The special problems connected with building ships to carry liquefied natural gas are
summarized and the different designs o f ships at present in use are discussed. Other
problems concerned with the marine transport o f LNG such as handling, pumping
systems, and dealing with boil-off are also considered.
An introduction to the marine transportation of bulk
LNG and the design of LNG carriers
J. J. W i l s o n
Governments, International Authorities, Shipbuilders
Shipping Companies and by no means least, Ship Classifica-
tion Societies are becoming increasingly involved with the
marine transport of liquefied natural gas. The continuous
and growing demand for additional supplies of fuels to
meet present and expanding energy requirements in the
USA, Japan, and Western Europe, and the necessity for
these fuels to be imported from countries where
there are vast reserves, a large proportion in the form of
natural gas, has led to the considerable interest being shown
at the present time in the design and construction of
liquefied gas carriers.
These reserves of natural gas are known to exist in several
countries requiring only small quantities for their own
consumption. Countries such as Algeria, Libya, Brunei,
Venezuela, Sarawak, Abu Dhabi, and Iran will be export-
ing large volumes of natural gas within a decade and a major
percentage of this will need to be transported in ships;
the geographical location of the exporting and importing
countries preventing the use of pipelines.
Estimates of the numbers of new ships designed for the
bulk transport of liquefied natural gas to be constructed
before the-end of this century Vary considerably but a
realistic prediction would suggest that at least 50 with a
capacity of 125 000 m 3 each will be constructed before the
end of 1980 and this nurrrber may double each decade until
the end of the century.
The optimum size of LNG ship at present is considered to
be in the region of 125 000 m 3 capacity, similar in size to a
tanker of about 145 000 tons gross but it is expected that
ships with a capacity of 200 000 m 3 will be under con-
struction within five years.
The estimated cost of an LNG carrier of 125 000 m 3
capacity exceeds 35 million sterling, which will place these
ships amongst the most costly commercial vessels in service.
Shipbuilders with the potential to build these ships are
naturally anxious to obtain orders for their construction
and several shipbuilders are developing specific designs and
The author is the Senior Principal for Refrigeration for Lloyds
Register of Shipping, 71 Fenchurch St, London EC3, UKo Received
23 October 19730
CRYOGENICS. MARCH 1974
"
systems, in some instances in collaboration with one or
more of the several international companies that have
evolved or are developing a system for the marine transport
of LNG.
The prospective shipowners of one, or a fleet of these ships,
has many parameters to consider before selecting which
particular system is best suited for his needs and the correct
choice could be of a paramount importance in what will
become a highly competitive field.
When comparing one design of LNG carrier with another,
several factors other than technical excellence must also
be considered. These include
1 National and international subsidies provided by some
ship-building countries, which could result in one system
proving more favourable than another on economic grounds.
2 It may not be possible to have a ship constructed to a
particular design and system by the shipbuilder of one's
choice due to the shipbuilder concentrating his building
programme on an alternative design and system.
3 In view of the specialized knowledge, work force, and
expertize required in association with the cryogenic con-
tainment structure and engineering services, there is a trend
to provide these in a work area other than the shipyard
where the hull is constructed. This separation could result
in a reduction in the total cost of each ship, particularly if
a number of ships were series built in this manner.
Considering the various ways LNG could be transported by
ship, the most economical proposals to date involve systems
which carry the LNG as a bulk cargo slightly sub-cooled
below its boiling temperature at or slightly above atmos-
pheric pressure.
The various containment techniques employed or planned
may be divided in general terms into two basic groups.
1 The independent tank system where the primary con-
tainer is self-supporting and independent of the ship's
structure. These tanks may be prismatic or volumes of
revolution or combinations of the two, as a single tank of
large capacity, or consist of several small tanks inter-
connected to form a large containment system.
2 The integrated tank where the primary container
intimately relies on the ship's structure to maintain its geo-
115
metrical form. These are generally referred to as membrane,
semi-independent, or semi-membrane tanks.
To minimize the possibility of a catastrophic casualty
occurring, new LNG ships must be designed, constructed,
and operated with the utmost care.
Many design problems and unusual potential risks must be
considered because of the cryogenic carrying temperature
of the cargo, its extreme flammability, and difficulties
associated with its containment in a ship often subjected to
severe dynamic, vibratory, and other indeterminate forces.
Design problems
LNG carriers have two principal parts, the basic ship com-
prising the hull and propulsion plant, and the cryogenic
section consisting of containment tanks and cargo handling
arrangements.
All LNG carders are required to be designed with wing side
tanks and double bottom tanks throughout the cargo tank
spaces. These are required by the relevant authorities in
order to alleviate the possibility of damage to the cargo
tanks and adjacent inner hull structure in the event of the
ship becoming involved in a collision or, in the event of the
ship grounding, to reduce the risk of damage to the lower
section of the tank, and tank supports.
Further, because liquefied natural gas has a low density,
roughly in the range of 0.40 to 0.50, a ship designed to
carry bulk LNG will have a large cubic capacity in relation
to its deadweight, and separate spaces need to be provided
for water ballast. These ships, unlike oil tankers, cannot
have their cargo spaces filled with water ballast when not
carrying their liquid cargo. The cargo spaces must not be
contaminated with water and in some cases a small per-
centage of LNG is retained in the tanks during a ballast
voyage to maintain the tank at its normal carrying
temperature.
The speed of a ship is primarily dependent on the power
available for main propulsion purposes, and the system of
LNG containment selected will not have any marked effect
on the power required for the service speed selected.
When estimating the optimum service speed, the propor-
tional increase in capital outlay and increased fuel con-
sumption for each additional knot in the higher speed
ranges, must be related to the saving in cargo boil-off
resulting from the reduction in the time spent in transit.
Briefly, the basic requirements for the successful carriage
of LNG are to prevent the temperature of any part of the
hull structure from dropping below that for which it has
been approved, to prevent excessive ingress of heat into the
cargo, to provide liquid tight containment for the cargo
during transport with control of the conditions within
the tanks, and externally adjacent to them, and facilities
for its safe loading and discharge.
Materials
The hulls of LNG carriers are normally constructed from a
~ombination of different grades of mild steel, the highest
grades being used in the more critical zones. Lloyds Register
Grade 'A' is generally considered suitable for a minimum
temperature of O°C, Grade 'D' for - 5 ° C or -IO°C depend-
116
ing on where used in the ships' structure, and Grade 'E' for
somewhat lower temperatures. Grades 'D' and 'E' steels need
to be impact tested at the minimum temperature for which
they are required.
Grade 'E' steel is much more expensive than Grades 'A' and
'D' and for economic reasons the quantities used in the hull
construction are kept to a minimum.
It is essential that the LNG is not only prevented from
coming into contact with hull structure, but the arrange-
ments have to be such that the minimum temperature of
the steel, including that adjacent to the cargo tanks, does
not under normal service conditions fall below the
minimum temperature for which it has been approved.
It is necessary therefore, in some cases, to provide a means
of heat input to the adjacent steel structure that may not
be adequately protected by means of insulation alone, to
present it from falling below its limiting temperature.
Two independent sources, which may be of identical type, are
normally required and each heat input source must have the
capacity to maintain the steel at the desired temperature
independently of the other. This heat input may only be
required when the ship is in a zone where the sea and air
temperatures are at, or are close to, the most severe design
parameters. These temperature design parameters have not
as yet been standardized internationally, and vary between
governing authorities.
Temperatures of 0°C for the sea and 5°C for the air, with
the cargo tanks at their minimum temperature, are generally
accepted as minimums for world wide trading with the
exception of a few special zones, such as Alaskan waters
where air temperatures as low as minus 50°C are experienced
in winter.
In the case of a ship constructed for a particular trade,
which would not require it to enter zones where exception-
ally low air temperatures are likely, then the ship could be
approved by the responsible authority, 'For restricted ser-
vice' which would mean that the ship could not enter the
cold zones at certain periods of the year.
By agreeing to this restriction, a prospective owner would
probably obtain a lower quotation as this would permit the
shipbuilders to reduce the quantity of special Grade steel
used and eliminate the need to provide for heat input.
When provision for some form of heat input is required,
this has been achieved by fitting heating coils in the spaces
adjacent to the steel work to be heated or by passing inert
gas through a heat exchanger prior to circulation in the
spaces exterior to the tank and insulation.
Present designs of LNG tanks, whether of the self-
supporting or integrated type, rely on a metallic liquid
tight shell called the 'primary barrier' to contain the LNG,
and the materials predominantly used for this purpose are
aluminium alloy, 9% nickel steel, stainless steel, or Invar
(36% nickel steel with a very low coefficient of expansion).
It is probable that materials other than metals will be used
satisfactorily in later designs, provided the essential require-
ments of a primary barrier can be maintained.
In general these requirements are
1 Compatibility between cargo and material used for the
barrier for all temperatures and conditions experienced in
service.
CRYOGENICS. MARCH 1974
2 The material must be able to withstand all stresses
induced by the static weight of cargo, by varying adjacent
temperatures, particularly when cooling down the tanks, by
dynamic forces due to movement of the ship, by vibratory
forces, and combinations of these.
3 The material must be workable. If a metal, it will be
necessary to join sections by fusion welding, and for
economical considerations it must be readily available and
not too costly.
If relatively large quantities of special steel are required
for the tanks, it is unlikely that stainless steel would be
considered, on economical grounds, but when the mem-
brane principal of tank design is used, only a thin shell or
laminate is needed and the use of stainless steel becomes a
viable proposition.
When secondary barriers are fitted, they may be constructed
from a similar material to that used for the primary barrier
and be of a similar design. Secondary barriers are designed
to contain the LNG cargo for a limited period only in the
event of failure of the primary barrier, and in some designs
while the lower section of the secondary barrier may be
fluid-tight, the upper part may be splash-tight only.
The fundamental reason for the secondary barrier is to
prevent the hull structure temperature from falling below
acceptable limits in the event of leakage from the primary
containment system; the minimum temperature acceptable
for an emergency condition being lower than that specified
for normal service conditions.
The construction of the secondary barrier is dependent on that
of the primary barrier, and each case is determined on its
merits when all the design features are known.
T a n k design
Self-supporting tank designs. There are a number of
designs based on the concept of the self-supporting tank.
One of the advantages of the free-standing spherical,
cylindrical, or prismatic self-supporting tank, designed
to withstand independently all service loads, is the
relative ease with which the structure can be stress
analysed and standards of workmanship controlled, thus
allowing the secondary barrier mentioned above, to be
dispensed with or substantially reduced.
The self-supporting tank designs are fabricated from relatively
heavy gauge material, 9% nickel steel, or aluminium and they
are usually designed to withstand considerably higher inter-
nal pressures than those they will be designed to contain
in service.
One well-known type of unstiffened self-supporting spheri-
cal tank design is connected to a vertical cylinder or skirt at
its equator, the base being welded to the ships' hull structure.
Static and dynamic load conditions can be analysed and static
stress levels resulting from transient temperature distributions,
cargo movement in the tank due to the ship's motions, and
tank pressurization can be analysed using either physical or
mathematical models.
Using fracture mechanics method the period between detect-
ing leakage from the tank due to material fatigue, until the
defect reaches critical proportions, can be estimated before
CRYOGENICS. MARCH 1974
reaching critical proportions so that remedial action can be
taken.
Other designs of self-supporting tanks are of primatic or
cylindrical form. It is possible to have a large number of
cylindrical tanks about 3 m in diameter, interconnected to
comprise a single containment system within the hold of
each ship. These cylindrical pressure vessels may be fitted
horizontally or vertically in each hold, and because of the
relatively small size of each cylinder, they may be series pro-
duced in workshops using automatic welding techniques to
full advantage. Aluminium alloy would probably be used to
fabricate these tanks although 9% nickel steel may also be
considered.
Integrated tank designs, although generally requiring more
complex insulation arrangements as well as the provision of
a complete or partial secondary barrier, require consider-
ably less quantities of expensive metals than the free-
standing type, with a possible reduction in construction
costs. Shaped tanks occupying the ship's hold to full
advantage reduce or eliminate the access spaces surrounding
the tanks with a possible reduction in the quantity of inert
gas required for these spaces.
The smaller mass of material forming the primary barrier
will require a shorter cool-down period as well as less cool-
ing medium. Stress analysis of the membrane structure is
more complex than for self-supporting tanks and strict
quality control of the welding is a formidable task. How-
ever, the successful operation of LNG ships using this tech-
nique have proved the reliability of the systems available.
As stated previously, all designs of tanks aboard LNG
carriers are required to withstand forces resulting from
several sources.
Independent tanks of prismatic form are generally designed
to withstand an internal vapour pressure not exceeding
0.30 kg cm "2 while the limiting design pressure of other
forms of self-supporting tanks is dependent (inter alia) on
the degree of accuracy possible, using analysis methods, to
determine stress levels, and the availability of an inter-
nationally accepted design code for the tank configuration
under review.
~
Plywood structure
Top hanger
Rigid
foam
St¢¢I
bulkhead
inner hull--
Insulation
5t¢¢1 tank
primary
barrier
./
~ Plywood/
secondary
Water ballast barrier
Fig.1 Bridgestone semi-independent tank system
117
Integral tanks, that rely for support on the insulation, which tank of large volume, can be considerable. Experiments have
is sustained by the adjacent hull structure, are also generally shown that the greatest forces as a result of sloshing frequent.
designed for a maximum internal pressure not exceeding ly occur on the internal tank surfaces when the tank is about
0.30 kg cm "2. one-quarter full.

Internal and possible external pressure loads, structural
and thermal loads and especially dynamic loads, arising
from ship motion accelerations, must be given detailed and
careful consideration.
Dynamic loads, vertical, and horizontal bending and tor-
sional due to the ship's movement, and particularly those
forces caused by sloshing of the cargo in a partially filled
In an effort to reduce the sloshing effect of cargo in large
tanks, the upper section of the tanks is usually fitted with
a dome, thus limiting the free surface area of the liquid
cargo when the tanks are filled close to their maximum
capacity.
Tanks should never be filled to capacity. A space, void
of liquid cargo, amounting to about 2% of the tanks' total
volume, is reserved for cargo vapour, and alarms are fitted

Insulation

l
Stainless
steel
swedged
primary St¢¢1 bulkhead inner hull
barrier

Wood ground ,

Foam PVC wedge joint

\
Water ballast Balsa wood

Fig.2 Technigaz Conch ocean membrane tank system

Water ballast

Invar ~ : i :
barrier

/Insulation
Steel bulkhead
Cargo /
tank
!!::!!ii:?:i::i)i!i::ii~:: Perlit¢ in plywood
/ containers

W¢ Id ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

Invar secondary
barrier
Wat.¢r ballast

Fig.3 Typicalsectionof Gaz Transportmembranetank design

118 C R Y O G E N I C S . MARCH 1974

 Protective steel dome
Insulat
Primary/'
barrier
9 9 % Ni
steel or
aluminium
Drip /
/
Water b a l l a s t
Fig.4 a - Moss Rosenberg system, b - skirt attachment to spherical tank
in tanks to indicate to the ship's staff when the safe level is
approached, and again when reached, during the filling
operation. When cargo is loaded that has been sub-cooled
below its vapour boiling temperature, the free volume is
generally increased to allow for expansion of the cargo in
transit.
It is necessary to provide this space in the dome for the
accumulation of liquid-free vapour primarily to prevent
liquid cargo from entering the emergency vent pipes and
spilling on to the surrounding hull structure, and to pro-
vide liquid-free vapour when a reliquefaction plant is fitted
aboard the ship or when the boil-off vapour is used as a
fuel to augment the conventional fuel supply.
Prior to loading the tanks for the first time, or when no
cargo is being carried, the tanks are filled with inert gas,
usually dry nitrogen. All spaces surrounding the tanks are
also filled with dry inert gas which is sometimes force
circulated. Monitors are fitted within the inert gas spaces
to indicate possible leakage of cargo from the tanks, enabling
an emergency procedure to be put into operation, depend-
ing on the severity of the contamination of the inert gas.
The degree of contamination would also indicate the
seriousness of the fault in the primary barrier.
Inert gas producers, or sufficient quantities of dry inert
gas, are carried aboard ship to meet voyage requirements.
Because the sudden introduction of a quantity of liquefied
gas into a tank having a temperature considerably above that
of the LNG would introduce a severe temperature gradient
in the tank structure, arrangements have to be made to
allow the tanks to be cooled evenly and gradually before the
first loading.
The cooling medium is generally introduced through a spray
system which is designed to prevent impingement of liquid
directly onto the tank walls. Careful observation of tempera-
C R Y O G E N I C S . M A R C H 1974
Upper tank
shell
ly shield Insulation
Lower tank
shell
~
Skirt or tank
support
b
ture sensor readings, the thermal sensors being distributed
over the surface of the tank, permits the spray system to be
used in a manner that avoids unacceptable levels of
temperature difference between various sections of the tank
structure.
Insulation
A suitable system of insulation is of paramount importance
when dealing with thestorage of liquefied gases in the cryo-
genic rangeand the engineering of the insulation system
must not only consider problems associated with heat leak-
age,but also with the methods of physical application.
A variety of insulants have been used successfully,
external to the primary barrier, to reduce the heat flow into
the tank and protect the hull structure adjacent to it within
predetermined limits.
Free-standing tanks are sometimes designed to rest on
supports made up of selected wood sections. Balsa wood
has been used with a number of designs of LNG carriers
to form part of the insulation in association with fibrous
glass, polyurethane foam, and mineral wool.
Polyurethane foam is being used in increasing quantities
because of the excellent properties it has as an insulant, and
many variants are avilable.
Silicon coated perlite granules or powder, contained in
plywood boxes about 1 m 2 by 200 to 300 mm in depth,
through, which inert gas is passed keeping the perlite in
suspension, is also used in one successful design of mem-
brane tank system.
The insulation materials and arrangements must be suitable
to withstand the forces which may be imposed on them, be
impervious to water vapour or protected against its pene-
119
tration, and be fire resistant to acceptable standards which
are under close scrutiny at the present time.
Safe handling
The loading, transportation, and discharge of LNG and the
necessity of providing constant information regarding the
state of the cargo and environmental conditions in the spaces
surrounding the primary, and when fitted, the secondary
barrier, requires adequate piping systems, equipment, instru-
mentation, and alarms to be fitted.
In general, various national authorities detail requirements
governing the safe handling of the cargo aboard ships under
their juridiction, but different countries may have
differing regulations and the advantage to shipbuilders and
owners for all countries to adopt a common set of standards
cannot be over emphasized.
The pumping arrangements aboard these ships must be
designed to empty each tank to a specified level and within
a limited period.
It is a requirement of most classification societies that at
least two methods of pumping are provided to pump out
each tank, and some owners fit ejectors in each tank in
addition to pumps which can be used in the event of their
failure.
Various designs of pumps are available, but the tendency
is to specify a submerged type that can be withdrawn from
the tank even when the tank contains cargo, should the need
arise.
The pumps are normally designed with close mechanical
clearances and cargo contaminated with foreign matter or
ice crystals can be the cause of repeated pump failure
although most pumps are fitted with an arrangement to
combat this.
Careful attention has to be given to the selection of
materials for piping arrangements, welded connexions, and
means of accommodating contraction and expansion of long
pipe runs.
Drip trays are provided under sections where shore connex-
ions join ships' pipelines to protect the ship structure from
liquid cargo that might inadvertently be spilled.
Pressure balancing arrangements, between various sections
of pipelines required to be made common, are provided to
alleviate the danger of fluid surge which could be hazard-
ous on long lengths of loading and unloading pipelines, even
when fitted with generous pressure relieving arrangements.
Coping with boil-off
The 'boil-off' of liquid cargo can be quite considerable and
may exceed 2% of the total cargo capacity during a typical
voyage. This 'boil-off is generally used to supplement the
conventional fuel used for main propulsion purposes,
whether the ship be propelled by steam or gas turbines, or
by internal combustion reciprocating engines.
The boil-off vapour could also be vented off but this would
be very uneconomical and anti-pollution environmentalists
are almost certain to require regulations to be introduced
in some countries to make this illegal.
It has been common practice in the past with some owners
to allow about 5% of the cargo to remain in each tank,
120
after discharging the remaining cargo, in order to keep the
tanks cool on the ballast voyage.
This 5% undischarged cargo, added to at least 2% boil-off
per voyage, is a loss which makes an economical study of
the advantage of fitting a reliquefaction plant on board
ship worthy of serious consideration.
The reliquefaction of the boil-off is considered by many to
be a viable economical proposition as the cost of LNG at
present is much higher than the cost of Bunker C fuel oil,
for a unit quantity of energy source.
Further, if the reliquefaction plant is designed to manu-
facture liquid nitrogen, this can be stored and used when
required as a purge gas for the annular spaces of the LNG
tanks.
With liquefaction plant, it would not be necessary to
retain up to 5% of the tank's capacity of LNG in the tanks
during the ballast voyage, and no loss of vapour 'boil-off
need occur at any time.
The design of the reliquefaction plant also requires due
consideration to be given to the selection of suitable mater-
ials to allow for differential expansion, low temperature
ductility and brittle fracture characteristics.
Two or more units, each unit being a complete mechanical
system with compressors, pumps, piping, and heat exchang-
ers, need to be installed, and each unit should be capable
of converting the total 'boil-off vapour, under the most
extreme conditions, into liquid.
The system has to be a closed one and should not have any
connexions to any compartments aboard the ship, other
than the cargo tanks. All connexions to the cargo tanks are
generally situated above the weather deck and the cargo
tank or their hatches are made to protrude above this deck
where the necessary connexions for liquid and gas lines,
together with other fittings, can be located.
Another system used to advantage on an LNG ship provides
a small tank to be used as a reserve cargo storage vessel. The
main cargo tanks are discharged as far as is practical, by
means of the main pumps and stripping pumps, and the main
tanks in an inerted condition remain empty during the
ballast voyage. Two or three days before arrival at the load-
ing port the main tanks are cooled down, using LNG from
the small storage tank, which is also re-filled at the loading
port.
An economical survey of the relative merits of fitting a
reliquefaction plant aboard LNG carriers, has indicated that
the larger the ship, the greater the saving possible.
The electrical installations and equipment aboard these ships
must be designed with due consideration to the hazardous
nature of the cargo carried. In general, all electrical equip-
ment for use in spaces or zones aboard the ship, deemed
by the relevant authorities to be dangerous spaces, are
required to be intrinsically safe or flame proof and special
requirements related to adjacent zones or spaces also apply.
As stated earlier, the problems associated with the successful
carriage at sea of LNG are complex and numerous, but cer-
tainly not insurmountable. Many parameters have to be
considered by prospective owners or operators of these
ships to ensure that the design selected is the best possible
for a particular trade, and economically viable in a field
which is becoming increasingly important and competitive.
CRYOGENICS. MARCH 1974