Prof Dogar's Notes on Environmental Pollution

PROF. NAVEED ASLAM DOGAR : M.SC (CHEMISTRY), M.PHIL (ENV.SCIENCES), M.
PHIL(CHEMISTRY),
PH.D(SCHOLAR), CSS(2010), 0322-4976417, WORLD TIMES INSTITUTE, LAHORE
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
CSS NOTES
CHAPTER .NO.4
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
PROF. NAVEED ASLAM DOGAR : M.SC (CHEMISTRY), M.PHIL (ENV.SCIENCES), M.PHIL(CHEMISTRY),
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION may be defined as the "unfavourable alteration of our
surroundings". It changes the quality of our air, water and land which interferes with the health
of human beings and other life on earth.
Pollution is of different kinds depending on the nature of pollutant generated from different
sources.
Ex: Industry, Automobiles, Thermal power plants, farming and nuclear reactors generate
different types of pollutants causing pollution to air, water bodies and land.
Types of pollutants
1. Biodegradable pollutants that degrade or decompose rapidly by natural processes.

2. Non-biodegradable pollutants that do not decompose or decompose very slowly in
the environment.
Different kinds of pollution that affect the environment are:
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Industrial pollution
4. Soil pollution
5. Radioactive pollution
6. Noise pollution
7. Thermal pollution
AIR POLLUTION
“The contamination of air with dust, smoke, harmful gases and other harmful substances which
lead adverse effects on life and quality of life is called air pollution.”
The main sources of air pollution are:
 Fossil fuel burning

 Power plants
 Chemical industries
 Other common industries
 Cultivation activities
 Volcanic eruption
 Forest fires
 Decomposition of organic matter
 Natural gas emission
The air pollutants are of two types, that is, primary and secondary pollutants.
Those pollutants which are directly added into environment are called primary pollutants.
EXAMPLES: sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,hydrocarbons,

ammonia, compound of fluorine and radioactive materials.
The primary pollutants are converted into secondary pollutants by reactions in the atmosphere.
EXAMPLES: sulphuric acid, nitrogen monoxide, carbonic acid, hydrofluoric acid, peroxyacetyl-
nitrate (PAN), ozone, aldehydes, ketones and peroxybenzol.
AIR POLLUTANTS THEIR SOURCES & HEALTH EFFECTS
POLLUTANT SOURCES HEALTH EFFECTS
 Automobile emissions o Lung irritation

 Power plants o Cardiovascular
Oxides of Nitrogen  Oil refineries diseases
(NOX)  Fossil fuel burning o Pulmonary edema
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)  Coal burning o Breathing difficulties
 Metal smelters o Heart diseases
 Home heaters and o Respiratory disorders
stoves
Ozone (O3)  Automobile emissions o Asthma
 Aircrafts cabins o Eye irritation
 Chemical reactions of o Lung damage and
hydrocarbons inflammation
Radon  Natural o Lung cancer
Carbon monoxide (CO)  Natural gas o Nausea

 Vehicular emissions o Headache
 Cleaning solvents o Decrease in mental
ability
o Severe deficiency of
oxygen due to its
complex formation
with haemoglobin
Particulate Matters(PM)  Carbon based o Lung damage
particles because particulates
 Dust can block lungs
 Aerosols specifically PM 2.5
 Woodstoves o Nose and throat
 Unpaved roads irritation
 Burning and
ploughing of farm o Harmful to people

lands with heart diseases
Lead(Pb)  Vehicles using leaded o Brain and nervous

gasoline system damage
 Metal refineries o Digestive problems
 Battery manufacturing
Volatile organic  Vehicles o Eye and skin irritation
compounds(VOCs)  Industrial processes o Cancer
o Headache and nausea
HOW TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION?
 The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion,
gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the
atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and
effective method through preventive or control technologies.
CONTROL MEASURES IN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
 Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry
 Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be made
mandatory
 Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know
the emission levels.
EQUIPMENTS TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches:

 Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate

temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke
consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
Fig: The different Equipments used in Air Pollution control
 To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static
precipitators in manufacturing processes. These equipments are used to remove
particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants. Wet scrubber
can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”
Types, Effects And Sources Of Water Pollution
Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a harmful
effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
The following is the brief description about sources and effects of some water pollutants:
1. Infectious agents
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoa, and parasitic worms.
Human sources
Human and animal wastes
Effects: Variety of diseases.
2.Oxygen demanding wastes : This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen in water. Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular pressure
and temperature.
The saturated point of DO varies from 8 to 15 mg/L Ex: Organic wastes such as animal manure and
plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria.
Human sources: Sewage, Animal feedlots, paper mills and food processing facilities.
Effects: Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water quality by
depleting water of dissolved oxygen. This causes fish and other forms of oxygen-consuming aquatic
life to die.
3. Inorganic chemicals
Ex: Water soluble inorganic chemicals:
1. Acids
2. Compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se)
3. Salts such as NaCl in oceans and fluoride (F -) found in some soils
Human sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers
Effects:Inorganic chemicals can:

1. Make freshwater unusable for drinking and irrigation
2. Cause skin cancer and neck damage
3. Damage nervous system, liver and kidneys
4. Harm fish and other aquatic life
5. Lower crop yields
6. Accelerate corrosion of metals exposed to such water
4. Organic chemicals
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, Pesticides, Cleaning solvents and Detergents.
Human Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers and surface runoff from farms.
Effects:
1. Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.
2. Harm fish and wildlife.
5. Plant nutrients
Ex: Water soluble compounds containing nitrate, Phosphate and Ammonium ions.
Human sources: Sewage, manure and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects:
1. Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete
dissolved oxygen in water thereby killing fish
2. Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood and can kill urban children and infants.
6.Sediment
Ex: Soil, silt, etc.
Human Sources: Land erosion
Effects:
1. Causes cloudy water thereby reducing photosynthetic activity
2. Disruption of aquatic food chain
3. Carries pesticides, bacteria and other harmful substances
4. Settles and destroys feeding and spawning grounds of fish
5. Clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.
7. Radioactive materials:
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of:
1. Iodine
2. Radon
3. Uranium
4. Cesium and
5. Thorium
Human sources: Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other ores, nuclear
weapon production and natural sources.
Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.
8. Heat (Thermal pollution)
Ex: Excessive heat
Human sources: Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants. Almost
half of whole water withdrawn in United States each year is for cooling electric power plants.
Effects
1. Low dissolved oxygen levels thereby making aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic chemicals.
2. When a power plant starts or shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms adapted to a
particular temperature range, can be killed by an abrupt temperature changeknown as thermal shock.
Point and non-point sources of water pollution:

Point sources These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations through pipes, ditches or
sewers into bodies of surface waters.
1. Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil tankers.
2. Non point sources These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge. They are
large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or deposition from the
atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.
Factors Affecting the Quality Of Water

The quality of water is measured in the following terms.
1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

In water the most important oxidizing agent is dissolved molecular oxygen (O 2) it oxidizes organic
matter.
 The concentration of O2 ranges from 4-8 ppm
 The dissolved oxygen value less than 4 ppm indicates that water is polluted.
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

It is the capacity of organic matter in natural water to consume oxygen within a period of five days.
 It tells about amount of oxygen which is consumed due to biological oxidation of dissolved
organic matter in the simple.
 The oxidation reaction is catalyzed by microorganisms present in the natural water.
Measurement
 Amount of oxygen is calculated at the beginning.
 Sealed water sample is the placed in the dark at constant temperature either at 20 0C or 250C.
 Amount of oxygen is finally calculated at the end of five days period.
 The value of BOD is determined from the amount of oxygen consumed.
(c)Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The organic content of water which consumes oxygen during chemical oxidation is called its
chemical oxygen demond.
 Value of COD is a direct measure of chemically oxidizable matter in water.

 Higher values of COD will indicate more pollution.
Measurement
 It is determined directly by treating water with dichromate ions Cr 2O72-
 Dichromate is a powerful oxidizing agent and oxidizes organic matter in water.
 The excess (remaining) amount of dichromate is determined by titration.
 The value of COD is determined from the amount of dichromate consumed.
Control measures of water pollution

1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central
government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas of
rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of
wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more
trees should be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any natural
water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage must
be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control of
water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the
media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws
should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological
advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.
NOISE POLLUTION
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort to all
living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB), that is the tenth part of the longest unit
Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.
Types of Noise
Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise and
3. Neighbourhood noise
1. Industrial Noise: It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry
machines. Sources of such noise pollution is caused by machines from machines in
various factories, industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic
drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public.
The Indian Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing
industrial pollution damages the hearing ability by at least 20%.
Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blowers, are exposed to
112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
2. Transport Noise: Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail
and aircraft. The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor
cycles, buses, trucks and diesel engine vehicles have increased enormously in the
recent past further aggravating the problem of transport noise.
Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities is hovering around the
border line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise
pollution leads to deafening in the elderly.
3. Neighbourhood noise: This type of noise includes disturbance from household

gadgets and community. Common sources being musical instruments, TV, VCR,
Radios, Transistors, Telephones, and loudspeakers etc. Statistically, ever since the
industrial revolution, noise in the environment has been doubling every ten years.
Effects of Noise pollution

 Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
1. contraction of blood vessels
2. making skin pale
3. excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high
blood pressure.
4. Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
5. Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
2. Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc
3. The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn
increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil of the
eye.
4. Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behaviour. Noise pollution may cause damage to
the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
5. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some
part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern leads to chronic
damage to the inner ear.
6. Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
7. Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and semicircular
canals of the internal ear.
8. The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People are
subjected to psychiatric illness.
9. Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
10. The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise
pollution causes:
1. Pupullary dilation
2. Impairment of night vision and
3. Decrease in rate of colour perception
Control measures:
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment to
machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source inside a
sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials
along the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work
schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery.
The measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

Preventive measures:
1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic
2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.
SOIL POLLUTION
WHAT IS SOIL?
The top layer of the earth's surface in which plants can grow, consisting of rock and mineral particles
mixed with decayed organic- matter and having the capability of retaining water.
OR
Life-supporting upper surface of earth that is the basis of all agricultural activities. It contains minerals
and gravel from the chemical and physical weathering of rocks, decaying organic matter (humus),
microorganism, insects, nutrients, water, and air.
Formation Of Soil
The formation of soil is due to the process of weathering of rocks. The modification of the earth crust as a
result of its interaction with atmosphere and hydrosphere is called weathering. The final products of
weathering are sand, silt, gravel and clay. There are three different types of weathering:
 Physical weathering
 Chemical weathering
 Biological weathering
Nature and Composition of Soil
The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil consists of
approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
Soil Profile
Soil profile is the vertical cross section of the layers of soil present in a particular area.
(bedrock) layer that is beneath all the
other layers
What is soil pollution?

“The contamination of soil with toxic chemicals and substance which can adversely affect the human
health, microbial life, soil fertility and qualitative as well as quantitative aspects of productivity of soil is
called soil pollution”.
Major Soil Pollutants & Their Effects
1. Synthetic Fertilizers
Fertilizers are chemical substances which are added into the soil to cover up the deficiency of
micro as well as macro nutrients that are essential for proper growth of the plants. The most
important nutrients required for the growth of the plants are Nitrogen (N) , Phosphorous (P) and
potassium (K). Following are the undesirable effects of excessive use of fertilizers:
 Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers leads to the accumulation of nitrates in soil which
may contaminate the ground water. Nitrate concentration exceeding 90ppm in water can
cause diarrhea and blue jaundice in children. Nitrates in human body are converted into
niroso- amine and other nitroso compounds which can generate stomach cancer.
 Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers can reduce the ability of plants to fix nitrogen.
 Excessive use of potassium fertilizers may decrease the quantities of valuable ascorbic acid
and carotene in fruits grown in such soils.
 Vegetation grown in nitrate rich soil may exert toxic effects in cattle.
 Wheat, maize, corn e.t.c that are grown on soil fertilized with NPK fertilizers may result in
considerable decrease in protein contents of the crop.
 Excessive use of nitrates can cause Eutrophication of water. In Eutrophication the algal
growth and other undesirable plants growth increases to high level).
 The large size plants and vegetables grown in highly fertilized soils may become more
vulnerable to the attacks of pests and insects.
 Soil enriched with chemical fertilizers cannot support the microbial flora which are
essential for the enrichment of humus that help in the growth of plants.
2. Pesticides
Pesticides are the pest killing substance. Pesticide may be a chemical compound, biological
agent, disinfectant or device that can kill pest.
Pesticides are classified on the basis of type of pest to which they are killing or eliminating.
Types of Pesticides
 Algicides or algaecides (for the control of algae)
 Avicides (for the control of birds)
 Bactericides (for the control of bacteria)
 Fungicides (for the control of fungi and oomycetes)
 Herbicides(e.g. glyphosate) for the control of weeds
 Insecticides(e.g. organochlorines, organophosphates, carbonates, and pyrethroids) for the control
of insects - these can be ovicides (substances that kill eggs), larvicides (substances that kill
larvae) or adulticides (substances that kill adults)
 Miticides or acaricides for the control of mites
 Molluscicides for the control of slugs and snails
 Nematicides for the control of nematodes
 Rodenticides for the control of rodents
 Virucides for the control of viruses (e.g. H5N1)

Pesticides can also be classified on the basis of their chemical composition. The following are the types of
pesticides on the basis of chemical nature:
 Chlorinated hydrocarbons( DDT, Aldrin, BHC, Dieldrin)
DDT (DICHLORO DIPHENYL TRI CHLORO ETHANE)
 Carbamate compounds (Carbaryl, Zectrion)
CARBARYL
 Organo- phosphate compounds (Methyl or Ethyl parathion, Melathion)
MELATHION
PARATHION
 Inorganic compounds (NiCl2, As2O3,PbO2 , e.t.c)
Unfortunately more than 90% of the pesticides don’t hit their target material rather they are contaminated
in soil and cause soil pollution. Through soil they affect human life as well as quality of life adversely.
Some of the harmful effects of pesticides are as follows:
 Some arsenic pesticides can make the soil infertile permanently.
 Insecticides like DDT, Dieldrin, BHC,Hepachlor may seep through the soil and can contaminate
ground water. So the drinking water supply can become poisonous.
 Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) having half life near to 25 years in soil. They are the most
dangerous soil pollutants and cause eye damage, skin problem, nervous disorder, liver damage
and stomach cancer.
 DDT can enter the food chain and accumulate in human fats and may lead to impotency.
 Persistent pesticides can damage human tissues and interfere with the normal metabolic activities
by disturbing enzymatic function.
 Chlorinated pesticides can damage soil texture and ecosystem function.
 Herbicides such as dioxins can cause congenital birth defects in offsprings.
 Hunting birds feeding on grains contaminated with DDT are threatened of extinction.
 Organophosphate pesticides can be a reason of muscular disabilities, tremors and dizziness.
 Farmers and farm workers are under great threat of pesticide poisoning due to constant exposure.
 Accidental spillage and leakage in pesticide manufacturing industries cause disastrous effects on
people residing in nearby area due to air, water and soil pollution.
 Contaminated soils are the potential carriers of pathogenic bacteria and microorganisms which
are dangerous for human life.
 Volatile pesticides may cause air pollution in surrounding areas.
According to WHO report about 3 million people get pesticides poisoning every year and 18000 die due
to it.
3. Industrial Waste & Urban Waste
 Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution.
 Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as pulp and paper
mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel, distilleries,
fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and
engineering industries etc.
 These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil. As a result,
hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil or water, disturb the
biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.
 Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of dried sludge
and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
 This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans,
fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles
and other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic wastes though disposed off
separately from industrial wastes, can still be dangerous. This happens because they are not
easily degraded.
4. Radioactive pollutants
Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear testing laboratories and industries
giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes, penetrate the soil and accumulate giving rise to
land/soil pollution.
 Radio nuclides of Radium, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon
(C-14) are commonly found in soil, rock, water and air.
 Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton reactions
by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon metabolism
of plants which is then into animals and human beings.
 Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine-129,
Cesium-137 and isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited in
bones and tissues instead of calcium.
 Nuclear reactors produce waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium-140,
Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half life 28
years and Cs-137 with a half life 30 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be
deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic
forces. All the radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
5. Mining Activities
 The major impact of mining on the environment is mainly due to the physical damage of the
landscape and the production of large volume of harmful wastes.
 In general, only a small fraction of the ore is valuable, the remaining large part is waste
(tailings).
 For example, in the Cu mining industry, only about a kilogram of the metal is extracted from
one-half ton rock.
 The figure below summarizes the environmental impact of mining and smelting. It shows that
mining and smelting produce solid, liquid and gaseous wastes/contaminants.
 These cause serious environmental damage once they are discharged to the land (terrestrial
ecosystem) and bodies of water (aquatic ecosystems) or when they are emitted into ambient
air.
 In particular, they cause soil and water acidification, air, water, soil and plant contamination
by trace elements, deterioration of soil biology and fertility, and soil erosion.
 Studies have shown that trace metals remain in the soil for a long time ranging from hundreds to
thousands of years.
 Cd, Ni, and Zn have a relatively shorter residence time in the soil than Pb and Cr which may
remain for several thousand years.
 This simply means that it is not easy and cheap to rehabilitate an abandoned mining site. In fact,
the physical destruction of the landscape can be irreparable.
 And more importantly, the health risk of the contaminants that have already entered the food
chain can remain for a long time.
How to control soil pollution?

Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Planting trees on barren
slopes, Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation. Terracing
and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps arrest soil erosion
in the long term.
Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal problem.
Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for
solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical pesticides.
Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers.
Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them
wastefully and polluting the soil.
Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to educate people
on health hazards by environmental education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics, metals,
glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment methods should be
adopted.
Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc which
are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be
banned.S
SOLID WASTE
what are wastes?
Waste (also known as rubbish, trash, refuse, garbage, junk, & litter) is unwanted or useless materials.
In biology, waste is any of the many unwanted substances or toxins that are expelled from living
organisms, metabolic waste; such as urea and sweat.
(a)Classification of wastes depending upon their sources

 Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish, construction &
demolition debris, sanitation residues, packaging materials, trade refuges etc. are managed by any
municipality.
 Bio-medical wastes: Solid or liquid wastes including containers, intermediate or end products
generated during diagnosis, treatment & research activities of medical sciences.
 Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes that are generated by manufacturing & processing
units of various industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal gas, sanitary & paper etc.
 Agricultural wastes: Wastes generated from farming activities. These substances are mostly
biodegradable.
 Fishery wastes: Wastes generated due to fishery activities. These are extensively found in coastal
& estuarine areas.
 Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive materials. Usually these are byproducts of
nuclear processes. Sometimes industries that are not directly involved in nuclear activities, may
also produce some radioactive wastes, e.g. radio-isotopes, chemical sludge etc.
 E-wastes: Electronic wastes generated from any modern establishments. They may be described
as discarded electrical or electronic devices. Some electronic scrap components, such as CRTs,
may contain contaminants such as Pb, Cd, Be or brominated flame retardants.
DO YOU KNOW ABOUT BASEL CONVENTION?
The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal, usually known simply as Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to
reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, specially to prevent transfer of
hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs). It does not, however, address the
movement of radioactive waste. The convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of
wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management closely as possible to the source
of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other
wastes they generate. The Convention was opened for signature on 22nd March 1989 and entered into
force on 5 May 1992.
(b)Classification of wastes depending upon their Degradability

Bio-degradable wastes
Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes
Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro organisms are called non-
biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.
(c)Classification of wastes depending upon their Health Effects
Hazardous waste
The waste which is unsafe to use agriculturally, economically, commercially and domestically
and is corrosive, ignitable, reactive, toxic and radioactive is called hazardous waste. Examples
are radioactive metals, acid, bases , chemicals e.t.c.
Non-Hazardous waste
The waste which is safe to use agriculturally, economically, commercially and domestically and
is not corrosive, ignitable, reactive, toxic and radioactive is called hazardous waste. Examples
are food waste, plastics, vegetables, organic waste e.t.c.
Some undesirable effects of improper waste Management

 Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a breeding
ground for disease vectors.
 Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect soil
characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil.
 Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
 Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials and
batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings
WATERLOGGING
“The water logging may be defined as rendering the soil unproductive and infertile due to
excessive moisture and creation of anaerobic conditions”.
Mechanism of Water Logging

 The phenomenon of water logging can be best understood with the help of a hydrologic
equation, which states that Inflow = Outflow + Storage
 Here inflow represents that amount of water which enters the subsoil in various
processes.
 It includes seepage from the canals, infiltration of rainwater, percolation from irrigated
fields and subsoil flow. Thus although it is loss or us, it represents the amount of water
flowing into the soil.
 The term outflow represents mainly evaporation from soil, transpiration from plants and
underground drainage of the tract.
 The term storage represents the change in the groundwater reservoir.
 When the conditions are so created that the crop root-zone gets deprived of proper
aeration due to the presence of excessive moisture or water content, the tract is said to be
waterlogged.
 To create such conditions it is not always necessary that underground table should enter
the crop root-zone.
 Sometimes even if water table is below the root-zone depth the capillary water zone may
extend in the root-zone depth and makes the air circulation impossible by filling the pores
in the soil.
Causes of Water Logging

After studying the phenomenon of water logging in the light of hydrologic equation main factors
which help in raising the water-table may be recognized correctly as follows:
 Inadequate drainage of over-land run-off increases the rate of percolation and in turn
helps in raising the water table.
 The water from rivers may infiltrate into the soil.
 Seepage of water from earthen canals also adds significant quantity of water to the
underground reservoir continuously.
 Sometimes subsoil does not permit free flow of subsoil water which may accentuate
the process of raising the water table.
 Irrigation water is used to flood the fields. If it is used in excess it may help
appreciably in raising the water table. Good drainage facility is very essential.
Effects of Water Logging
Creation of Anaerobic Condition in the Crop Root-Zone:

When the aeration of the soil is satisfactory bacteriological activities produce the required
nitrates from the nitrogenous compounds present in the soil. It helps the crop growth. Excessive
moisture content creates anaerobic condition in the soil. The plant roots do not get the required
nourishing food or nutrients. As a result crop growth is badly affected.
Growth of Water Loving Wild Plants:

When the soil is waterlogged water loving wild plant life grows abundantly. The growth of wild
plants totally prevent the growth of useful crops.
Impossibility of Tillage Operations:
Waterlogged fields cannot be tilled properly. The reason is that the soil contains excessive
moisture content and it does not give proper tilth.
Accumulation of Harmful Salts:
The upward water movement brings the toxic salts in the crop root-zone. Excess accumulation
of these salts may turn the soil alkaline. It may hamper the crop growth.
Lowering of Soil Temperature:
The presence of excessive moisture content lowers the temperature of the soil. In low
temperature the bacteriological activities are retarded which affects the crop growth badly.
Reduction in Time of Maturity:

Untimely maturity of the crops is the characteristic of waterlogged lands. Due to this shortening
of crop period the crop yield is reduced considerably.
Detection of Water-logging
 From the subject matter discussed above it is clear that the water logging is indicated
when the ground water reservoir goes on building up continuously.
 When the storage starts building up in the initial stages the crop growth is actually
increased because more water is made available for the crop growth.
 But after some time the waters table rises very high and the land gets waterlogged.
Finally the land is rendered unproductive and infertile.
 The problem of water logging develops in its full form slowly. Therefore its early
detection is possible by keeping a close watch over the yields and also on the variations
in the groundwater level.
 A comparative reduction in crop yields in spite of irrigation and fertilization and early
maturity of crops indicate the symptoms of water logging.
 Also when harmful salts start appearing on the fields as white incrustation or deposit it
indicates that water logging is likely to follow.
In worst cases the water-table rises so high and close to the ground surface that the fields turn
into swamps and marshes.
Solutions to the Water-Logging
The problem of water logging may be attacked on two fronts. First are preventive
measures, which keep the land free from water logging. Secondly curative measures may
be adopted to reclaim the waterlogged area. But in principle both measures aim at
reducing the inflow and augmenting the outflow from the underground reservoir.
Preventive Measures:
Preventive measures include the following:
(a) Controlling the loss of water due to seepage from the canals:
The seepage loss may be reduced by adopting various measures for example
i. By lining the canal section:

When the canal section is made fairly watertight by providing lining the seepage loss is
reduced to quite a good extent.
ii. By introducing intercepting drains: They are generally constructed parallel to the canal.
They give exceptionally good results for the reach where the canal runs in high embankments.
(b) Preventing the loss of water due to percolation from field channels and fields:
The percolation loss can be removed by using water more economically. It may also be affected
by keeping intensity of irrigation low. Then only small portion of the irrigable tract is flooded
and consequently the percolation loss takes place only on the limited area. It keeps the water-
table sufficiently low.
(c) Augmentation of outflow and prevention of inflow:
It may be accomplished by introducing artificial open and underground drainage grid. It may
also be achieved by improving the flow conditions of existing natural drainages.
(d) Quick disposal of rainwater:
Quick removal of rainwater by surface or open drains is a very effective method of preventing
the rise in water table and consequent water logging of the tract. It is needless to state that the
rainwater removed is net reduction in inflow.
Curative Measures:
Curative measures include the following:
(a) Installation of lift irrigation systems:
When a lift irrigation project in the form of a tube well irrigation system is introduced in the
waterlogged area the water table gets lowered sufficiently. It is found to be very successful
method of reclaiming waterlogged land. Thus a combination of a canal system and a
supplementary tube well irrigation system may be considered to be most successful and efficient
irrigation scheme .Of course it is true that it will create some complications while assessing the
charges for irrigation water.
(b) Implementation of drainage schemes:
The waterlogged area may be reclaimed by introducing overland and underground drainage
schemes.
SALINITY
Salinity refers to the presence of soluble salts in the soil and water, including surface water and
groundwater. The salt can be in many forms including sodium chloride, calcium, magnesium,
carbonate, bicarbonate and sulphate.
 Some soils and landscapes are saline in their natural state, for example inland salt lakes
and soils formed from saline parent materials. This is called natural or primary salinity.
 Secondary salinity is due to human activities such as land clearing and over-irrigation.
These activities result in groundwater rising to the surface, dissolving the salts and then
depositing them in the soil.
 Groundwater is a layer of soil that is saturated with water that has slowly trickled down
through the soil until it cannot go any further because it is stopped by a layer of
impermeable soil or rock (bedrock).
 The presence of soluble salts in the soil, groundwater and surface water bodies is a major
land degradation problem worldwide.
 Salinity exerts many economic and environmental costs. These include a reduction in
agricultural productivity, a decline in the quality of water supplies for drinking, irrigation
and industrial use, damage to urban infrastructure and the loss of biodiversity in both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 Like many land degradation processes, including wind and water erosion, salinity is a
natural process.
 However land use practices, such as clearing and irrigation, have significantly increased
the extent of the problem.
 The United States Department of Agriculture estimates that, worldwide, 10 million
hectares of arable land is lost to irrigation salinity every year.
Where does the salt come from?
Salt can be found in many old, highly weathered landscapes and originates from:
 weathering of rock minerals
 deposition of oceanic salt onto the landscape by wind or rain
 Soils formed from marine sediments left behind by retreating seas.
 In undisturbed landscapes, most of the salt is slowly leached into the subsoil, beyond the
reach of plant roots
There are two main forms of salinity: dry land salinity and irrigation salinity.
Causes of dry land salinity

 Salinity problems in the soil and surface water bodies occur when more water enters the
groundwater system (through a process called recharge) than is discharged from the
system.
 This imbalance causes the water table to rise. As it rises, the groundwater dissolves the
soluble salts stored in the subsoil and brings salty water into the reach of plant roots.
 Evaporation and plant uptake of the water concentrates the salt in the topsoil - where it
stays.
 The main cause of rising groundwater is the clearing of deep-rooted, perennial native
vegetation and its replacement with shallow-rooted, annual crop and pasture species.
 These introduced species use less water than the native vegetation, resulting in increased
groundwater recharge and water table rise.
 Land clearing is the past and present cause of dry land salinity. It takes approximately 30
years from the time of clearing for dry land salinity problems to appear, although in some
areas they may appear sooner.
Why is dry land salinity such a problem?
1. The most obvious effect of salinity is the decline in agricultural productivity that is
associated with saline soils. High concentrations of salt in the soil are toxic to plants,
restrict plant uptake of water and prevent plants from taking up essential nutrients such as
calcium.
2. Stalinization of groundwater aquifers and dams that supply water for human
consumption, agricultural or industrial use
3. damage to infrastructure on farms and in regional towns including roads, buildings,
fences, railways, water pipes, water supply systems, houses, gas pipes, and gas supply
systems
4. loss of biodiversity as a result of degradation of remnant bushland, riparian vegetation,
and wetlands
5. Other land degradation problems such as wind and water erosion.
6. In addition to these economic and environmental costs, salinity also exacts a social cost.
This cost includes the emotional and health-related costs of the family farm going
bankrupt and the impact of facing the possibility the farm may not be passed onto the
next generation.
DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land
use such as agriculture, grazing or urban development.
• It is not a recent phenomenon; it is as old as the human occupation of the earth,
and one of the key processes in the history of our transformation of its surface.”
• It is a common misconception that deforestation is a recent occurrence, gaining
momentum in the tropical regions of the world since about 1950.
• But its history is long, and stretches far back into the corridors of time when
humans first occupied the earth and began to use fire deliberately, probably
some half-a-million years ago.
• Possibly as much as nine-tenths of all deforestation occurred before 1950.
Causes of deforestation
• Conversion Of Forests for other land uses, including agriculture, plantations,
pastures, settlements, roads and infrastructure.
• Forest Fires: Each year, fires burn millions of hectares of forest worldwide. Fires
are a part of nature but degraded forests are particularly vulnerable.
• Illegal And Unsustainable Logging: Illegal logging occurs in all types of forests
across all continents – from Brazil to Indonesia – destroying nature and wildlife,
taking away community livelihoods and distorting trade. Illegally harvested wood
finds its way into major consumption markets, such as the U.S., and European
Union, which further fuels the cycle.
• Fuelwood Harvesting: Over-harvesting for domestic use or for commercial trade
in charcoal significantly damages forests.
• Mining: The impact of mining on tropical forests is growing due to rising
demand and high mineral prices. Mining projects are often accompanied by
major infrastructure construction, such as roads, railway lines and power stations,
putting further pressure on forests and freshwater ecosystems.
• Climate Change: Forest loss is both a cause and an effect of our changing
climate. Climate change can damage forests, for instance by drying out tropical
rainforests and increasing fire damage in boreal forests. Inside forests, climate
change is already harming biodiversity, a threat that is likely to increase.
Some estimates suggest that global forest area has decreased by around 1.8 billion
hectares in the past 5,000 years (a decline equivalent to nearly 50 percent of the total
forest area today). In 1990 the world had 4,128m hectares of forest covering 31.6% of
the global land area, the forest report said. By 2015 this had decreased to 3,999m
hectares, covering 30.6% – a net loss of some 129m hectares.
(FAO)
Some 46-58 thousand square miles of forest are lost each year—equivalent to 48
football fields every minute.
Impacts of Deforestation
• Almost 80% of Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests, and many cannot
survive the deforestation that destroys their homes.
• Forest soils are moist, but without protection from sun-blocking tree cover, they
quickly dry out. Trees also help continue the water cycle by returning water vapor
to the atmosphere. Without trees forest lands can quickly become barren deserts.
This disruption leads to more extreme temperature swings. Trees also play a
critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming.
• Threat to Global Food Security
Deforestation in Pakistan
• Collection of traditional wood for cooking and heating is common in Pakistan,
and Pakistan's 'timber mafia, leads to forest degradation
• The natural forest cover which lies in the country’s north part has decreased
mostly because people living there have no other way to meet their energy
needs. The areas declared to be forests before partition have now been
eliminated.
• The total forest cover in the Pakistan is disputed but a report by the Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) mark it even lower than 2.2 percent of total land.
Another report of The World Bank indicates that the situation is even worse and
that the forest cover is near 1.91 percent. Pakistan loses 42,000 hectares or 2.1
percent of its forests every year.
Forest Area of Pakistan

3.4
3.2
3
2.8
Area (%)
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Year
Forest Area
Efforts and solutions

• The year 2011 was declared the International Year of Forests by the United
Nations to raise awareness and strengthen the sustainable management,
conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests for the benefit
of current and future generations.
• United Nations collaborative planning on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD), a new mechanism has
been initiated that involves paying cash credit to developing countries that
protect forests and the carbon stored within them.
• WWF program – Zero Net Deforestation & Forest Degradation
• The most feasible solution to deforestation is to carefully manage forest
resources by eliminating clear-cutting to make sure forest environments remain
intact. The cutting that does occur should be balanced by planting young trees to
replace older trees cut down. The number of new tree plantations is growing
each year, but their total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested land.
DESERTIFICATION
The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought,
deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture. Nearly one fifth of the world's land is
threatened with desertification"
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT & GLOBAL WARMING

There is a protective layer of ozone between 15 km to 60 km above the surface of the
earth. The thickest layer of ozone is present at a distance of 23 km above the surface of
the earth. While, a layer of CO2 is present at 15 km above the surface of the earth.
 When the sunlight containing visible, infrared and ultraviolet radiations fall on the
ozone layer. The ultraviolet radiations are absorbed by the ozone layer while, the
infrared radiations of shorter wavelength and visible radiations pass from the
ozone layer as well as layer of CO 2. These radiations reach the earth and warm its
objects.
 When the earth and its objects are heated they start emitting the infrared
radiations of longer wavelength (while, the radiations which come from the
sunlight are of shorter wavelength infrared radiations).
 These radiations of longer wavelength are trapped by the layer of CO 2 and this
layer of CO2 does not allow these radiations to go out from the atmosphere. Thus
therefore, these radiations increase the temperature of the atmosphere.
So, the greenhouse effect can be defined as:
“The heating of the earth due to trapping of the infrared radiations of longer
wavelength by the CO2 layer present in the atmosphere is called as greenhouse effect”.
Other Green House Gases

There are some other gases which also cause greenhouse effect. These gases are and
their percentage contribution towards the Green House Effect is as follows:
(a) Methane (CH4) 16%
(b) Surface Ozone (O3) 10%

(c) CFC’s (14%)
(d) Nitrous Oxide (6%)
(e) Water vapors (1%)
(f) Carbon dioxide (53%)
 Industrial operations are a big 1source of change in the atmosphere. Industrial
gases usually contain sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and Nitrous oxide.
While methane is added due to the agricultural practices. Rice fields yield 115
million ton methane every year.
 Methane comprises about 2 ppm of the atmosphere but it is 30 times more
active the CO2 regarding warming action.
 Means of transport e.g., cars, buses, scooters, etc. add gases like CO, CO 2, NO,
lead SO2 etc. They also add lead and benzene all these species add to global
warming.
“Thus global warming is phenomena by which the temperature of this earth is increasing
day by day due to increase in the greenhouse effect”.
Importance of Green House Effect
The greenhouse effect produced by the presence of CO 2 layer in the atmosphere is
very important of our existence on the earth. Due to greenhouse effect the
temperature of the earth rises. Without greenhouse effect the temperature of the
earth would not increase and it would be converted into a cold planet. Where life
could not be possible.
Increase in Carbon Dioxide and Its Impact
The amount of carbon dioxide has increased to greater extent in the previous two and
a half centuries. After industrial revolution (1750), the amount of CO 2 was 265 ppm in
1850 and it was 340 ppm in 1987. While it is estimated that this amount will increase
to 600 ppm upto 2050.
Currently CO2 alone is responsible for 53% of the global warming phenomenon. About
80% of the carbon dioxide is generated from the burning of fossil fuel (Petrol, oil and
coal gas). The estimated emission of CO2 in the different regions of the world is as
follows:
US contribute 15% of the total release of carbon dioxide in the air. Russia contributes
5%. EU contribute 9% of the total out of this 3% is contributed by UK alone. China alone
contributes 30%. India is contributing 7%towards the total emission. While the
contribution of Japan is about 4%. Thus global warming is also a threat to the world and
is caused by increase in the amount of greenhouse gases.
Fig: contribution of various countries towards CO2 emission
Effects of Global Warming

Global warming may make some regions more hospitable, for longer periods. However,
it probably will result in longer, more intense heat waves in the warmer spots of the
world. It also may trigger natural disasters, including floods, hurricanes and drought.
Increased precipitation and temperatures in certain areas could encourage the breeding
of disease carrying pests, such as mosquitoes. Greater heat also may increase the
production of ground-level ozone, a pollutant which can damage your lungs.
Fig: Green House Effect and global warming
Disadvantages of Global Warming

i. Ocean circulation disrupted, disrupting and having unknown effects on world
climate.
ii. Higher sea level leading to flooding of low-lying lands and deaths and disease from
flood and evacuation.
iii. Deserts get drier leaving to increased desertification.

iv. Changes to agricultural production that can lead to food shortages.
v. Water shortages in already water-scarce areas.
vi. Starvation, malnutrition, and increased deaths due to food and crop shortages.
vii. More extreme weather and an increased frequency of severe and catastrophic
storms.
viii. Increased disease in humans and animals.
ix. Increased deaths from heat waves.
x. Extinction of additional species of animals and plants.
xi. Loss of animal and plant habitats.
xii. Increased emigration of those from poorer or low-lying countries to wealthier or
higher countries seeking better conditions.
xiii. Additional use of energy resources for cooling needs.
xiv. Increased air pollution.
xv. Increased allergy and asthma rates due to earlier blooming of plants.
xvi. Melt of permafrost leads to destruction of structures, landslides, and avalanches.
xvii. Permanent loss of glaciers and ice sheets.

xviii. Cultural or heritage sites destroyed faster due to increased extremes.
xix. Increased acidity of rainfall.
xx. Earlier drying of forests leading to increased forest fires in size and intensity.
xxi. Increased cost of insurance as insurers pay out more claims resulting from
increasingly large disasters.
xxii. Aggressiveness will increase leading to an increase in the murder rate.
How to Prevent Global Warming
 We may be able to decrease our carbon footprint and stop or slow global
warming. For example, replacing the incandescent light bulbs in your home with
compact fluorescent bulbs can lower your electric bill and reduce carbon dioxide
emissions.
 Walking to your destination instead of taking the car is another way to reduce
global warming.
 Recycling and using recycled products.
 Installing alternative energy sources such as solar panelling and buying energy-
efficient device also can contribute mightily.
Sunny Sides of Global Warming
Climatic change is expected to have disastrous effects for Earth but some areas like
northern parts of Europe, Russia and the US will get benefit.
 Melting of snow and ice will flourish agriculture, shipping, oil, gas and mining
sectors of rich countries of the north.
 Agriculture in the polar region is expected to expand too, because farming
season increases by increasing temperature.
 Fishing in the northern sea would expand. The herring, the Tuna and the Brisling
are slowly going north (northern part of Atlantic oceans).
 The forestry industry can grow also because a warmer temperature means trees
can grow at higher latitudes.
 Summer tourism could increase in northern European countries, as Italy Spain
and Greece become too hot in July and August.
 Commercial shipping would also expand as the ice sheet shrinks, with navigation
days in the Arctic Ocean increasing from 30 days today to between 120 and 140
days by 2099.
 Exploration of natural resources in Siberian region will increase due to melting of
ice. A Russian company Gazprom has started the exploration of gas and oil
resources.
OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone is produced in the atmosphere due to industrial process. The concentration of

ozone (O3) greater than 0.1 ppm is regarded as harmful if it is present in troposphere. In
the atmosphere oxygen is converted into the ozone by absorbing sunlight.
 There is a protective layer of ozone between 15 km to 60 km above the surface of

the earth. The thickest layer of ozone is present at 23 km above the surface of the
earth.
 As a matter of fact, ozone absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Ultraviolet rays can
cause cancer in the human beings and also are detrimental to the organic matter
necessary for life. Therefore ozone in stratosphere is blessing for life on earth.
In stratosphere photo dissociation and photo production of ozone takes places

naturally by the following reactions:
Photo production of ozone
O2 + Sunlight= O+O
O2+O=O3
Photo decomposition of ozone
O3 + sunlight= O2+O
O3+O=O2+O2
 In 1980, the scientists observed that there is a hole in the ozone layer of the
atmosphere. That hole was observed near Antarctica. The presence of the hole in the
ozone layer indicates that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is
decreasing day by day.
SOURCES OF OZONE DEPLETION

Oxides of Nitrogen NOx
Oxides of nitrogen destroy the ozone present in the atmosphere and they themselves
are regenerated. NO destroys ozone as follows:

NO + O3  NO2 + O2
NO2 + O  NO + O2
Nuclear Tests
When nuclear tests are conducted high temperatures are produced. These high
temperatures allow the atmosphere nitrogen to combine with the atmospheric oxygen
to form oxides of nitrogen. These oxides of nitrogen destroy the ozone in the same
manner as described before.
Chloroflouro Carbons: (CFC’s)
Chlorofluoro carbons such as Freon-I (CFCl 3) and Freon-2 (CF2Cl2) are used as aerosol
spray propellants.
These fluoro chloro carbons are also used as refrigerants and fire fighting agents.
These compounds are chemically inert and do not react with the other substances.
These 1compounds enter into the stratosphere and absorb ultraviolet radiations. By
absorbing ultraviolet radiations chlorofluoro carbons break down and form atomic
chlorine. Atomic chlorine destroys the ozone in the same way as NOx do. One chlorine
radical can destroy 10, 0000 ozone molecules.
OTHER SOURCES OF OZONE DEPLETION

 CCl4
 CF4
 Halons
 Hydro Chloro fluoro carbons (HCFC)
 Methyl Halides
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS

1. Ozone layer is capable of filtering UV radiations between 215-300 nm wavelength
2. Thickness of ozone is measured by DU(Dobson unit)
3. Average thickness of ozone layer is 230 DU
EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION

 Sunburns
 Skin cancer
 Immune system suppression
 Eye cataract
 Reduction in crop yield
 Decrease in forest productivity
 Disruption in aquatic food chains and food webs
 Increase in photochemical smog
 Increase in acid deposition
 Degradation of outdoor paints and plastics
 DNA breakage
OZONE DEPLETION POTENTIAL (ODP)

Measure of destructive effects of ozone depletion substance with respect to reference
substance that is CFC
HOW TO PROTECT THE OZONE LAYER?
Scientists are still worried about the gradual decrease of the ozone layer, by the oxides
of Nitrogen and Chlorofluoro carbons.
Nitrogen oxides present in the atmosphere can be removed by:
(a) Reduction Method (b) Scrubbing Method
As far as, chlorofluoro carbons are concerned, the usage of these chemical must be
banned as aerosol spray propellants, or other aerosol spray propellants must be
discovered which should not have the destructive effect on ozone layer
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
ACID RAIN
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with
acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the
atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that
is acidic.
What Causes Acid Rain?
 Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents.
 The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric
acids.
 These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
 While a small portion of the SO 2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources
such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.
The reactions involves in the formation of acid rain are as follows:

The above reaction explains the formation of sulphuric acid in air due to SO 2
The above reactions indicate the formation of Nitric Acid in Air due to oxides of
Nitrogen.
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of
NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.
Forms of Acid Deposition
4. Wet Deposition
Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric and nitric
acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
5. Dry Deposition
Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in the absence of
moisture as dry deposition. The acidic particles and gases may deposit to surfaces
(water bodies, vegetation, buildings) quickly or may react during atmospheric transport
to form larger particles that can be harmful to human health. When the accumulated
acids are washed off a surface by the next rain, this acidic water flows over and through
the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as insects and fish.
The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry deposition
depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives. For example, in desert areas the
ratio of dry to wet deposition is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain
each year.
DIAGRAM SHOWING DRY & WET DEPOSITION
Measuring Acid Rain
Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower a
substance's pH (less than 7), the more acidic it is; the higher a substance's pH (greater
than 7), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic
because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid. Acid rain
usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.
EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN
 Acidification of soil and rocks

 Damaging effect on plantation
 Useful bacteria may be effected adversely
 Poor crop yield
 Biodiversity loss
 Deforestation
 Damage terrestrial ecosystem
 Corrosion of metals
 Skin irritation
 Damage of buildings, marble stone, fabrics and fading in the colors of dyes
REMEDIES
 Treatment of industrial exhaust

 Restrictions on fossil fuel burning

Prof Dogar's Notes on Environmental Pollution

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Prof Dogar's Notes on Environmental Pollution

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PROF. NAVEED ASLAM DOGAR : M.SC (CHEMISTRY), M.PHIL (ENV.SCIENCES), M.

1. Biodegradable pollutants that degrade or decompose rapidly by natural processes.

Different kinds of pollution that affect the environment are:

The main sources of air pollution are:

 Fossil fuel burning

EXAMPLES: sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,hydrocarbons,

AIR POLLUTANTS THEIR SOURCES & HEALTH EFFECTS

POLLUTANT SOURCES HEALTH EFFECTS

 Automobile emissions o Lung irritation

Carbon monoxide (CO)  Natural gas o Nausea

ploughing of farm o Harmful to people

Lead(Pb)  Vehicles using leaded o Brain and nervous

HOW TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION?

CONTROL MEASURES IN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

EQUIPMENTS TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches:

 Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate

Fig: The different Equipments used in Air Pollution control

Types, Effects And Sources Of Water Pollution

Human and animal wastes

Effects: Variety of diseases.

Human sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers

Effects:Inorganic chemicals can:

Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.

Point and non-point sources of water pollution:

Factors Affecting the Quality Of Water

1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

(c)Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

 Value of COD is a direct measure of chemically oxidizable matter in water.

Control measures of water pollution

3. Neighbourhood noise: This type of noise includes disturbance from household

Effects of Noise pollution

4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

What is soil pollution?

 Virucides for the control of viruses (e.g. H5N1)

DDT (DICHLORO DIPHENYL TRI CHLORO ETHANE)

 Carbamate compounds (Carbaryl, Zectrion)

 Organo- phosphate compounds (Methyl or Ethyl parathion, Melathion)

How to control soil pollution?

(a)Classification of wastes depending upon their sources

DO YOU KNOW ABOUT BASEL CONVENTION?

(b)Classification of wastes depending upon their Degradability

Some undesirable effects of improper waste Management

Mechanism of Water Logging

Causes of Water Logging

Effects of Water Logging

Creation of Anaerobic Condition in the Crop Root-Zone:

Growth of Water Loving Wild Plants:

Reduction in Time of Maturity:

i. By lining the canal section:

Causes of dry land salinity

Forest Area of Pakistan

Efforts and solutions

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT & GLOBAL WARMING

Other Green House Gases

(b) Surface Ozone (O3) 10%

Fig: contribution of various countries towards CO2 emission

Effects of Global Warming

Fig: Green House Effect and global warming

Disadvantages of Global Warming

iii. Deserts get drier leaving to increased desertification.