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1ST SEM 2021-2022

CE 112

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

1. MODULE 6. Chemistry of the Environment

2. Introduction

The current development in the world demands increased energy usages. As a result, human
activity to improve human life increased logarithmically. The thriving population in itself is the greatest
source of pollution of the environment. Consequential to the bloating world population are the pollution
and contamination of the water, the air, the soil and the food chain. These are full of toxins with adverse
effects to human, plant as well as animal life.

This module will help the students understand the causes and grave consequences of the
environmental chaos we are in.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Define what is pollution and contamination
2. Identify the areas of the biosphere that are heavily affected by pollution.
3. Enumerate the causes, pathways and effects of pollution in each area
4. Suggest practical solution to the problem of pollution
5. Point out practical indicators of pollution in the environment, and;
6. Discuss the chemistry of ozone depletion and its implication to human life.
7. Cite and explain what is green chemistry and its potential as a positive step to solving environmental
pollution.

4. The Chemistry of Environment

How did our present environmental

problems come about?

4.1. Pollution and Contamination

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The environment includes the biosphere where life thrives. This module will confine the
discussion to the air, water and land. Green chemistry will also be mentioned as a special topic.
Pollution is the excessive discharge or addition of unwanted and undesirable materials into the
environment that causes harm and damage to human, plant and animal life. The undesirable materials
are called pollutants. Example the water in Pasig River are polluted by discharges from the many
manufacturing plants that lined its sides. It is said that in the river no more fish lives.
Contamination is the presence of a substance that may or may not alter the properties of the
environment. The substance may or may not be harmful to the life in the environment. The substances
referred to are called contaminants. For example, a river contains silt from soil erosion.
Chemistry and biology can help us understand the nature and extent of pollution (or
contamination) of a certain part of the environment. The two sciences can also help us identify the best
solution to restore and preserve our environment. (Josue)

4.1.1. Causes of Pollution

The following are the main causes of pollution:

a. Population increase (Lim)
b. Industrialization (champagne)
c. Urbanization
d. Erosion
e. Uncontrolled exploitation of nature (i.e. logging, road construction, etc.)
f. Radioactivity
g. Volcanic eruptions
h. Accidental oil spill (Oval)
I, Acid rains
m. Disposal of coal ash
n, Buried wastes
o. Disposal of nuclear wastes
f. Agricultural practices
g. Electronic waste
h. Mining
i. Landfill and illegal dumping
j. GMOs (genetically modified organisms)
k. Intensive farming
l. Manufacturing industries
m. Electronic wastes
n. Greenhouse gases

4.1.2. Classification of Pollution

Pollution is classified into several forms:

a. Air pollution c. Land pollution e. Noise pollution

b. Water pollution d. Food pollution f. Thermal pollution

However, the first three classifications will be the major discussion of this module.

4.2. Air Pollution

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Air pollution is the release of pollutants into the air that are harmful to
human health and to the planet as a whole. Examples are smog, flue gases
from the tailpipes of vehicles and chimneys of manufacturing plants.

Fig. 1. Flue gases from a

manufacturing plant
4.2.1. Causes of Air Pollution

Air pollution comes from excessive use and production of energy. Burning of fossil fuels
releases gases into the atmosphere. But air pollutants are not limited to gases only. The table below
summarizes the air pollutants in the atmosphere, their sources and effects:

Table 1. Summary of Air Pollutants

Air pollutant Source Effects

A Gases (Inorganic)
1 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) From petroleum industry,
thermal power station, sulfuric
acid manufacturing plants
2 Hydrogen sulfide From industries like petroleum
(H2S) refineries, paper and leather
manufacture
3 Hydrogen fluoride Phosphate fertilizer industry,
(HF) aluminum industry, brick
pottery making
4 Carbon monoxide Combustion of fuels,
(CO) automobile industry, oil
refineries, cigarette smoke, etc
5 Nitrogen oxides NO2 is a reddish-brown gas
(NxOy) with a sharp odor. NO is a free
Nitrogen dioxide radical; Comes from
(NO2) combustion of fuels, explosive
Nitrogen monoxide industry, acid manufacture,
(NO) N2O are derived from
N2O is Nitrous oxide manufacture of panty hoses;
also called laughing powerplants, manure
gas); slang name is management; transportation;
Nangs chemical production; and from
agricultural fertilization i.e.
x, y are subscripts corn farming
6 Ozone (O3) From photochemical reactions
involving NOx (nitrogen
oxides) and VOCs (volatile
organic compounds); Auto-
mobiles are the largest source
of VOCs necessary for these
reactions; Ozone tend to peak
on the afternoon
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Causes respiratory diseases, eye
irritation and throat troubles,
damage to agriculture
Causes eye irritation, severe
throat pain, headache, corrosion
of metals
Causes irritation, bone and tooth
disorders, and respiratory
diseases
Causes headache, visual
difficulty, and even paralysis
Causes respiratory illnesses, eye
irritation, affects plant growth;
reduce visibility; plays a role in
the formation of tropospheric
ozone
300x GWP than CO2; depletes
ozone; cause euphoria, relaxation
and short-lived (20 sec) “high”
when taken; causes dizziness
difficulty thinking straight and
cause fits of laughter
Cause eye irritation, aggravate
respiratory diseases, and damage
to plants and animals;
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Gases (Toxic Pollutants: Hazardous Air pollutants (HAPS) - Organic and trace
B elements considered carcinogens)
7 Perchlorethylene Emitted from dry cleaning Toxic and may cause cancer and
Cl2C=CCl2 facilities, air freshers, vrnishes, other serious health effects such
paints, adhesives smoking, birth defects
photocopiers, burning of
woods, fuel oils, gasoline, etc
8 Methylene chloride Manufacturing plants that A neurotoxin that may cause
aka produce it; From plastic, brain and central nervous system
Dichloromethane urethane, synthetics, foam, damage; cause liver and lung
CH2Cl2 electronics and paint industries; cancer; inhalation result to
household paint removal; shortness of breath; and cause
electronic cleaner and aerosols eye irritation or possible eye burn
9 Benzene (C6H6) Emissions from gas or coal Eye, lung and skin irritation in
combustion, from incineration the short term, and blood
processes; tail pipes of cars disorders in the long term.
1 Polycyclic aromatic Traffic exhaust and wildfire Cause eye and lung irritation,
0 hydrocarbons smoke blood and liver issues and
(PAHs) cancer; affects the brain in
children and cause ADHD
(attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder)
1 Dioxins Emissions from plastic Short-term: Affects the liver,
1 manufacturing plants harm the immune, nervous and
endocrine systems; long term:
affects the reproductive functions
1 Lead Emissions from gas or coal Can damage children’s brain and
2 combustion, from incineration kidneys; even in small amounts it
processes; tail pipes of cars can affect children’s IQ and
using gasoline ability to learn.
1 Mercury Emissions from gas or coal Affects the central nervous
3 combustion, from incineration system
processes; tail pipes of cars
C Solids in the Air
1 Dust Cement industry, mining, glass Causes respiratory diseases,
4 industry, ceramics industry affects lungs, affects agriculture,
accelerates corrosion
1 Smog Emission from fossil fuel Eye and throat irritation, damage
5 combustion; car and truck the lungs; triggers asthma and
factories; power plants, intensify allergies
incinerators, engines
1 Soot Emission from fossil fuel Penetrate the lungs and
6 combustion; car and truck bloodstream and worsen
factories; power plants, bronchitis, lead to heart attack
incinerators, engines and hasten death
Note: 1. Soot are the tiniest particulate matters in air. It is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil,
smoke, dust or allergens in the form of gas or solids.

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2. Smog is called “ground level ozone” or GLO. It occurs when emissions from fossil burning
plants react with sunlight. Mainly, GLO is a photoreaction of NOx and VOCs with sunlight
and form. They are secondary pollutants are is called “bad ozone”.
3. VOCs examples are benzene, ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, methylene chloride,
tetrachlorethylene, toluene, xylene, 1,3-butadiene.

4.2.2. Acid Rain

The occurrence of acid rains is due to the dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. The gases
like SO2 and NO2 from industries dissolves in water and form respective acids. So, in simple terms
it means that the rain contains more acids.

4.2.2.1. Reactions
SO2+ H 2 O→ H 2 S O3
2 SO 2 +O 2 → 2 S O3
SO3+ H 2 O→ H 2 S O4
2 NO2 + H 2 O → HN O 3+ HN O 2

4.2.2.2. Harmful Effects of Acid Rain

The following are some of the harmful effects of acid rain to the environment:
a. It makes the soil more acidic thereby reducing its fertility.
b. Affects the growth of crops, plants, etc. It strips nutrients from trees’ foliage.
c. Reduces the survivability of aquatic species.
d. Damages buildings, vehicles, structural materials, etc.
e. Acid rains leaches Al, minerals and nutrients from the soil that plants need to grow.

4.2.3. Radioactive Pollutants

Radioactivity is an air pollutant that is both geogenic (relating to earth’s history) and
anthropogenic (originating from human activity).

Geogenic radioactivity comes from the radionuclides that are present in the radioactive
minerals in the earth’s crust or from the atmospheric gases’ interaction with the cosmic radiation.
In other words, this is a part of the natural formation of earth as a planet.

Anthropogenic radioactive emissions are a result of human activities as it tries to explore

energy resources. They come from nuclear reactors, nuclear weapon’s testing and from
reprocessing of reactor fuels. Examples are uranium, thorium and polonium.

4.2.4. Green House Effect

The earth atmosphere gets warmer because of the greenhouse effect of pollutants like CO2
present in the atmosphere.

4.2.4.1. Types of Green House Gases

There are several greenhouse gases that synergistically cause this effect. The are called GHGs
(greenhouse gases). The following gases are identified as GHGs:
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a. CO2 f. fluorinated gases

b. N2O f.1 Perfluorocarbons or PFCs
c. H2O vapor f.2 Hydrofluorocarbons or HFCs
d. CH4 (HFC 123, HFC 125, HPC 134a, HFC 152a
e. Surface-level O3 f.3 Hexafluorides or SF6

4.2.4.2. Global Warming Potential (GWP) of Green House Gases

Global warming is the slow (or gradual) increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of GHGs

Global warming potential of a gas refers to the total contribution of the gas to global
warming resulting from the emission of one unit of the gas relative to one unit of the reference
gas. It is the scale of impact of a GHG in the warming of the atmosphere. It has something to do
also with radiative forcing or heat capacity of the gas.

In the comparison of the GWP of the GHGs, CO2 is taken as the benchmark and all
GHGs are compared relative to this value using a 100-year time scale. It is expressed in terms of
CO2 equivalent or CO2e.

CO2 e = GWP x Q

where: CO2 e = carbon dioxide equivalence

GWP = global warming potential
Q = quantity of the gas

4.2.4.3. GWP Comparison of Greenhouse gases

The following table is a comparison of the relative GWP of the GHG gases with a 100-
year equivalency taken from IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change):

Table 2. IPCC GWP ranking of the different green house gases in the atmosphere.
Gas GWP Residence, yr
Carbon dioxide, CO2 1 50-200
Methane, CH4 25 120
Nitrous oxide, N2O 310 120
Low-level ozone, O3
Fluorinated gases:
a) Hydrofluorocarbons 140-11,700
HFC 23 (CHF3) 14,800 270
HFC 125 3,500 4.9
HFC 134a 1,430 14
HFC 152a 140 1.4
b) PFCs 6500-9200 800-50,000
c) SF6 23,900 3,200
d) NF3 17,200 740
e) CFCs: CFC 11 4,750 45
CFC 12 10,900 100
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CFC 113 6,130 85
CFC 114 8,730 300
CFC 115 9,990 1,700
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4.2.4.4. Effects of Global Warming

1. Increase in temperatures in the atmospheric and bodies of water.

2. Evaporation of surface water is enhanced.
3. Sea level rises due to polar cap melting.
4. Low lying areas will be flooded.
5. Mosquito-inflicted diseases will rise
6. Natural calamitous like typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc may occur frequently.
7. More warming will happen due to the release of about 4 billion tons of trapped methane
in the polar caps and tundras.
8. More plant, animal and aquatic species will be lost due to increase in temperature

4.2.5. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer in the earth’s

stratosphere at an altitude of about 15 to 40 km
containing a high concentration of ozone which
absorbs most of the UV radiation reaching the
earth from the sun. It is about 25-30 km thick and
shields the earth from the destructive UV
radiation. The large purple and blue area in the
2008 and 2020 images is the ozone hole. By 1982 two thirds of the ozone August 2020
layer over Antartica disappeared. In 1987 the hole extended about 10 o
latitude from south pole and there was about 70-97% disappearance of
ozone. By 2020, the largest ozone hole is observed (Picture: Courtesy of
NASA).

Fig. 2. The ozone depletion progression: 1979,2008 and 2020

4.2.5.1. Ultraviolet Radiation

There are two types of UV radiation that the earth receives from the Sun: the UVB and
the UVA.

The UVB rays are responsible for producing skin burns. It also plays a role in causing
skin cancer including melanoma.

The UVA also plays a role in skin cancer formation. It penetrates more deeply into the
skin and cause premature skin aging including wrinkle formation (photoaging). There are
about 500 times more UVA rays in sunlight than UVB rays.

4.2.5.2. Ozone Formation and Importance (a)

Ozone layer covers the earth surface and prevents the entry of the
harmful UV radiation. It saves the lives of human and animals due to
its UV light reflecting and deflecting function. The ozone layer is
formed by the conversion of the diatomic oxygen gas to ozone as
follows:
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Fig. 3. (a)(b) Ozone molecule (b)

structure and (c) natural
chemistry
radiation
3 O2 (g ) → 2O3 (g)

4.2.5.3. Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

(c)
Ozone molecules in the atmosphere are so stable that
when hit by light they breakdown into an oxygen radical and
diatomic oxygen (c). They reform back to ozone molecules as
fast as they are split up. In this manner the ozone layer is kept
intact to do its function as a shield of the earth from harmful
UV rays.

Substances, as a result of human activities, that are

harmful to the ozone layer are released into the atmosphere
and disrupt the split-and-combine reaction of the O 3 molecules. The chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), for example, are so reactive that when they are at the near the ozone molecule, a
chlorine atom in them reacts with the O . radical that splits from the O 3 when struck by a UV
light to form a ClO . complex. This process stops the recombination of O .And O 2 to form back
O 3 leaving the diatomic oxygen (O2) alone and therefore reduce the amount of O 3 slowly.
However, it will take another set of reaction to produce another O 3 again as shown below:

radiation
3 O2 (g ) → 2O3 (g)

The ozone layer depletion reaction is shown below:

Formation of Cl . radical: CF 2 Cl2 +hv →Cl . +CF 2 Cl−¿¿

Dichlorodifluoromethane
Breaking up of O 3: O3 +hv →O. +O2
Capture of the O . radical: Cl . +O . +O 2 →ClO . + O 2
The ClO . further reacts with ClO. +O . → Cl . +O2
another O . radical

4.2.5.4. Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

1. It causes skin diseases and eye defects.

2. More harmful radiation may enter freely into the
earth’s surface and affect life on earth.
3. It reduces population of animal and aquatic
species
4. It also affects the ecosystem very badly.
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4.2.6. Control of Air Pollution Fig. 4. (Below) Ozone depletion chemistry

1. Exhaust gases from vehicles may be reduced by use of gadgets that will absorb the flue
gases or using catalysts.
2. Chimneys may be re-engineered to limit exhaust gas concentrations by the use of
adsorbing agents.
3. Suspended particulates and smog can be removed by using controlling the emissions of
power plants where soot and dusts originate.
4. Use of alternative fuels like renewable energy sources where appropriate.
5. More tree should be planted especially in the urban areas
6. CO 2 absorbing plants may also be planted along the city avenues and roof tops.
7. Expand the use of CO 2 absorbing paints in buildings.
8. Use of electric vehicles instead of gasoline-burning ones.
9. Switching off lights when they are not needed.

4.3. Water Pollution

Water is important to life. It is needed by man, animals, plants and microorganisms to stay alive.
If the water is contaminated or polluted with substances which are not supposed to there, it becomes
harmful to human beings, plants, animals and any forms life,

4.3.1. Causes of Water Pollution

Some of the sources of water pollution are

1. Domestic sewage
2. Industrial effluents
2.1. Heavy metals
2.2. Eutrophication
2.3. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
2.3.1. Carcinogens (cancer-causing substances)
2.3.2. Insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, etc
3. Algae
4. Microorganisms

4.3.1.1 Domestic Sewage

Sewage is the liquid community waste which contain human wastes, kitchen wastes and
street wastes. This is a serious problem especially in big congested cities or developing ones. It is
always a part of planning when a community is about to be established because in the long run it
will become a water consideration. Sewers and water pipelines must far from each other to avoid
contamination or pollution.

4.3.1.1.1. Problems Caused by Sewage

Some of the problems caused by sewage are the following:

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1. Hydrogen sulfide gas is produced in the sewage due to the digestion and decomposition
of the wastes.
2. It affects the pipelines due to its corrosive nature.
3. The odor from decomposing wastes are very obnoxious and repulsive.
4. It serves as the breeding ground for bacteria, viruses, insects and pests.
5. Digestion and decomposition may produce flammable gases that may cause accidental
fire.

4.3.1.1.2. Treatment of Sewage

Treatment of sewage by some established processes can render the waste safe when it finally
finds its way into the bodies of water. The following are processes that can be applied to improve
their quality:

1. The floating impurities can be removed by mechanical means using steel screens with
fine mesh. The floating solids makes the place where they are, unsightly.
2. Organic impurities can be removed by oxidation process.
3. The fine suspended impurities may be removed by filtration or may be coagulated to
make them bigger.
4. Corrosive acids in the sewage can be removed by neutralization process.
5. Bacterial impurities can be removed by chlorination
6. After treatment, the sewage may be subjected to purification and use it for other purposes.

4.3.1.2. Algae in the Sewage and its Treatment

The presence of algae in the sewage causes the following problems:

1. Foul odor
2. Dying algae may produce gaseous by-products which can be flammable.
3. Breeding ground for insects and pests that are attracted by the presence of algae.
4. Wading may infect people with leptospirosis, tetanus, etc.
5. Block the pipelines and filters.
6. Decrease dissolved oxygen in the water which may kill aquatic animals in it.

Algae in the sewage can be treated with copper sulfate to control their growth. The use of
bleaching powder, activated carbon and lime may destroy the algae in the sewage. Further,
preventing sunlight to fall on the surface of the water can control the growth of algae.

4.3.1.3. Industrial Effluents

Manufacturing plants are always built beside rivers or creeks because this bodies of water
area good way to dispose plant sewage. The water the comes out of the plant is called an effluent.

But effluents cause problems in the river and creeks as their effluents join the water in the
river. The following are some of the problems created by dumping effluents in rivers and creeks:

1. The effluents may cause sever damage to aquatic life.

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2. The metals present in the effluents may seriously affect the human organs like
kidney, brain, etc.
3. The acidic nature of effluents causes corrosion in pipelines.
4. Effluents from chemical industries highly affect the lives of human beings and
animals within their vicinity.
5. Effluents may cause increased acidity in soil and water which consequently affect
plant growth.
6. Effluents help in the eutrophication of urban rivers.

4.3.1.3.1. Treatment of Effluents

Waste disposal and management is one major component of a manufacturing plant. Effluents
are treated within the plant before integrating it into water bodies (usually creeks and rivers). The
purpose is to purify the wastewater so that it will not affect aquatic life and human life.
1. Toxic effluents are stored in ponds or lagoons and are treated with chemical to
remove toxic substances.
2. Acidic nature of effluents is reduced by neutralization process.
3. Effluents organic in nature are impounded in lagoons and are aerated for days.
4. Radioactive wastes are carefully stored in sealed drums to avoid leakage and are
stored deep underground (more than 100 meters)
5. Effluents with heavy metals are treated to remove the metals using special methods.

4.3.1.3.2. Harmful Effects of Heavy Metals

Table 3. Heavy metals in waster water from plant industries.

Metals Sources Harmful Effects
1 Lead, Pb From cars, burning of coal, Affect liver, kidney, fertility and
mining and lead smelters pregnancy; mental disorders and
retardation in children; and
produce gastro-intestinal
damage.
2 Cadmium, From Ni-Cd batteries; from Damage the kidney and
Cd fertilizer industries; electroplating intestine; affect the liver, brain
and welding and throat
3 Zinc, Zn From refineries, metal plating, Affect the skin and cause
galvanization and plumbing irritation, vomiting and diarrhea
4 Copper, Cu From processes, jewelry making, Severely affect the digestive
bronze manufacturing and system; cause vomiting and
plumbing diarrhea; affect the liver;
produce gastrointestinal damage

4.3.1.3.3. Eutrophication

The enrichment of nutrients like phosphates, nitrogen compounds from agricultural

wastes, organic chemical wastes in lake water and other waterbodies is known as
eutrophication. It enhances the growth of algae and makes the lake and ponds useless.

Harmful effects of eutrophication are:

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1. It enhances the growth of algae in the water which lead to depletion of oxygen in the
water.
2. It kills rivers, creeks, ponds or lakes.
3. It becomes a breeding ground of bacteria
4. It creates bad odor within the immediate vicinity.

4.3.1.4. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Organic compounds that stays in the environment for a long time and cause damage to
water, crops, human, animals and insects. They are very persistent and soluble in lipids causing
health problems. They are rapidly absorbed through the skin, lungs and gastrointestinal tract,
hence, are hazardous to those who are using them. They show symptoms like nausea, blurred
vision, vomiting, tremor, confusion, slurred speech, muscle twisting and convulsion.

4.3.1.4.1. Carcinogenic wastes and chemicals

a. Benzene: Lung cancer, death

b. Vinyl chloride: Liver cancer
c. Ethylene dichloride: Stomach pain and liver cancer
d. Formalin
e. Hexane
f. Ether

4.3.1.4.2. Pesticides, Insecticides, Herbicides and Fungicides

Pesticides are synthetic chemicals used to kill undesirable organisms like insect pests. They
include insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.

a. Organochlorines are chlorinated hydrocarbons: DDT or Dichlorodiphenyl

trichloroethane; Chlordane, Heptachlor, etc
b. Organophosphates: Pathion, malathion
c. Carbamates: Carbaryl, Propxur

4.3.1.5. Microorganisms

Microorganisms are bacteria and viruses that cause diseases like cholera, jaundice, typhoid
fever, flu, heart disease, etc. Most of these can be controlled by disinfectants like chlorine and
bleaching powder.

4.4. Solid Waste Management

Waste is a substance which is left after something is used, processed or consumed.

Solid waste is a perennial problem by rural as well as urban areas. The amount of solid wastes is
directly proportional to the number of people living in a certain place. The problem is usually
compounded by its impact on water which brings one back to water pollution.

4.4.1 Types of Solid Waste

1. Commercial garbage
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2. Agricultural wastes
3. Rural wastes
4. Plastic wastes
5. Medicinal wastes
6. Food wastes
7. Industrial wastes

4.4.1.1. Problems Caused by Wastes

Solid wastes render the surroundings unsightly. Air becomes unclean with bad smell and
human health is affected. Some solid waste by products may reach the water table and may make
the water impure and contaminated with foreign substance. The taste of water pumped out of the
deep well may change differently. Liquid leaching from dumpsites may change the color of water
and may also encourage the proliferation of water borne microorganisms like E. coli which is
harmful to human. Waste from hospitals like bottles, syringes, discarded medicines, solid
chemical discards form schools and universities, etc all contribute to the problem of solid waste
management.

4.4.1.2. Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is the monitoring, collection and transport of garbage waste and
dumping in a predesignated area (dumpsites) where it is processed, recycled, disposed of to
reduce their effect on health and environment.
It is usually not fully implemented because the following factors:

1. Lack of education and awareness on the solid waste management.

2. Lack of motivation by the people.
3. Resistance to change.
4. Lack of information dissemination on the adverse effects of garbage in human and
environmental welfare.
5. Lack of government resources to effectively collect people’s garbage daily especially in
the cities.
6. People exploiting the garbage dumpsite as source of livelihood.
7. Garbage collection is done by private contractors.

4.4.1.3. Methods of Disposal

There several ways on how to dispose off solid wastes.

1. Land Fill

The land fill method is done by burying the waste underground and covered with earth.
These are usually done in abandoned areas or places far from the population centers. This is
because the presence of the landfill creates a number of adverse environmental problems like
odor and leaching. A poorly designed landfill may become source of litters and may become
playground of garbage-loving animals and insect that may eventually source of health issues
among the population.

2. Incineration
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Burning of solid waste such as wood, plastics, hazardous wastes may be carried out using
incinerators. Organic wastes may be got rid by combustion and converted into residues, heat and
gaseous products.

3. The Rs Method: Recycle, Reduce, and Reuse

A more friendly and economically beneficial approach to solid waste management is

recycling, reduction and reuse of the waste.
Recycle is the process of collecting solid wastes and reprocess them into new usable form.
This had proven to have benefitted many people who earn their living out of rummaging the
garbage site for still useful things (like plastics and glass bottles, cans, paper, cardboards and
irons) and sell it to garbage recyclers.

Reduce is the act of conserving resources to reduce waste.

Reuse is the practice of using again that which was previously utilized like plastic and glass
bottles instead of dumping them after use.

Some advantages of recycling are:

1. It helps the conservation of natural resources.

2. It can protect people’s health
3. It protects the environment.
4. It help improve air and water quality.
5. It reduces the pollution of water bodies.
6. It helps the people economically.

Some recycling technologies are:

1. Conversion of wastes into solid fuel.

2. Composting of some garbage into organic fertilizers.
3. Conversion of biomass into compost.
4. Processing of garbage into gaseous fuels.
5. Used PET bottles are powdered and used as a raw material for new plastic products.
6. Used glass bottles are broken in fine form and used as raw materials for new glass
products.

4.5. Green Chemistry

One of the best concepts of solution to pollution is green chemistry.

Green chemistry is the design of environment friendly chemical products and processes reduce or
eliminate the generation of hazardous substances. Natural process is “green” while synthetic process is
often “gray” Cleaner process and cleaner synthesis will certainly contribute to better environmental
protection.

4.5.1. Goals of Green Chemistry

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The key to successful green chemistry approach is designing products and determining the
process to achieve desired “green” product. Some guidelines are given below:
1. To prevent the formation of waste material before it is formed.
2. To convert almost all the materials used in the process into the final product.
3. To design some synthetic methodologies that does not give toxic chemicals.
4. To avoid the usage of auxiliary substances (solvents) wherever possible.
5. To ensure the conduction of synthetic methods at ambient temperature and pressure.
6. To reduce the formation of by-products which are harmful.
7. To make use of renewable materials as raw materials during the process.
8. To perform the process in a safe and controlled way.
9. To reduce the quantity of highly hazardous chemicals during the process.

4.5.2. The Safer Chemical Ingredients List (SCIL)

The website https://www.epa.gov published online a list of chemical ingredients, arranged by

functional-use class known as Safer Chemicals Ingredients List (SCIL). This is designed to help the
manufacturers find safer chemical alternatives that meet the criteria of the Safer Choice Program. The
Safer Choice Program evaluates and determines materials that are safer than traditional chemical
ingredients based on the standards established for the purpose.

4.5.2.1. Categories of Safer Chemical Ingredients

Functional-Use Class:

1. Antimicrobial
Actives
2. Chelating Agents
3. Colorants
4. Defoamers
5. Emollients
6. Fragrances
7. Oxidants and Oxidant
Stabilizers
8. Enzyme and enzyme
stabilizers
9. Polymers
10. Preservatives and
Antioxidants
11. Processing Aids and
Additives
12. Skin Conditioning Agents
13. Solvents
14. Specialized Industrial Chemicals
15. Surfactants
16. Uncategorized

Chemicals are marked as a

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Green circle,    Green half-circle,    Yellow triangle, or    Grey square.

Green circle - The chemical has been verified to be of low concern based on experimental and
modeled data.

Green half-circle - The chemical is expected to be of low concern based on experimental and
modeled data. The chemical has safer status.

Yellow triangle - The chemical has met Safer Choice Criteria for its functional ingredient-
class, but has some hazard profile issues. Specifically, a chemical with this code is not
associated with a low level of hazard concern for all human health and environmental
endpoints. While it is a best-in-class chemical and among the safest available for a particular
function, the function fulfilled by the chemical should be considered an area for safer
chemistry innovation.
Grey square - This chemical will not be acceptable for use in products that are candidates for
the Safer Choice label and currently labeled products that contain it must reformulate per Safer
Choice Compliance Schedules.
5. Teaching and Learning Activities

5.1. Exercises

A. Air Pollution

a.1. What are air pollutants? Give five of them.

a.2. Define air pollution.
a.3. What is greenhouse effect?
a.4. What causes ozone layer depletion?
a.5. Give some effects of ozone layer depletion
a.6. Scenario: You are living in a city and wanted to know if the air is polluted. What are some
practical ways you can take to do this?

B. Water Pollution

b.1. Define water pollutants? Give the examples of water pollutants.

b.2. What causes eutrophication and how does it happen?
b.3. Do the following activities in your home and write a report on what you observed and learned.
Document your set up with pictures and send to my messenger account with your name, subject,
time and school year.
b.3.1. Activity 1. Look for a water kettle (in your home or your friend’s) used to boil water for
coffee or other purposes which has been used for the past 2 years or more. Take a look at the
inner bottom and inner sides of the kettle.
a. Note and write what you observe?
b. What do you think are the materials deposited in them?
c. Where do you think did these come from?

b.3.2. Activity 2.
1. Gather five 1-liter (or 1.5-liter will also do) PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles in a junk
shop.
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2. Wash them clean with detergents in water. Let them stand (inverted) without caps to drain
and dry.
3. Number, label and fill each bottle with the following:
Bottle #1 Pure hard water (water from a water pump)
Bottle #2 Urea solution (2 tablespoon of urea in 1 or 1.5 liter of tap water)
Bottle #3 Water dissolved with clayey soil (a fistful of clay soil. Shake well to dissolve the soil
particles.
Bottle #4 Water with a fistful of sandy loam soil (morong).
Bottle #5 Water with 1 tablespoon of any pesticide or herbicide or fungicide you use in the
farm. (WARNING: If not sure how to handle the chemicals, ask your father to do this step
for Don’t smell, touch or taste them. Pesticides are poisonous. Please be very careful).
Bottle #6 Water with 1 fistful of clay soil and 1 fistful of sandy loam soil. Shake well.
(Note: Mark each bottle with a line using a Pentel pen. All bottles must be filled up to
volume after mixing using the Pentel pen mark.)
4. Place the bottles in a spot where they will not be disturbed by any motion. Allow the bottles
to stand for 5 days. Observe and note your observations daily, i.e. appearance, color,
presence of particulates or any indicator that the water is mixed with something.
a. Write a note about your observation for each.
b. Suppose you did not see these bottles prepared. Can you tell if the liquid inside are
mixtures of some kind? Why? Why not?
c. What does these activities tell you about water pollution or contamination?

C. Solid Waste Pollution

1. Choose one problem for each of the following and discuss concisely:
a. Air pollution b. Water pollution c. Solid waste pollution
2. Name the 3 Rs of solid waste management and define each.
3. Enumerate some advantages of recycling.
4. 2-Week Activity. Think of a project that will showcase solid waste management. Your set up
and result should be documented from start to finish (i.e. pictures) and send it through
messenger or email.

D. Green Chemistry

1. Write a thought about green chemistry. (See guideline below)

Sample
Guidelines for a Write Up
(Use this for all write up activities asked in this module)

Topic: Aquatic Habitat: River

A river is an aquatic habitat that depends on the monsoon rain or some tributaries that feed
water into it. It may be a year end-year out river or one that dries out on the summer. As a habitat,
the river has abiotic and biotic components. There are species confined to the water (like fish) and
there are land species that use its banks (crocodiles, birds, etc.). Amphibian creatures like frogs and
aquatic insects use both the water and the land. And then you can go on to a) Describe the aquatic
life and the land activity b) Describe the characteristics of the river: its depth, banks, siltation, flow,
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etc. c) Describe the various species of flora and fauna in and around the river d) Describe the
microworld property in the water under a microscope e) Observe the food chains, animal-prey
relationship, water-land creature relationships .

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

A. Videos

1. EPA Green Chemistry (https://youtu.be/rIE4T2HLW7c)

2. Science to Protect the Air We Breathe (https://youtu.be/3PO_3exwN-I?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)
3. Water Pollution Documentary https://youtu.be/h198sZXP7fU?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA
4. Environmental Problems in the Philippines (https://youtu.be/Dru4tp-AmkE?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)
5. Philippines Environmental Monitor (https://youtu.be/KZhqEUyxhmM?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)

B. Internet Pages and Documents

1. https://image.slidesharecdn.com/
2. https://www.researchgate.net/post
3. https://www.worldatlas.com/
4. www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution
5. http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/dichloromethane
6. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-12-nitrous-oxide-dangerous.html
7. https://www.nho.no/samarbeid/nox-fondet/the-nox-fund/articles/what-is-nox/
8. https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain
9. https://www.britannica.com/list/5-notorious-greenhouse-gases
10. https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/ghi/global-warming-potential.htm
11. https://www.rsc.org/journals-books-databases/about-journals/green-chemistry
12. https://www.thenakedscientists.com/articles/science-features/nitrogen-bad-guy-global-
warming
13. https://www.duplichecker.com/

7. Flexible Teaching-Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Edmodo, Google Meet, Google Drive, Google classroom, Messenger, Cell phone

8. Assessment Task

9. References

1. Asimov, Isaac and Frederik Pohl. 1991. Our Angry Earth: Bantam Books Publication. New
York. USA.
2. Bharucha, Erach. 2004. Textbook for Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses of
all Branches of Higher Education. Preliminary pages. University Grants Commission, New
Delhi, India.
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3. Brown, Larry and Tom Holme. 2012. Chemistry for Engineering Students. 2nd Edition.
Cengage Learning Asia, Pte. Ltd. ISBN 13-978-981-4392-89-0. 4th Reprint 2013. Philippines.
4. Chartl, Wolfgang. 2014. Basic Physical Chemistry: A complete Introduction to Bachelor of Science
Level. 1st Edition. A Bookboon Publication. ISBN 978-87-403-0669-9
5. Trivedi R.K., Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules Guidelines, Compliances and
Standards, Vol I and II.
6. Wanger, K.D., 1998. Environmental Management. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, USA
7. Walker, Pamela and Wood, Elaine. 2011. Chemistry Experiments. Facts on File Science
Experiments. Facts on File, Inc. Infobased Publishing. New York 10001.

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