory organics than young
leachate. Young landfill leachate (age <5 years) is usually categorized by high COD (30000-60000 mg/L) and
BOD (4000-13000 mg/L) concentrations, High ratio of BOD5/COD (0.4-0.7), fairly high amount of NH3-N
(<400 mg/L) and pH < 6.50. Mature landfill leachate (age >10 years) usually includes high amount of NH3-N
(>400 mg L-1), moderately high COD (<4000 mg/L) and a low BOD5/COD ratio of less than 0.1 (Aziz et al.,
2011b).
Table 1 displays the range of values for typical leachate constituent observed at landfills in developing countries.
This table comes from a 2005 Solid Waste Management publication from the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP, 2005). Table 2 displays landfill leachate classification vs. age.
3. Sanitary Landfills
Solid waste disposal ways contain open dump, sanitary landfill, incineration, composting, grinding and discharge
to sewer, compaction, hog feeding, milling, dumping, reduction, and anaerobic digestion. Sanitary landfill is the
most general urban solid waste (MSW) (Aziz et al., 2010). The landfill must be designed and operated so as to
isolate the wastes from the environment until it may be rendered safe through biological, chemical and physical
decay processes in the landfill. In common, a sanitary landfill will be determined by the following: site chosen
based on environmental risk assessment; planned capacity; designed cell advance; extensive site preparation; full
leachate management; full gas management; daily and final cover; compaction; fence and gate; record kept of
waste volume, type, and source; and no waste picking and trading. A main component of isolation is in the
management and treatment of leachate. A number of methods can be used to attain isolation of leachate from the
surrounding environment, depending on available resources. The techniques range from avoidance of leachate
generation, to sophisticated leachate treatment systems, to controlled release of leachate into the environment
(Liermann, 2009).

Table 1. Characteristics of leachate generated from decomposition of municipal solid wastes in developing
countries (UNEP, 2005)
Parameter Range of Values (mg L-1) Parameter Range of Values (mg L-1)
pH 4.5 to 9 Organic N 10 to 4250
Alkalinity (CaCO3) 300 to 11500 Ammonia NH3-N 30 to 3000
BOD5 20 to 40000 Nitrite Nitrogen NO2- 0 to 25
COD 500 to 60000 Nitrate Nitrogen NO3- 0.1 to 50
Calcium 10 to 250 Total Nitrogen 50 to 5000
Chloride (Cl-) 100 to 5000 Total Phosphate 0.1 to 30
Potassium 10 to 2500 Sulphate (SO42-) 20 to 1750
Sodium 50 to 4000 Manganese 0.03 to 65
Magnesium 40 to 1150 Total Iron 3 to 2100
TDS 0 to 42300 Copper 4 to 1400
TSS 6 to 2700 Lead 8 to 1020
Hardness 0 - 22800 Zinc 0.03 to 120

Table 2. Landfill leachate classification vs. age (Ngo et al., 2008)

Parameter Young leachate Old leachate
(mg L-1)
COD 20000 - 40000 500 to 3000
BOD5 10000 to 20000 50 - 100
TOC 9000 to 15000 100 to 1000
Volatile fatty acid (as acetic acid) 9000 to 25000 50 to 100

In order to be designated a sanitary landfill, a disposal site should the following three common but basic
situations: 1) compaction of the wastes, 2) daily covering of the wastes (with soil or other material) to eliminate
them from the influence of outside environment, and 3) control and avoidance of negative impacts on the
community health and on environment (e.g. odours, polluted water supplies, etc.) (UNEP, 2005).The basic
design and operating aspects of a sanitary landfill in terms of routes of impact outside the fill and of meeting the
three basic conditions are illustrated in Figure 1.
Advantages of sanitary landfills are: 1) Simple disposal procedure, 2) Low cost, and 3) Landscape-restoring
effect on holes from mineral working. On the other hand, the disadvantages are the production of highly polluted
leachate and production of methane gas.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of basic aspects of a sanitary landfill (UNEP, 2005).

 4. Landfill leachate treatment technology
A number of leachate treatment techniques have been applied with varying degrees of success, including:
Aerobic biological treatment (attached growth or non-attached growth); Anaerobic biological treatment; Spray
irrigation to land; Reed bed treatment; Ammonia stripping; Reverse osmosis; and Ozonation (Salem et al., 2008).
Table 3 and 4 display Malaysian leachate discharge standards and the technologies that are described,
respectively.

Table 3. Malaysia Leachate discharge standards (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2010)
Parameter Unit Standard Parameter Unit Standard
Temperature °C 40 Manganese mg /L 0.20
pH Value 6.0 – 9.0 Nickel mg /L 0.20
BOD5 at 20°c mg /L 20 Tin mg /L 0.20
COD mg /L 400 Zinc mg /L 2.0
Suspended solids mg /L 50 Boron mg /L 1.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg /L 5 Iron (Fe) mg /L 5.0
Mercury mg /L 0.005 Silver mg /L 0.10
Cadmium mg /L 0.01 Selenium mg /L 0.02
Chromium, Hexavalent mg /L 0.05 Barium mg /L 0.10
Chromium, Trivalent mg /L 0.20 Fluoride mg /L 2.0
Arsenic mg /L 0.05 Formaldehyde mg /L 0.10
Cyanide mg /L 0.05 Phenol mg /L 0.001
Lead mg /L 0.10 Sulphide mg /L 0.50
Copper mg /L 0.20 Oil and Grease mg /L 5.0
Colour ADMI* 100
*ADMI- American Dye Manufactures Institute

Table 4. Compendium leachate treatment technologies (EPA, 1995)

Biological Physical/Chemical Radiation
Activated sludge system Air stripping Ultravlolet radiation
Sequencing batch reactor Activated carbon
Powdered activated carbon ion exchange
Rotating biological contactor Reverse osmosis
Aerobic fluidized bed biological reactor Chemical precipitation of metals
Chemical oxidation
Chemically assisted clarification (polymer only)
Filtration

The main applicable methods of landfill leachate treatment are biological, chemical, membrane
separation and thermal treatment processes. Organics removal (as BOD5 and COD) from landfill
leachate has been investigated by several researchers. The removal of specific organics from leachate is
not broadly known. Biological ways containing anaerobic and aerobic processes have been shown to be
very effective for treatment of landfill leachate which had high BOD5/COD ratio. The
nitrification/denitrification processes were typically suggested for treatment leachate with the low
COD/N ratio (Klimiuk and Kulikowska, 2004)
For over 100 years, biological treatment ways have been used on a broad scale. Bio-treatments are now
available for all sewage but primarily limited to treatment of domestic sewage. Aerobic liquid waste
treatment is a main part of dilute organic contaminants in hydrous waste. Anaerobic digestion is suited
to dealing with high COD, low toxicity wastes like farm slurry or sewage sludge. Wastewater treatment
technology has gone through a huge amount of advance in the past century. For wastewater treatment,
a number of well confirmed technologies are now accessible. These range from the reliable Trickling
Bed Filters (TBF), Airlift Reactor and the related Biological Aerated Filter (BAF) to the Activated
Sludge Process (ASP), through the Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) to Sequencing Batch
Reactors (SBR), and to the relatively newer technologies of Biological Fluidised Bed Reactors (BFBR)
and Membrane Bioreactors (MBR). There is a vast output of research material dealing with different
aspect of each technology, so much so that it is difficult to discern where progress is being made
(Alkhaddar et al., 2005).
5. Sequencing batch reactor (SBR)
A SBR is a complete-mix activated sludge system without a secondary clarifier. Within the aeration
basin, a number of different sequences are completed. Aeration and clarification are accomplished in
one tank (Alkhaddar et al., 2005). Concurrently with the advance of other discontinuous processes,
study on SBR reactors started in the 1970’s. One of the benefits of these batch systems is that they can
simply be reconciled for continuous variations of contaminant concentrations (Liermann, 2009).
Aziz et al. (2011a) stated that SBR was used for treatment of domestic, urban, dairy, industrial,
synthetic, slaughterhouse wastewaters and landfill lachates.
5.1. Common SBR characteristics
In literature, for treatment of wastewater and leachate, different ways of biological treatment were used.
Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a kind of biological treatment. Because of SBRs band all treatments
phases and processes into a single or basin, SBRs differ from activated-sludge plants. Traditional
systems rely on different tanks. SBR phases contain fill, react, settle, draw and idle. In many
investigations, SBR was used for treatment of domestic, urban, dairy, industrial, synthetic,
slaughterhouse wastewaters and landfill lachates, Table5 (Aziz et al., 2011c). Phases of SBRs are
shown in Figures 2 and 3. Recently, Aziz et al. (2011c) used normal and double react-settle SBRs
(DRS-SBR) for treatment of raw landfill leachates. The researchers reported that powdered activated
carbon augmented SBR and DRS-SBR, in the presence of powdered activated carbon, exhibited a
significant improvement in the treatment of landfill leachate.

Figure 2. Phases of normal SBR (Aziz et al., 2011c; Mahvi, 2008)

 Figure 3. Phases of double react-settle SBR (Aziz et al., 2011c)

Table 5. Treatment of different types of wastewaters by using SBR process (Aziz et al., 2011c)
No. Type Pollutants Removal
(%)
1 Landfill leachate Chemical oxygen demand 75
Ammonium 44
Phosphate 44
2 Landfill leachate Chemical oxygen demand < 83
3 Municipal wastewater Biochemical oxygen demand 98
Total suspended solids 90
Ammonia 89
4 Dairy wastewater Chemical oxygen demand 80.2
Total solids 63.4
Volatile solids 66.3
Total nitrogen 38.3
5 Textile effluent Total organic carbon 66
Color 94
6 Wool dyeing effluents Chemical oxygen demand 79-91
Biochemical oxygen demand 91-99
7 Slaughter house Chemical oxygen demand 96
wastewater Total nitrogen 96
Total phosphorus 99
Abattoir effluent Nitrogen 85.5
Phosphorus 90
Tannery wastewater Chemical oxygen demand 80-82
Ammonia 83-99
10 Synthetic wastewater Biochemical oxygen demand 97.7
Chemical oxygen demand 94.9
Total nitrogen 71.4
Total phosphorus 55.9
5.2. Advantages and disadvantages of SBR
According to Andreottola et al. (2001), SBR systems applied to nitrogen removal from industrial
wastewater offer various benefits such as minimal space requirements, ease of management and
possibility of modifications during trial phases through on-line control of the treatment strategy. Main
advantages of SBR process are: 1) Simple construction, 2) Plant can fit into almost any shape, 3) Flow
through plants requires regular shaped sites, 4) Fewer channels and pipe work, 5) Easily scaleable, and
6) Can be adapted to both nitrification and denitrification.
While, the main disadvantages of SBR process are as following (Mace and Alvarez, 2002; USEPA,
1999) A higher level of sophistication is required (compared to conventional systems), especially for
larger systems, of timing units and controls, 2) Higher level of preservation (compared to conventional
systems) associated with more sophisticated controls, automated switches, and automated valves, 3)
Potential of discharging floating or settled sludge during the DRAW or decant phase with some SBR
configurations, 4) Potential requirement for equalization after the SBR, depending on the downstream
processes, and 5) Batch feeding from storage or bio-selectors required to control bulking.
5.3. Additional information on SBR
Janczukowicz et al. (2001) investigated settling properties of activated sludge from a SBR. The study
showed very well settling properties of the sludge. Low SVI (30 - 60 ml g-1 SS) was responsible for an
intensive and quick sedimentation which shortened the settle phase to less than one hour. Moreover,
low SVI prevented the sludge from bulking. High dissolved oxygen concentrations in the aeration tank
during the react phase resulted in little sludge biomass growth, which is very important from the
viewpoint of sludge disposal at a wastewater treatment plant.
Mahvi et al. (2005) investigated feasibility of continuous flow sequencing batch reactor in synthetic
wastewater treatment. The results showed that the removal efficiency that has been achieved by the
system were 97.7, 94.9, 85.4, 71.4 and 55.9% for BOD5, COD, TKN, Total N and Total P, respectively
could be achieved by the system.
In many investigations, SBR has been used for the treatment of leachate with low BOD5/COD ratio of
0.09–0.37. Commonly, the ability of SBR in treating landfill leachate was lower in comparison to
urban and manufacturing wastes, because of low BOD5/COD ratio, and high concentration of NH3-N in
landfill leachate (Aziz et al., 2011b). Aziz et al. (2011b) investigated Landfill leachate treatment using
powdered activated carbon augmented SBR process: Optimization by response surface methodology.
This result showed the PAC-SBR (powdered activated carbon augmented SBR) displayed superior
performance in term of removal efficiencies when compared to SBR.

6. Some important calculations for design of SBR reactor for treatment of leachate

6.1. The F/M Ratio

The F/M ratio would simply be the digester loading divided by the concentration of volatile
suspended solid (biomass) in the digester (kg-COD/kg-VSS.day). For any given loading, efficiency can
be improved by lowering the F/M ratio and increasing the concentration of biomass in the digester.
Also for given biomass concentration within the digester, the efficiency can be improved by decreasing
the loading. The F/M can be calculated as follows (Latif, 2011),

(1)
Where,
Organic loading rate= COD of the influent stream (kg-COD/L.day)
Volatile solid= Volatile suspended solid concentration in the reactor (kg-VSS/L)
F/M= kg-COD/kg-VSS.day
6.2. The hydraulic retention time (HRT)

The hydraulic retention time calculation before proceeding experiments is also an important process
control parameters. It shows the total time required by the liquid to degrade. The HRT plays an
important role while anaerobic digestion of which the liquid has to stay within the digester until
degradation. The HRT can be calculated as follows (Latif, 2011).

Where,
HRT= Hydraulic retention time (days)
OLR= Organic loading rate (kg-COD/L.day)
CODin= Influent COD (kg-COD/L)

6.3. The flow rate

The HRT and flow rate examine the exact influent stream from feed inlet to the outlet. Normally,
flow rate is controlled by means of a peristaltic pump with corresponding tube hosing of different
diameter. The flow rate is designed according to the working volume of the reactor. The flow rate can
be calculated as follows (Latif, 2011),

Where,
Q= Flow rate of influence stream (L/day)
Vw= Working volume of the reactor (L)
HRT= Hydraulic retention time (days)
A new and promising trend in wastewater and solid waste management is using a bio-reactor. In the
last few years, newly advanced anaerobic reactor systems, such as UASB, anaerobic filter (AF),
anaerobic fluidised bed (FB), anaerobic SBR (AnSBR) and other modifications of anaerobic reactors
have also been used for the treatment of low strength wastewater (Bodik et al., 2002) landfill leachate
and etc.

6.4. Organic loading rate

Organic loading rate is presented as the weight of organic matter per day applied over a surface area,
such as pounds of BOD5 per day per square foot. The BOD5 is a measure of the oxygen needed to
degrade organic matter dissolved in the wastewater over 5 days. It is reported as mg/l of oxygen
consumed to degrade the wastewater in 5 days. BOD5 is one way to measure the amount of easily
degradable organic matter in sewage. To calculate organic loading the first step is to convert BOD5 in
mg/l to pounds/gal.
Next consider the flow rate and the area for application to calculate the organic loading rate.

Organic loading rates for fine media fixed film systems, like septic leach fields, mounds, and sand
bioreactors range from 0.00025 lbs BOD5/ft2/day to 0.0012 lbs BOD5/ft2/day (Zhou and Mancl, 2007).

Conclusion

Landfill leachate requires treatment prior disposal to natural environment. Landfill leachates
commonly contain high NH3-N, COD, heavy metals, phenols etc. Due to presence of refractory organic
compounds and heavy metals in landfill leachate, biological treatment methods are inefficient for
treatment of pure leachate. Because of high BOD5/COD (>0.50), SBR has been widely for treatment of
wastewater. Comparing to traditional SBR process for treatment of landfill leachate, adsorbents
supplemented SBR technique and modification of SBR phases (such as DRS-SBR) offered better
performance in terms of removal of pollutants, improvement of sludge characteristics and saving
aeration energy.

References

Alkhaddar, R.M., Phipps, D.A., & Cheng, C. (2005). Today and Tomorrow! Research Prospects for
Aerobic Biological Liquid Waste Treatment for Reduction of Carbon Load. Official Publication
of the European Water Association (EWA), pp:18.
Andreottola, G., Foladori, P. & Ragzzi, M. (2001). Online control of a SBR system for nitrogen
removal from industrial wastewater. Wat. Sci. Technol., 43(3), 93-100.
Aziz, S.Q., Aziz, H.A., & Yusoff, M.S. (2011). Optimum Process Parameters for the Treatment of
Landfill Leachate using Powdered Activated Carbon Augmented Sequencing Batch Reactor
(SBR) Technology. Separation Science and Technology, 46, 1–12.
Aziz, S.Q., Aziz, H.A., Yusoff, M.S. & Bashir, M.J.K. (2011). Landfill leachate treatment using
powdered activated carbon augmented sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process: Optimization by
response surface methodology. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 189, 404–413.
Aziz, S.Q., Aziz, H.A. & Yusoff, M.S. (2011). Powdered activated carbon augmented double react-
settle sequencing batch reactor process for treatment of landfill leachate. Desalination, 277,
313–320.
Aziz, S.Q., A.H. Aziz, M.S. Yusoff, & S. Mohajeri, (2011). Removal of phenols and other pollutants
from different landfill leachates using powdered activated carbon supplemented SBR
technology. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Accepted manuscript, In Press.
Aziz, S.Q., H.A. Aziz, M.S. Yusoff, M.J.K. Bashir, M. Umar, (2010). Leachate Characterization in
semi-aerobic sanitary landfills: A comparative study. Journal of Environmental Management,
91, 2608-2614.
Bodik, L., B. Herdovia, & M. Drtil, (2002). The use of upflow anaerobic filter and AnSBR for
wastewater treatment at ambient temperature. Water Research, 36: 1084–1088.
EPA, 1995. Manual, Ground-Water and Leachate Treatment Systems. EPA/625/R-94/005. pp: 119.
Janczukowicz, W., Szewczyk, M., Krzemieniewski, M., & Pesta, J. (2001). Settling Properties of
Activated Sludge from a Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR). Polish Journal of Environmental
Studies, 10(1), 15-20.
Klimiuk, E., & Kulikowska, D. (2004). Effectiveness of Organics and Nitrogen Removal from
Municipal Landfill Leachate in Singleand Two-Stage SBR Systems. Polish Journal of
Environmental Studies, 13(5), 525-532.
Latif, M.A. (2011). Application of Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor for Waste and
Wastewater Treatments with Biogas Production, M.Sc Thesis, Faculty of Civil and Earth
Resource, University Malaysia Pahang.
Liermann, T.A. (2009). Fiji Islands’ Naboro Landfill Leachate Quality Analysis and the Applicability
of Developed versus Small Island Developing State Discharge Standards. M.Sc Thesis of
Environmental Engineering. MICHIGAN TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY.
Mace, S., & Alvarez, J.M. (2002). Utilization of SBR Technology for Wastewater Treatment: An
Overview. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 41, 5539-5553.
Mahvi, A.H. (2008). Sequencing Batch Reactor: A Promising Technology in Wastewater Treatment.
Iran. J. Environ. Health. Sci. Eng., 5(2), 79-90.
Mahvi, A.H., Brown, P., Vaezi, F., & Karakani, F. (2005). Feasibility of Continuous Flow Sequencing
Batch Reactor in Synthetic Wastewater Treatment. Journal of Applied Sciences, 5 (1), 172-176.
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (2010). Environmental Requirements: A Guide For
Investors. Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
WismaSumberAsli, Precinct 4 Federal Government Administrative Centre 62574
PUTRAJAYA, 11th ed., pp: 82.
Ngo, H.H., Guo, W., & Xing, W. (2008). Applied technologies in municipal solid waste landfill
leachate treatment. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, (EOLSS), pp: 17.
Park, T.J., Lee, K.H., Jung, E.J., & Kim, C.W. (1999). Removal of Refractory Organics and Color in
Pigment Wastewater with Fenton Oxidation. Water Science and Technology, 39, 10-11.
Salem, Z., Hamouri, K., Djemaa, R., & Allia, K. (2008). Evaluation of landfill leachate pollution and
treatment. Desalination, 220, 108–114.
Tengrui, L., Al-Harbawi, A.F., Bo, L.M., Jun, Z., & Long, X.Y. (2007). Characteristics of Nitrogen
Removal from Old Landfill Leachate by Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactor. American Journal
of Applied Sciences, 4 (4), 211-214.
UNEP. (2005). Solid Waste Management, (Volume I). pp 524.
USEPA, 1999. Wastewater, Technology Fact Sheet: Sequencing Batch Reactors, U.S Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, D.C., EPA 932-F-99-073.
Zhou, L., & Mancl, K., (2007). Calculating Loadings Rates for Design of Small Flow Onsite
Wastewater Treatment Systems Hydraulic vs. Organic Loading. The Ohio State University, pp:
2.