SERIES FACTS CONTROLLERS

PREPARED BY,
PROF. CHIRAG H. RAVAL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
NIRMA UNIVRSITY
 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

FACTS controllers can be divided into following categories

 Series Controllers
 Shunt Controllers
 Combined Series-Series Controllers
 Combined Series-Shunt Controllers
 SERIES FACTS CONTROLLERS

 It could be a variable impedance (capacitor, reactor, etc) or a power electronic based

variable source of main frequency, sub synchronous and harmonic frequencies to serve
the desired need.
 Inject a voltage in series with the line.
 If the voltage is in phase quadrature with the current, controller supplies or consumes
reactive power.
 Any other phase, involves control of both active and reactive power.
 SHUNT CONTROLLERS

 It could be a variable impedance (capacitor, reactor, etc.) or a power electronic based

variable source or combination of both.
 Inject a current in the system.
 If the current is in phase quadrature with the voltage, controller supplies or consumes
reactive power.
 Any other phase, involves control of both active and reactive power.
 COMBINED SERIES-SERIES CONTROLLERS

 It could be a combination of separate series controllers or unified controller.

 Series controllers supply reactive power for each line and real power among lines via power
link.
 Interline power flow controller balance real and reactive power flow in the lines.
 COMBINED SERIES-SHUNT CONTROLLERS

 It could be a combination of separate series & shunt controllers or unified power flow
controller.
 Inject current into the system with the shunt controller and voltage in series with the line with
series controller.
 When the controllers are unified, exchange real power between series and shunt controllers
via power link.
 CHOICE OF THE CONTROLLER

 Series controller controls the current/power flow by controlling the driving voltage.
 In order to control current/power flow and damp oscillations, series controller is several times
more powerful than shunt controller.
 Shunt controller injects current in the line
 Thus it is used for more effective voltage control & damp the oscillations of voltage.
 Injecting the voltage in series with the line can improve the voltage profile but shunt controller
is more effective to improve the voltage profile at substation bus.
 For a given MVA, size of series controller is small compared to shunt controller.
 Series controllers should bypass short circuit currents and handle dynamic overloads.
 CHOICE OF THE CONTROLLER

 Controllers with gate turn off devices are based on dc to ac converters and exchange
active/reactive power with ac lines.
 This requires energy storage device. Energy storage systems are needed when active power is
involved in the power flow.

 A controller with storage is more efficiently controlling the system dynamics.

 A converter-based controller can be designed with high pulse order / pulse width modulation
technique in order to reduce the low order harmonics.
 A converter can be designed to generate the correct waveform in order to act as an active filter
 SERIES COMPENSATION

1. Increase in transmission capacity  Series compensation is basically a

 The power transfer capacity of a line is given by powerful tool to improve the
performance of high voltage lines.
E.V
P sin   It consists of capacitors connected in
X series with the line at suitable or
desired locations.
where, E is sending end voltage
V is receiving end voltage
X is reactance of line
δ is phase angle between E and V
 SERIES COMPENSATION

 Power transfer without and with compensation:

E.V
P1  sin 
XL
E.V
P2  sin 
(X L  XC )
P2 XL 1 1
  
P1 ( X L  X C ) (1  X C / X L ) 1  K

where K is degree of compensation.

The economic degree of compensation lies in the range of 40-70%
(K < 1, i.e. 0.4-0.7)
 IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEM STABILITY

 For same amount of power transfer and same value of E and V, the δ in the case of
series compensated line is less than that of uncompensated line.
E.V
P  sin  1
XL
E.V
P  sin  2
(X L  XC )
sin  2 (X L  XC )

sin  1 XL
 A lower δ means better system stability
 Series compensation offers most economic solution for system stability as compared to other
methods such as reducing generator, transformer reactance, bundled conductors, increase no.
of parallel circuits
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES COMPENSATOR
(TCSC)

 TCSC is a series connected device.

 It is a variable impedance type device.
 It can affect active power flow.
 Its switching frequency is low compared to other FACTS devices.
 Insertion of a capacitive reactance in series with the line’s inherent inductive reactance lowers
the total effective impedance of the line and thus both angular and voltage stability gets
improved.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)

BASIC TCSC MODULE PRACTICAL MODULE

UHSC: Ultra high speed contact; CB: Circuit breaker; MOV: Metal - oxide varistor; Ld: This is to restrict both the magnitude
and the frequency of the capacitor current during the capacitor-bypass operation
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 Basic Principle :-
 A TCSC is a series controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of power on
the ac line over a wide range.
 From the system viewpoint, the principle of variable series compensation is simply to increase the
fundamental frequency voltage across an fixed capacitor (FC) in a series compensated line through
appropriate variation of the firing angle, α.
 This enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the series-capacitive reactance.
 For understanding of TCSC, the behavior of a
variable inductor connected in parallel with an FC is
analyzed.

A variable inductor connected in shunt with an FC

 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)

 The equivalent impedance, Zeq, of this LC

combination is expressed as,

 If ωC − (1/ ωL) > 0 or, ωL > (1/ ωC), or, XL > XC , then the reactance of the FC is less than that of the
parallel connected variable reactor and that this combination provides a variable capacitive reactance.
 Moreover, this inductor increases the equivalent capacitive reactance of the LC combination above
that of the FC.
 If ωC − (1/ ωL) = 0, a resonance develops that results in an infinite capacitive impedance - an
obviously unacceptable condition.
 If ωC − (1/ ωL) < 0, the LC combination provides inductance above the value of the fixed inductor.
 This situation corresponds to the inductive vernier mode of the TCSC operation.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 In the variable capacitance mode of the TCSC, as the inductive reactance of the variable inductor is
increased, the equivalent capacitive reactance is gradually decreased.
 The minimum equivalent capacitive reactance is obtained for extremely large inductive reactance or
when the variable inductor is open circuited, in which the value is equal to the reactance of the FC
itself.
 The behavior of the TCSC is similar to that of the parallel LC combination.
 The difference is that the LC-combination analysis is based on the presence of pure sinusoidal voltage
and current in the circuit, whereas in the TCSC, because of the voltage and current in the FC and
thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) are not sinusoidal because of thyristor switchings.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 Modes of TCSC Operation:-
 There are essentially three modes of TCSC operation:
1. By pass thyristor mode
2. The blocked thyristor mode
3. The partial conducting thyristor (capacitive and inductive vernier) mode
1. By pass thyristor mode:-
 In this bypassed mode, the thyristors are made to fully
conduct with a conduction angle of 1800.
 Gate pulses are applied as soon as the voltage across
the thyristors reaches zero and becomes positive,
resulting in a continuous sinusoidal of current flow
through the thyristor valves.
BY PASS THYRISTOR MODE
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 The TCSC module behaves like a parallel capacitor inductor combination.

 However, the net current through the module is inductive, for the susceptance of the reactor is chosen
to be greater than that of the capacitor.

 It is also known as the thyristor switched reactor (TSR) mode, the bypassed thyristor mode is distinct
from the bypassed breaker mode, in which the circuit breaker provided across the series capacitor is
closed to remove the capacitor or the TCSC module in the event of TCSC faults or transient over
voltages across the TCSC.

 This mode is employed for control purposes and also for initiating certain protective functions.
Whenever a TCSC module is bypassed from the violation of the current limit, a finite-time delay,
Tdelay, must elapse before the module can be reinserted after the line current falls below the specified
limit.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
2. Blocked thyristor mode:-
 In this mode, also known as the waiting mode, the
firing pulses to the thyristor valves are blocked.
 If the thyristors are conducting and a blocking
command is given, the thyristors turn off as soon as the
current through them reaches a zero crossing.
 The TCSC module is thus reduced to a fixed series
capacitor, and the net TCSC reactance is capacitive.
 In this mode, the dc-offset voltages of the capacitors
are monitored and quickly discharged using a dc offset
BLOCKED THYRISTOR MODE
control without causing any harm to the transmission
system transformers.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)

PARTIALLY
CONDUCTING
THYRISTOR MODE

CAPACITIVE VERNIER MODE INDUCTIVE VERNIER MODE

3. Partially conducting or vernier mode (capacitive or inductive):-
 This mode allows the TCSC to behave either as a continuously controllable capacitive reactance or as
a continuously controllable inductive reactance.
 It is achieved by varying the thyristor pair firing angle in an appropriate ranges.
 However, a smooth transition from the capacitive to inductive mode is not permitted because of the
resonant region between the two modes.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 A variant of this mode is the capacitive-vernier-control mode, in which the thyristors are fired when
the capacitor voltage and capacitor current have opposite polarity. This condition causes a TCR
current which has a direction opposite that of the capacitor current, thereby resulting in a loop-current
flow in the TCSC controller. The loop current increases the voltage across the FC, effectively
enhancing the equivalent-capacitive reactance and the series-compensation level for the same value of
line current.

 To prevent resonance, the firing angle a of the forward-facing thyristor, as measured from the positive
reaching a zero crossing of the capacitor voltage, is constrained in the range αmin ≤ α ≤ 1800. This
constraint provides a continuous vernier control of the TCSC module reactance.

 The loop current increases as α is decreased from 1800 to αmin. The maximum TCSC reactance
permissible with α = αmin is typically two-and-a-half to three times the capacitor reactance at
fundamental frequency.
 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 Another variant is the inductive-vernier mode, in which the TCSC can be operated by having a high
level of thyristor conduction.

 In this mode the direction of circulating current is reversed and the controller presents a net inductive
impedance.

 Based on the three modes of thyristor-valve operation, two variants of the TCSC come forward:

1. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC), which permits a discrete control of the capacitive
reactance.
2. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC), which offers a continuous control of capacitive or
inductive reactance. (The TSSC, however, is more commonly employed.)
 THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic
compensators may be connected in series to obtain the
desired voltage rating and operating characteristics. This
arrangement is similar in structure to the TSSC
 If the impedance of the reactor, X1, is sufficiently smaller
than that of the capacitor, XC, it can be operated in an
on/off manner like the TSSC. X C X L ( )
 The basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to provide a X TCSC ( ) 
continuously variable capacitor by means of partially X L ( )  X C
cancelling the effective compensating capacitance by the

TCR. X L ( )  X L
  2  sin 
THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)

Variation of the TCSC reactance with firing angle alpha (α)

THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR
(TCSC)
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 The analysis of TCSC operation in the vernier - control mode is performed based on the simplified TCSC
circuit. Transmission line current is assumed to be the independent-input variable and is modeled as an external
current source iS(t). It is further assumed that the line current is sinusoidal, as derived from actual measurements
demonstrating that very few harmonics exist in the line current.
 The current through the fixed-series capacitor, C, is expressed as,

………………… (1)

 The switching variable u = 1 when the thyristor valves are conducting, that is,
when the switch S is closed.
 On the other hand, u = 0 when the thyristors are blocked, that is, when switch
S is open.
 The thyristor-valve current, iT(t), is then described by,
A SIMPLIFIED TCSC CIRCUIT
………………… (2)
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 Let the line current, iS(t), be represented by,

………………… (3)
 Equations (1) and (2) can be solved with the knowledge of the instants of switching.
 In equidistant firing-pulse control, for balanced TCSC operation, the thyristors are switched on twice in each cycle of line
current at instants t1 and t3, given by eqauation (4) and (5).
………………… (4)
 Where, β is the angle of advance (before the forward voltage becomes zero). OR
………………… (5)
………………… (6)

 The firing angle α is generated using a reference signal that can be in phase ………………… (7)
with the capacitor voltage.
 The thyristor switch S turns off at the instants t2 and t4, defined as,
………………… (8)
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 Where, α is the conduction angle, which is assumed to be the same in both the positive and the negative cycle of
conduction. Also,
………………… (9)
 By solving equations (1), (2) and (3), the steady state thyristor current iT will be obtained as,

………………… (10)

 Where,

………………… (11) ………………… (12)

 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 The XC is the nominal reactance of the FC only. The steady-state capacitor voltage at the instant ωt = −b is expressed by,

………………… (13)

 At ωt = −b, iT = 0, and the capacitor voltage is given by,

………………… (14)

 The capacitor voltage is finally obtained as,

………………… (15)

………………… (16)
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 Because the non sinusoidal capacitor voltage, vC, has odd symmetry about the axis ωt = 0, the fundamental component,
VCF, is obtained as,

……………… (17)

 The equivalent TCSC reactance is

computed as the ratio of VCF to Im as:

……………… (18)

 Alternatively, the net reactance of the TCSC in

per units of XC, denoted by Xnet ( = XTCSC/ XC),
can be expressed as,
……………… (19)
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 The variation of per-unit TCSC reactance, (XTCSC/ XC), as a function of firing angle α is depicted in below figure.
 It is noted from Eq. (18) that a parallel resonance is created
between XL and XC at the fundamental frequency,
corresponding to the values of firing angle αres, given by,

……………… (20)

 Or alternatively,

……………… (21)

VARIATION OF THE TCSC REACTANCE

WITH FIRING ANGLE α
 ANALYSIS OF TCSC

 The different resonances can be reduced to one by a proper choice of k (ωr / ω) in the range 900 < α < 1800 or 00 < β < 900.

 For instance, in the Kayenta TCSC, the choice of inductance as 0.0068 H (henries) across the 15 Ω (ohms) series
capacitor (C = 177 µF) results in only one resonance at α = 1430.

 If, however, the inductance is 0.0034 H, two resonances at α = 1600 and at α = 1010 will occur.
 ADVANTAGES OF THE TCSC

 Rapid, continuous control of the transmission-line series-compensation level.

 Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines within the network to enable
optimal power-flow conditions and prevent the loop flow of power.
 Suppression of sub synchronous oscillations.
 Decreasing dc-offset voltages.
 Enhanced level of protection for series capacitors.
 Voltage support.
 Reduction of the short-circuit current. During events of high short-circuit current, the TCSC
can switch from the controllable-capacitance to the controllable-inductance mode, thereby
restricting the short-circuit currents.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 It is a VSC based device. It is a series connected
device. Must have higher rated transformer and
devices.
 Impacts active power flow.
 SSSC injects a reactive voltage (Vr) in series
with the line.
 An SSSC comprises a voltage source inverter
and a coupling transformer.
 The SSSC, sometimes called the S3C.
 It can vary the effective impedance of a
transmission line by injecting a voltage
containing an appropriate phase angle in relation
to the line current.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 The Principle of Operation:-
 A series capacitor compensates the transmission line inductance by presenting a lagging quadrature
voltage with respect to the transmission-line current.
 This voltage acts in opposition to the leading quadrature voltage appearing across the transmission line
inductance, which has a net effect of reducing the line inductance.
 Similar is the operation of an SSSC that also injects a quadrature voltage, VC, in proportion to the line
current but is lagging in phase as,
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)

 The current in a line compensated at its midpoint by the SSSC is expressed as,

Generalized series-connected
SVC employing a multi-pulse
converter with an energy-storage
device

The different operating modes

for real- and reactive-power
exchange.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 Normally, the SSSC output voltage lags
behind the line current by 900 to provide
effective series compensation.

 In addition, the SSSC can be gated to

produce an output voltage that leads the line
current by 900, which provides additional
inductive reactance in the line.

 This feature can be used for damping power swings and, if the converter has adequate rating, for
limiting short-circuit currents.
STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)

A synchronous voltage source

employing a multi phase dc / ac
converter that is operated as a series-
capacitive compensator.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 This SSSC controller comprises a VSC in which its coupling
transformer is connected in series with the transmission line.
 The valve side voltage rating is higher than the line-side
voltage rating of the coupling transformer to reduce the
required current ratings of the GTO thyristor valves.
 The valve-side winding is delta-connected to provide a path for
3rd harmonics to flow. Solid-state switches are provided on the
valve side to bypass the VSC during periods of very large
current flow in the line or when the VSC is inoperative.
 The basic dc voltage for conversion to ac is provided by the
capacitor. The dc capacitor rating is chosen to minimize the
A line compensated with an SSSC ripple in the dc voltage.

 An MOV is installed across the dc capacitor to limit its voltage and provide protection to the valves.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 Control principle:-

A basic control scheme for the solid-state series compensator to control (reactive and real) line impedance and
improve system stability
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 The SSSC control system accomplish the following functions:
1. The introduction of desired series-reactive compensation (capacitive or inductive).
2. The damping of power-swing oscillations and enhancement of transient stability.
3. The control of current in the SSSC compensated line.
 The line current, IL, and the SSSC terminal voltage, VT , are measured together with the bus
frequency or the line-power flow, which can either be measured directly or calculated from IL and VT
measurements. The desired SSSC reactance is set by a reactance reference, ZR.

 The SSSC acts as a voltage source in synchronism with the ac system voltage, the magnitude and
phase of which can be controlled by voltage reference inputs of V *dr and V*qr.
 The signal V*qr regulates the SSSC output voltage component in quadrature with the line current. It
thus determines the amount of reactive compensation (capacitive or inductive) introduced in the
transmission line.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 The reactance reference ZR is modulated with bus frequency or line power signals to generate Z*R,
which when multiplied with the rms line current IL results in the signal V*qr.
 The bus frequency or line-power signals are representative of the generator rotor oscillations, (dδ/ dt),
as follow:
1. If (dδ/ dt) > 0, that is, the generators accelerate - the signal V*qr controls the SSSC output to increase
the power drawn from the generator, thereby decreasing its kinetic energy. This action is achieved by
enhancing the series capacitive compensation provided by SSSC.

2. If (dδ/ dt) < 0, that is, the generators decelerate - the signal V*qr, effectively inserts an inductive
reactance in the line to decrease the power transmitted from the generator.

 The signal V*dr determines the magnitude of the SSSC output voltage component that is in phase (or
out of phase) with the line current. It thus controls the real-power exchange between the SSSC and
the system and is particularly effective when the SSSC is equipped with an energy-storage device.
 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS SERIES COMPENSATOR
(SSSC)
 To damp power swings, the modulation signal representing (dδ/ dt) is used to modulate V*dr. as follow:
1. If (dδ/dt) > 0, that is, the generators accelerate - the signal V*dr controls the SSSC to absorb real
power from the system. It effectively introduces a positive (apparent) resistance in the
transmission network.

2. If (d dδ/dt) < 0, that is, the generators decelerate - the signal V*dr instructs the SSSC to inject real
power into the system. This action is equivalent to the introduction of a negative (virtual)
resistance in the transmission circuit.

 The SSSC can also be used to balance the currents in parallel lines.
 This objective is attained by implementing an additional current loop in which the measured current is
compared with the desired reference value.
 The error signal is then employed to modulate ZR to effect the required current flow in the compensated
line.
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