‘Timber Properties of Timber 7 ‘Timber is one of the first materials used in construction and being a crop will probably be one of the last at one time, it was the only material that could be handled with the tools available but new materials are challenging it. (1) Steel ~ Buildings & bridges. (2) ‘Concrete ~ Rail sleepers, buildings, bridges. (3) Fibre glass ~ boats. ‘Timber is not an isotropic material as elastic properties vary considerably in relation to the orientation of the direction of the grain (direction of fibres), For all practical purposes it. may be treated as anisotropic with three principal axes of symmetry — longitudinal (L) Radia! (R) and Tangential (T) radial "tangential Jongitudinal Following stresses are needed in design: Bending Stress ‘Tension parallel to grain Compression parallel to grain Compression perpendicular to grain Shear parallel to grain Shear perpendicular to grain awkepe The living iree contains a very large amount of water and freshly converted or “Green timber” may have moisture content {(Actual wt ~ oven dried wt)/ oven dried weight] x 100%) ranging from 40 to 200% depending on the species. Most of the water has to be~ “Femoved before the timber is used for building purposes. There arc two stages in the drying or seasoning process, first the water in the voids moves to the surface of the wood and evaporates; causes little deformation until this condition is reached, what is known as the fiber saturation point (usually 25-30% m/c), the remaining moisture which is bound up in the wet tissue starts to evaporate. It is in this stage of drying that shrinkage Eo hd alo ger saturate psint () Evaporation of usater, mvoids” 6-> GtRe deforination. (vg, es srb’9) ® Evaboration olvbaber im Wek trssuet> Spiting, dishdtien, Shrinkageoccurs, possibly accompanied by checking splitting and distortion, unless drying is controlled. Heartwood Sapwood moisture content depends on its environment. age and durability. Unless timber is in contact with sed to damp conditions, its mv/e stabilises between 10% and 20%, It is less prone to decay if moisture content is less than 55%, At moisture content less than 25-30% (fiber saturation point) wood shrinks and swells as its moisture content changes. To preserve dimensional stability and to avoid shrinkage stresses, m/c of 18-22%, should not be exceeded for unexposed structures. The tainceason for drying or seasoning timber before it is used is to cnsure that most if not all of the shrinkage and distortion occurs prior to use, and not after the manufacture of components or used in buildings. Another reason for drying to at least fibre saturation point is that most preservative treatments depend upon forcing the chemical and its solvents into the cells. If these still contain moisture, then the preservatives cannot penetrate. Trees for engineering purpose should be used as soon as possible after reaching the ‘matucity (10 to 100 years): If the timber is cut prematurely, wood is not so durable and cuntains an excess of sapwood. Conversion is the process of sawing up a log into the required sizes of timber (such as planks, reapers, rafters). (a) ‘angential shrinkage is twice the radial shrinkages (b) timber layers in cuter growth rings have more moisture and shrink more than those timber layers near inner growth rings Hence coriversion of timber cannot be done by sawing in whatever the way. ‘Tangential shrinkage = Radial Shrinkage = Longitudinal shrinkage =>- to— The best methods of sawing timber are shown below, but due to high wastage, this is not done commercially. The usual methods adopted are also shown in Figure 1. After conversion, timber should be seasoned to bring the m.c. down to 15%, otherwise timber will shrink excessively (after construction) causing defects in the work. Elimination of moisture increases strength, durability, resilience of timber, and reduces| | distortion. The timber becomes lighter in weight, easier to work with the saw and other | tools, it maintains its size and not liable to split, twist or warp. 5 ye a ‘The process of removing moisture is called seasoning, This can be accomplished by natural or artificial means with' former widely applied in Sri Lanka, although in other couniries duc to the large time period required it is not preferred. fn natural seasoning timber members after sawing are immediately staked under cover to allow air cifculating around them fo remove much of the moisture (minimum period required for seasoning is 3 months). In astificial seasoning sawn timber piles spaced with logs are placed in a kiln where hot air is circulated by fans with temperature of air, rate of flow and humidity in the kiln carefully controlled ‘Vimber is not an isotropic material as elastic properties vary considerably in relation to the orientation of the direction of grain (direction of fibres). A structural engineer can only regard a material as suitable, only if it has well defined physical properties which can be evaluated and used. A manufactured product like steel, conereie etc: teadily satisfies this requirement as its quality can be controlled and checked at every stage in its production and routine tests on small pieces are sufficient to check uniformity in the final produet. However, timber is a natural product and quality cannot be controlled in the slightest degree, Hence an alternative to control is selection; timber quality is specified by grading it into groups depending on their defects, Following defects are common as shown in Figure 2: 1) Fissures 2) Knots 3) Slope of grain 4) Wane 5} Resin pockets 6) Worm holes 7) Seasoning defectsa. Air seasoning : Scacked on a raised platform in piles which are roofed with small gaps for air to pass. ‘Main idea is to remove moisture from the surface of sawn timber at approximately the same rate as it is moving from the centre part. If surface dries out faster than centre the surface layers will sbrink and split. A slow process and may take several months (about six months). b__Kiln seasoning Controlled drying by controlling temperature, air speed and humidity. High temperature accelerates the movement of water to the surface and also its evaporation. Kiln seasoning is comparatively very fast (2 weeks against 6 months in air seasoning). Due to even drying, differential shrinkage could be avoided. Another advantage is moisture content can be lowered below the equilibrium point. Herlce ‘swelling will occur when exposed to atmosphere (instead of shrinkage). Stmosphere (instead of shrinkage). The density of dry wood is governed by ratio of cell wall volume to the cell and the specific gravity of all wood substances is about 1.5. Classification of timber in Sri Lanka is given below and this classification is not on strength properties but on popularity. Luxury species. Teak, Satin and Halmilla (1.22m mean girth & over), Nadun, Colamender, Ebony, Mahogany, Special class Satin & Hallmilla (below 1.22 m MG), Tamarind, Milla, Acacia, Melanoxylon, Jak Class 1 Palu, Ronai ( Wevarana), Tawwanna, Uva Mendora, Munamal, Ubberiya, Kolon, Eucalypivs Species, Cypress, Kumbuk, Velan, Parnakka, Hora. Class I All duns other than Thinniya dun. All keena, other than Walu keena, Alubo, del, Dewata, Dawul Kurundu, Godapara, halmandora, Hedawaka, Helamba, Kon, Katakela, Liyan, Mendora, Mi, Na, Neralu, Parnamora, Pihimbiya, Wa, Wanami, Willipenna, Toona, Ihiriya, Keeriya, Madan, Dambu, Daraw, Panu-dan, Rathatiya, Atathimbiri, Ginikuru, (Alastore), Kitihembiliya, Thimbiri, Urukaru or Uruhoda. Class TU es not otherwise classified. Normally class 1 & I are uséd for permanent s Class III is used for temperate structures. Special class & luxury species are used for good quality furniture.Tests on timber 1c tests generally performed are as follows: Bending test. Compression parallel to grain ‘Compression perpendicular to grain Shear parallel to grain Modulus of elasticity (with (1)) 6. Cleavage test — (spacing of nails) Hardness test Impact test paepe Approximate tests on timber In the absence of testing, some precautions can be taken when selecting timber based on following properties: good grain arrangement 2. Free from strength reducing defects as far as possible 3. approximately correct moisture content. Timber for unexposed structure ~ m.c.<18% ‘Timber for exposed structure <15% (iemporary works for excavation in water-logged soil ~ m.c <18% or wet timber. 4. Tree from seasoning defects such as end-splits surface checks, wash boardin Cupping, inéney combing, springing, bowing & twisting as shown in Figure 2. Errors in placing of spacing sticks between timbers in the drying stack resulting in uneven loading while seasoning timber is still green. Deterioration and its prevention Main causes of deterioration of timber are (a) weathering of timber by actions such as ultra-violet light, and wetting & drying; (b) infection by wood destroying fungi; (c) Infestation by termites and borers such as pinhole borers. Prevention is mainly carried out by specification by design and by preservative treatment. Species of timber specified can be reasonably resistant to attack by most insects, fungi and by weathering (such as Jak, Milla, Teak). Good detailing in design’ includes climination of formation of pockets of water provision of ventilation to dry the timber, encourage the structure to shed off water, minimizes the effects of above hazards.Application of wood preservatives can go a long way towards prevention of deterioration and most widely used preservatives in Sri Lanka are creosote and Pentachiorophenol. Creosote is generally applied in areas where timber need not be painted (roof) while the other is used for areas that should be painted (such as doors and windows). Preservatives are applied after seasoning and applied by: (a) Pressure process Timbers enclosed in a steel cylindrical chamber and air removed by vacuum pump. ther: eylinder is filled with creosote at 38 to 82°C and pressure applied. Pressure is released and creosote drained off and vacuum applied again to remove excess creosote. This method is used at Gintota and Kaldemulla for Hora sleepers for CGR and telegraphs poles for CEB. 4 fypes of Celle endentarten . “amount tute SSS chy wergnt 24 two @ thy use_Linwber aly se Cleats. + Adequate Srengih and shifjness > Gasy to amshaet + Pailade and affordable. mcs Reduang me en hmbe + Bee doying, “Ile eben (Paugaclare oh Huboey Jom 2 ee chorings + Consume less Cnevey «Consume ess foluhow WO Drew bes af tin bey ‘liwits of “Sze and habe * Gysoth Chavackenstics bnoftes, in SoH Hmlsey move Aedes) + Moisture en lam bev *Dwatcility (fred material SrcoLin fnteev) -Sapuson| lank sect heart weed no Stored Sued ©) Mache Graoling preseneo$ extrackves pPrerlems 0} meisture dn timber maisutomove YeSistant Tribyernen CE Shvintag mow in Yemgehaldivectsatnen treial Aiveatio)) DP Sur ga} ransect attract © Treaks bilt * Gluabailt ys" by bending Evailue Gan be measure. B® Dreairg @ visual Grading, { © dp used to net brejeved becouse tts uraleilly is grog tion Oreusel, ts Bordmess £3 Anas Smiley fer heart ested| | wh Sewed Sewell som Guidance on the use of timber in building and civil engineering structures is available in BS 5268 Structural use of timber. This consists of seven parts. Part 1 Limit state design, materials and workmanship Part 2 Code of Practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship Part 3 Code of Practice for trussed rafter roofs Part 4. Fire resistance of timber structures Part 5 Preservation treatments for constructional timber Part 6 Code of Practice for timber frame walls Part 7, Recommendations for the calculation basis for span tables BS 5268: Part 2 when it was introduced in 1984 categorised timber species into 9 strength classes; SCI to SC9. Timber species belonging to SCI were the weakest while timbers belonging to SC 9 were the strongest. Tropical hardwoods ranged from SC § to SC9. The properties assigned to a particular strength class were those corresponding to the weakest timber within that strength class. The revision of BS 5268 in 1996 relate to the European strength classes. There are 16 strength classes referred to: 10 for softwoods (C14 to C40) and 6 for hardwoods (D30 to D70). The number refers to the characteristic bending strergth of that particular strength class. Thus a timber belonging to D30 has a characteristic bending strength of 30 N/mm2. The characteristic bending strength has a higher value than the grade. siress, as it does not take into account the effects of duration of load and safety factors. Grade stresses corresponding to Service classes 1 and 2 ke ending Shree Characterstie walue Under Chey Cnet How [Property (N/mm!) [30 DBs Dao DSO, Dé Di Bonding 9 TL 125 16 18 23 [Tension //(o grain 34 6.6 75 9.6 10.8 13.8 ‘Compression /to grain | 8.1 36. 126 152 18 ZB ‘Compression 1 to grain No wane permitted 28 34 39 45 52 60 Wane permitted 22 26 3.0 35 40 46 Shear to grain ia i zo a a ie ‘Mean MOE 9500 [10000 _|~ Toso) [15000 | ~ iasoa | ~ 31000 Minimum MOE 6000 6500 7500 12600 15600 18000 ‘Char: Density (kg/m) 330, 300, 30 | 650 700 ‘300 ‘Mean Density (kg/m?) 0, 670 7o0 | —_780 0 1080 In the absence of test data, the following relationships may be assumed. Property z Relationship Tension Lo grain © shear /!to grain Torsional shear 3 Rolling shear Modulus of elasticity L to grain MOE //to grain 20 Shear Modulus EMOE /to grain F a aE Wane > ‘A pr0e8 gpxrom at Effect of Moisture content Service classes are introduced to take into account the effect of moisture content on timber. ‘Three services classes; 1,2 and 3 have been defined. When the timber is exposed to service ‘glass 3; the grade stresses corresponding to service classes 1 and 2 need to be multiplied by modification factor Ko, Service Description of service classes class 1__| Timber used inside a heated building; moisture content of timber is below 12%. 2__ | Timber used in a covered building; moisture content of timber is below 20% '3___ | Exposed timber; moisture content of timber exeeeds 20% Property [sake Bending parallel to grain 0.8 ‘Tension parallel to grain 08 Compression parallel to grain 06 ‘Compression perpendicular to grain 06 Shear parallel to grain 09 Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity 0.8 Effect of Duration of load ‘The grade stresses are listed for long-term conditions. Since therefore the timber elements can withstand a greater load for shorter durations; the grade stresses are multiplied by a factor Ks, depending on the duration of load. This factor applies only to strength and not to stiffness. iz libwortdtlor (beri sheet i) Duration of loading iG Tong Term; Dead + Permanent imposed loads 1.00 Medium Term; Dead + Temporary imposed loads 1.25 Short Term; Dead + Imposed + Wind loads 1.50 Very Short Term; Dead + Imposed + Wind loads (gust) 175 Effect of load sharing ‘The grade stresses apply to individual elements of timber. When more than four similar elements spaced at a distance less than 610 mm act together to support a common load, which is adequately laterally distributed among them, the grade stresses may be enhanced by a fector Ks equal to 1.1, The mean modulus of elasticity may be used to calculate the static deflections. ‘The modification factors discussed above, apply to all types of structural elements of timber; (tension members, compression members and flexural members). There are other modification factors applicable only to certain types of structural elements and these will be discussed at the appropriate stage. “3 ee - seo. ot SE iers os_ Pentti, DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS A tension member may be defined as a structural element that is subject to a direct pulling action.,Such members are the most efficient of structural elements since they are mainly subject to a uniform tensile stress throughout the cross-section. It is also the simplest type of structural element to design. A tension member fails with the member tearing apart either due to inadequate tensile strength and / or inadequate cross-sectional area to withstand the applied tensile force. However tension members do not exist in isolation. They need to be connected to other structural elements. These connections often cause a loss of tensile capacity due to the loss of area that occurs at the boltholes. Bending could also be induced in a tension member duc to eccentric connections and /or transverse loading on the member such as the self-weight of the member. “Thus the structural element that is predominantly loaded in tension may have to withstand the combined effects of tension and bending, Jin some situations, particularly in bracing members, there could be a reversal of load, depending on the \d direction. Thus the same structural element may have to be designed jo withstand the effects of tension and compression. ‘Tension Members in Timber ‘Timber tension members ate used as © tension chords and internal ties members in trusses and lattice girders in buildings, bridges and towers; © ceiling ties, Timber, tension: meimbers are generally of «rectangular cross-section, Timber poles too are sometimes used to carry tensile forces, A timber tension member must'have adequate resistance in tension. The rhaximum applied tensile stress in the member Caps, must not exceed the permissible tensile stress Giainpar Of the timber. Tensile Force 1a. ~ Fifective Cross Sectional Area Key = Brg © atm par = Gracie tensile stress x relevant K factors Avice * Qrmis we e, Xo xian IX meheenneminditiention ie) oman flonase =* “ar elt, Kz Modification factor appropriate to service class K3 Modification factor corresponding to duration of load Previously discussed Ks. Modification factor for load sharing 3 K1y Modification factor for width‘The grade tensile stress is applicable for a section width of 300 mm. For other widths, the tensile strength is modified to allow for the strength variation with width, cas) ‘With of member (greater transverse dimension) K, i” ei Solid Wmber members of width less san or equal 1 72.mm i i oar Solid and glued laminated beams whose width is greater than 72 mm 2) ty maw ‘The effective cross-sectional area is the actual cross-sectional area appropriate to the exposure condition, allowing for the reduction in area caused by notches, bolt or screw holes, mortices ete, either at that section or within such a distance from it as would affect the strength a: that, section. ae ad ches at Notch, width ts djrad ac, S lenght of e@ face whichis fee ri = motice - @ xt hes been propeasd bo tse a timber Section eSsim xloomme aS a tension member by OF we} uss. “Timber #8 classisted aD ty Domine & eager ancl teste foce tv Viner menker thee Suter batty tin tension aww gimproed Covel A ee oe jaw fn 44 SH in tension Gre Wins ord 04 glen en ferslor Or Cowpressten. Chock cveathe © tora lased Section is caclentua bo ig @ twas 5° Sublectel bo Wed ohare Corditio. Dis ASumed Let a Confal both ef domme £5 Arbpiabe le Gnmect Ct te £ fep and Gatton Onod ~ 8} B dows »- Dr Go | DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS A compression member may be defined as a structural clement that is subject to a direct pushing action, ‘A compression member fails either by the material erushing or more likely by the member buckling in en overall flexural mode. ‘The material crushes due to inadequate compressive strength and / or cross-sectional area. ‘The tendeney for overall flexural bucking depends on the flexibility of the material and the geometry of the member. The geometry of the member includes : Length of the member - © Type of restraints at the ends of the member and also at intermediate positions © Cross-sectional area and shape Most codes of practice introduce the concepts of effective length and slenderness to take into account the effect of the geometry of the member. The effective length is taken as some proportion of the actual length, corresponding to the type of end restraints. The slenderness is defined as the ratio of effective length to the radius of gyration. A large slenderness indicates a greater instability and tendency to buckle under a lower axial loa Bending could also be induced in a compression member due to eccentric connections and /or ‘transverse loading on the member such as the wind load on the member. Thus the structural clement that is predominantly loaded in compression may have to withstand the combined fi effects of compression and bending. Rigid joints in a frame also induce bending combined with compression. In some situations, particularly in bracing members, there could be a reversal of load, depending on the wind direction. Thus the same structural element may have to be designed to withstand the effects of compression and tension, oO me % esi pie of Porveriles ax Ka eke ye ia, Determine, € medium term ancial load Caring. colpacitys én Combressions of @ fin ber member of 95 mmisonm- Cots SeeHenal Aimension and geatg baogiey bp LGD +The membey £S Yestrained In ‘Partion and are end 18 divecton, obait bola ares “The actual Meightof® moniter ts Qi wl The rwber, mewber 2s Subjahd fo - wot Sxfprume Gre tinw_Compression Members in Timber Timber Compression members are used as ‘© Compression chords and internal members in trusses and lattice girders in buildings, bridges and towers; © Props in formwork and falsework ‘Timber compression members are generally of a rectangular cross-section. Timber poles too are sometimes used to carry compressive forces. A timber compression member must have adequate resistance in compression. The maximum applied compressive stress in the member Gea,par must not exceed the permissible compressive SITeSS Gcaimpar Of the timber. Compressive Force o, compreda reece (Cross Sectional Area ‘eo,par cain par = Grade compressive stress x relevant K factors Relevant modification (K) factors for compression are Kz Modification factor appropriate to service class Ks Modification factor corresponding to duration of load f° previously discussed Ks Modification factor for load sharing Kj2 Modification factor to account for buckling. F In the conventional test to determine the compressive strength of timber parallel to grain, the length of the test specimen is 3 times its plan dimension. Whereas, in practice the length or height dimension of a compression member is much greater than its plan dimension and buckling occurs prior to squashing. The code addresses this problem by reducing the grade, compression stress by the modification factor Ki2. ‘The factor depends on the slenderness A and the ratio = Hg! ip Where Ep is the minimum modulus of elasticity, even in a load sharing system grb dee Geper” is the grade compression stress modified for moisture content and duration’ of Toad See?” only, The load-sharing factor is not applied ' lll relevant loading conditions shouldbe considered since Emin and oepur are both not affected by the duration of load. Only Gesu is modified. 16 63 . ‘The value of Ki2 could be obtained from the formula given in the Appendix or alternatively from the corresponding table in the code.Slenderness limits ‘Type of member Limit Resisting loads other than wind loads; However, loaded but by ils deformation will adversely affect the stress in another member 180 carrying dead and imposed loads Resisting self-weight and wind loads only or Normally acting as a 250 tie but subject to reversal of stress due to wind Effective lengths are defined in the code, corresponding to different end conditions, They can alternatively be determined from the deflected form, where the istance between poit curvature. between which the member is in single ‘The effective lengths of compression members in triangulated frameworks are defined separately in the code.Beene gioman Ear ene DESIGN OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS. A flexural or bending member commonly referred to as a beam, may be defined as a structural clement that is subject to transverse loading at a distance from the supports. Such a member is subject to a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses and could thus fail in a number of different modes. A beam could fail in bending; i.e, when either the maximum tensile stress reaches the material tensile strength and / or the maximum compressive stress reaches the material compressive strength. A beam could fail in shear; ie. when the maximum shear stress reaches the material shear strength. Excessive deflection in a beam is also considered a failure mode, as the béam becomes unusable. A beam could fail in bearing either at its supports or at the points of concentrated load, when the maximum bearing stress reaches the bearing strength of the material ‘The compressive forces in the bending member could also cause local buckling in thin section members and / or lateral torsional buck Beams in Timber ‘Timber beams are commonly used as © purlins and rafters in roof structures © supporting members in temporary works Timber flexural members are generally of a rectangular cross-section. Timber poles too are sometimes used to carry bending loads. ‘A timber beam must have adequate resistance in bending. The maximum applied bending stress in the member Gapw Must not exceed the permissible bending stress Caan ar Of the imber. _ Bending Moment Oman Section Modulus Cm ain pr = Grade bending stress x relevant K factors Relevant modification (K) factors for bending are K> Modification factor appropriate to service class fi K3 Modification factor corresponding to duration of load previously discussed Ks Modification factor for load sharing Ks — Modification factor to account for shape Ky Modification factor to account for depthGonwed Yoon ‘The grade bending stress is applicable for sections of a rectangular shape loaded in a direction parallel to one of its edges. For other shapes, the bending strength is modified to allow for the shape of the cross section. ‘Shape of member and londing direction Ke ‘Circular eross section Square cross section Jouded along a diagonal ‘The grade bending stress is applicable for a section depth of 300 mm. For other depths, the bending strength is modified to allow for the strength variation with depth. Taste % ao TG aT or send gi a it il ci ‘A timber beam must have adequate resistance in shear. The maximum applied shear stress in the member taar must not exceed the permissible bending stress taimpar of the timber. Shear Force = IES x Factor to account for stress distribition veer “Crass Sectional Area f r, adm par = Grade shear stress x relevant K factors Relevant modification (K) factors for bending are Kz Modification factor appropriate to service class Ks Modification factor corresponding to duration of load previously discussed Ks Modification factor for load sharing Ks Modification factor to account for notches: Notches at the ends of a beam cause stress concentrations. This effect is considerably simplified in the check for shear strength. The applied shear stress is determined using the effective depth of the section and the grade bending stress is multiplied by a notch factor Position of notch ‘Notch on the top edge: a Shy é & « ak Notch on the top edge: a> he x ‘Notch on the undersideBred gros A timber beam must have adequate resistance in bearing. The maximum applied bearing stress in the member seq Must not exceed the permissible bearing sttess Czainje) of the timber. o.,.. «Beating Force “80 ~ Cross Sectional Area © ecadn perp = Grade bearing stress x relevant K factors Relevant modification (K) factors for bending are Kz Modification factor appropriate to service class Ks Modification factor corresponding to duration of load f° previously discussed Ks Modification factor for load sharing s Ky Modification factor to account for bearing Having an unloaded area adjacent to an area loaded perpendicular to the grain causes the bearing strength to be higher than it would be if the entire block timber were loaded. Hence depending on the length and position of bearing, the permissible bearing strength is increased. Kq= 1.0; for bes igs of any length at the ends of a member Ki= 1.0; for bearings of 150 mm or more in length at any position. For bearings of less than 150 mm length located 75 mm or more from the ends of'the member, the value of K, depends on the actual bearing length aé shown: i 1a sss 0 a 100] sewmgienrion) | wo lis | as | w | so [1s | 1m [ison Lateral torsional buckling in timber beams Timber beams could buckle and twist if the compression surface is not braced to prevent it from moving in the lateral direction. This action is more likely in long span beams of slender Proportions; that is those beams with high depth to breadth ratios. A simplified approach is adopted to overcome this problem by limiting the ratios of depth to breadth depending on the (ype of lateral restraint conditions. The limiting ratios vary from ‘2° corresponding to no lateral restraint to a maximum value of *7° corresponding to beams in which the top and bottom edges are fully laterally restrained, More rigorous analytical techniques are provided in other literature, : Deflection ‘he maximum allowable deflection is limited to 0.003 of the span, Further restrictions may apply depending on the type of beam and loading.eons eee Deflection in a beam is due to the combined effects of bending and shear. The latter is often relatively small and ignored. However in timber beams of short span and small depth to breadth ratios shear deflection may need to be considered Long term deflection due fo ereep may also be significant, though this is not specificelly mentioned in the current revision of BS 5268: Part 2.. Sere gone DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS WITH MOMENTS Bending could be induced in an axially loaded member due to eccentric connections and /or transverse loading on the member such as the wind load on the member or its self-weight. Loading between node points also causes bending in otherwise predominantly axially loaded structural elements. Frame action i.e. the provision of rigid joints in a structure also induce bending combined with axial forces. ‘Thus the structural clement that is predominantly loaded in axial tension axial ‘compression may have to withstand the combined effects of tension / compression and bending. ‘Tension and compression chords timber trusses and lattice girders used in buildings, bridges and towers are common examples of structural elements subject to the combined effects of axial forces and bending, ‘Timber structural elements subject to combined effects Roof loads Ceiling loads A member subject to axial tension and ben following expression is satisfied: 1g should be so proportioned that tie the following expression is satisfied: "Sis, Pano waar where the symbols have their usual meaning and @, =Faryrue Gses05Toning - DectimG penn ena Structural Timber Connections ( Timber connections are essentially of two types; Mechanical fasteners and Glued joints. Nails, serews, bolts, connectors and punched metal plates are mechanical fasteners. Glued joints could be butt joints, scarf joints, finger joints or lap joints Timber connections commonly used in Sti Lanka. are either nailed or bolted connections. ‘The design of joints is discussed in Section 6 of BS 5268: Part 2: 1996. The basic load is tabulated for different types of single fasteners subject to long term loading under diry exposure conditions. The timber strength groups of Table 7 are further grouped into 4 strength classes for the softwoods and two strength classes for the hardwoods The two strength classes for hardwoods are D30/35/40 and D50/60/70. In certain structures, the slip that occurs at the joint may affect the overall:deflection of the structure and needs to be taken into account, Clause 6.3 provides guidance on the determination of joint slip. The loads applied to nails, screws and bolts apply to fasteners that are not treated. It is recommended that fasteners used in wet exposure conditions should be treated by an anti corrosive process. Anti corrosion treatment could affect fastener performance. ‘The performance of fasteners used with preservative treated timber could be affected. ‘Thus specialist advice should be sought when using preservatives. ‘The effective cross section of a jointed member should be-used when assessing the strength of the timber member at the joint. The shear stress in the jointed timber should be assessed as given in Fig: 6 of BS 5268: Part 2. Nailed Joints - clause 6.4. © The nails should comply with BS 1202: Part 1. © The nails should be, of steel having a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 600 Nimm’, © Nailed joints could be used in timber to timber connections, plywood to timber connections and tempered hardboard to timber connections. © A nailed joint should have at least 2 nails. ‘* Timber belonging to hardwoods D30 to D70 should be pre-drilled with holes not larger than 80% of the nail diameter. => Tienkey wa sp\il fei of Loading Fu Lateral loading Withdrawal Loading if t a Forces tend to slide against each other: Forces tend to pull the member apart: Fastener loaded in shear and bending Fastener loaded axially in tensionSip foo — Skew Nailing improves the al t l - resistance to withdrawal [> Corrert slightly. However, nails loaded laterally should not be skew oa 1 driven if stress reversal occurs and then should be driven such apeorreet that the joint docs not loosen under load, U Effective Cross-section 5 All nails that lie within a distance of five $ 1 nail diameters measured parallel to the grain from a given cross-section should be considered as occurring at that cross- section, The effective cross-section should be determined by reducing the net projected area of the nails from the gross area of the cross-section being considered. 0. L. y Cross section under consideration No reduction is made for nails smaller than 5 mm in diameter, driven without pre drilling. Spacing rules for nails are given in table $462 Minimum spacing between nails and to the edges and ends of the timber are maintained in order to prevent splitting of the timber. Pre-drilling permits closer spacing. End distance / to grain fw eas Peer Tines of rails 10 deme | eof = ao Distance between adjacent nals in any one line // to greinTle 62 © ‘The basic withdrawal load per mm of pointside penetration, for a single fue ——Tall im Single-shear inserted at right angles to the side grain of the ao” timber is given in Table 6@ for service classes ! and 2, ‘© The penetration of the nail should be not less than 15 mm. © No withdrawal load should be carried by @ nail driven into the end grain of timber. © When improved nails are used, further modification factors are applicable. Steel plate to timber joints \ Steel gusset plates are often used in nailed connections. The steel plate must be at least 1.2 mm or 0.3 times the nail diameter. The diameter of the hole in the steel plate should not’be greater than that of the nail diametgr. The plate must have adequate strength, The basic lateral load given in ‘Table 54 is multiplied by the modification factor Kys = 1.25: nN Permissible load for a nailed joint The permissible load for a nailed joint is the sum of the permissible loads for each nail in the joint, where each permissible nail load is calculatq from Permissible naitload = Basic load x Ks x Kao x Kso Where Kg - modification factor for duration of Joad 1.0 for long term, 1.12 for medium term and 1.25 for short term loads Kyy - Modification factor for moisture content For lateral loads; = 1.0 for service classes 1 and 2 and 0.7 for service class 3 0 for all constant service classes 0.25 where cyclic changes occur after nailing. For withdrawal load: Keo Modification factor for number of nails in line Where a number of nails of the same diameter acting in single or multiple shear are symmetrically arranged in one or more lines parallel to the line of action of the load in a primarily axially loaded ‘member in a structural framework then Kso= 1.0 for n< 10; and Kso= 0.9 for n> 10, where nis the number of nails in each line, In all other cases where more than one nail is used in a joint KsoSingle shear and multiple shear nailed joints I i Ef Single shear two | Single shear three Double shear three member joint member joint member joint © The basic lateral load for a single nail in single shear inserted at right angles to the side grain of the timber is given in Table Sf for service classes I and 2. © If the nail is driven into the end grain of the timber, the basic load is multiplied by a modification [E= factor Ky3 =0.7. Ud © The basic load applies ose only if the nail 5 penetration penetration inthe headside member and pointside member are at [Head side least equal to the standard | pensation values given in the table. le} © Where the thickness of members or the length of nail is such that the standard penetration cannot be achieved, the basic load should be multiplied by the smaller ratio of = Actual to standard thickness of headside member * Actual penetration to standard thickness © However, no load carrying capacity should be assumed where the above ratio is Jess than 0.66 for softwoods and 1.0 for hardwoods, for ordinary round nails, * No increase in capacity is permitted for thickness or Benetration greater than the standard values Inedside rmenn ee per spank © The basic multiple shear lateral load for each nail is obtained by multiplying the Table 54 value by the number of shear : planes, provided the thickness of the inner member is not less than 0.85 of the standard thickness. For softwoods the =o basic load could be reduced as above if the - inner member thickness is inadequate. AanSheath Gore. .} —_—— Bolted Joints - clause 6.6. The bolts should comply with BS EN 20898-1 and washers with BS 4320. ‘The bolts should have a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 400 Nimm*. Round washers of a diameter and square washers of a side length ‘equal to three times the bolt diameter, with a thickness of at least equel t0 0.25 times the bolt diameter. Washers should be fitted under the head and nut of each bolt unless, a1 equivalent bearing area is provided by the steel plate, © When from the nut. htened a minimum of one complete thread should protrude © Bolt holes should be drilled as close as possible to the bolt diameter but, not more than 2 mm larger than the bolt diameter. Effective Cross-section All bolts that lie within a distance of two bolt diameters measured parallel to the grain from a given cross-section should be considered as occurring at that cross- section, The effective cross-section > should be determined by reducing the net projected area of the bolt holes from Cross section under consideration the gross area of the cross-section being considered. Spacing rules for bolts are given in table.757 1 Minimum spacing between bolts and to the edges and ends of the timber are ‘maintained in order to prevent splitting of the timber oy jk—>| + Je} °. ° I ° << ° Loading parallel to grain Loading parallel to grain Loaded edge: bolt beai Unloaded edge: bolt bearing towards the end of the timber away from the end of the timber Loading perpendicular to grain Loaded edge: bolt bearing towards edge of the timber T Unloaded edge: bolt bearing away from edge of the timber °° oo‘Timber to Timber joints qe a Tables 67 and,68 give the basic loads for single bolts for two member joints in which the load acts perpendicular to the line of bolt for hardwood ° timber species The basic load appropriate to each -—-— shear plane in a three member joint = a under the same conditions is given in tables 73 and.74 for hardwood timber species. of) 6 Loads are tabulated separately for Jong term, medium term and short te tions. Loads are also tabulated separately for both parallel and perpendicular to ‘grain_directions. Unlike with nails @ significant bearing areas apply in the case of bolts. Thus the direction of the load is important due to the | anisotropic nature of timber. When the load is inclined at an angle Zi to the grain, the basic load is given by 7 the equation 1 FF — Fe Fy sin? a+ cos If the load acts at an angle to the axis c of the bolt, the — component perpendicular to the axis of the bolt should not be greater than the that given in the tables, modified where appropriate by the above equation. ‘¢ For two member joints where parallel members are of unequal thickness, the load for the thinner member should be used. © Where members of unequal thickness are joined at an angle the basic load for each member should be determined and the smaller value used. © For three member joints, where the outer members have the tabulated thickness and the inner member is twice as thick. : © For other thicknesses of inner or outer memebrs, the load may >e obtained by interpolation between adjacent values.* The basic load for a joint of more than three members should be taken as the sum of the basic loads for each shear plane assuming the joint consisted of a series of three member joints Steel plate to timber joints Steel gusset plates are often used in bolted connections. The steel plate must be at least 2.5 mm or 0.3 times the bolt diameter, whichever is greater. The diameter of the hole in the steel plate should not be more than 2 mm greater than that of the bolt diameter. The plate must have adequate strength, The basic lateral load given in the relevant Tables is multiplied by the modification factor Kyg = 1.25. No increase is made for loads perpendicular to the grain. Permissible load for a bolted joint The permissible load for a bolted joint is the sum of the permis bolt in the joint, where each permissible bolt load is calculated from Permissible bolt load = Basic load x Ksg x Ksy Where Kye - Modification factor for moisture content 1.0 for service classes 1 and 2 and 0.7 for service class 3 and used in that servi class 0.4 for service class 3 and used in service classes | and 2 Ks) ~ Modification factor for number of bolts in Line Where a number of bolts of the same diameter acting in single or multiple shear are symmetrically arranged in one or more lines parallel to the line of action of the load in a primarily axially loaded ‘member in a structural framework then Koy for 1-20) forn< 10; and Key 0.7 for n2 10, where n is the number of bolis in each line. In all other cases where more than one bolt is used in a joint Ks7 =1.0Bip F% GeomAn alternative arrangement is to Insert the splice plate in a groove cut on both timber pieces as shown. If the nails are to be loaded in double shear, determine the minimum length of nail required to withstand the same load under the same elo se Gonve8 gene Fig: shows a proposed splice connection for the bottom chord of a roof truss, The chord and splice plates are both of D50 timber. The chord is of cross-section 50 mm x 100mm. while the splice plate is of 38 mm thickness. Two nails each of 3.35 diameter nails 65 mm long in single shear, on each side are proposed, Check whether the nailed.connection can withstand a medium term tensile load of 1.7 KN under service class 3 conditions. Determine the dimensions of the timber splice plate for the different nail arrangements. Determine the slip atthe joint “Yee. Could shorter nails be used if steel splice plates of 5 mm thickness are used instead. oo 00 ° ° condtions, cy 03. 3 mm thick roofing sheets are nailed using 3 mm diameter nails through the reepers to rafters. The reepers are 25 mm thick and £ spaced every, 600 mm on rafters that are spaced every 300 mm. Determine the minimum length of nail requited if the roof has to withstand a design wind uplift of 400 N/m?. The purlins and rafters are both of D70 timber. Fig: shows a proposed splice connection for the bottom chord of a roof truss. The chord and splice plates are both of DSO timber. The chord is of cross-section 50 mm x 100mm While the splice plate is of 22 mm thickness. A single bolt on each side is proposed. Determine the maximum bolt size that ean be used considering the minimum edge distance required. Determine the capacity of the joint for medium term service class 3 conditions for the bolt size found above. Les 3] Determine the dimensions of the timber splice plate for the bolt arrangement. Determine the slip atthe j Determine the capacity if steel splice plates of S mm thickness are used instead. Determine the capacity of the LZ? ‘50 mm thick 70 = timber joints in the direction of the inclined ° E = member. mm thick » UNS el 25 mm thickXSenshi @) Red CALcuLATZON Bestur. DATA = THA Guvade'= Deg | j @ Nail 8 @=asmm of) 6Smm tn Stegle Shey. * Table GF | mivimum penetatioh = 2ih¥ Bee) x025 = 26.6260, CPge- 81) a Mead side Pretation a ae >, Pateninnuna | 223) Sabi aft Point aide perratin » 68-28 = 27mm J PaPenchation. an : ef (Pge-gp)® | Posie toad = 618+ (Ot) 5.5 = 627-875 Co Oo (® Moprricarroy) FACTOR FoR DURATION OF LOADING, CKag) % Medium kere loacl Nye = Fete te aS Teer | box btmber gomnt : ® | Moparrcarron Factoa For Lewvane, hors tune CONTENT Ckyg) } Rng zo Ho->Class -02 Kyg 205 ©)| Moprercancen, FACTOR FoR Numper ef Nats on) Bacw Lenlé Cleee) : Ken=1 —» Meso Kop ale 4 ie = uate loud & Kye ® Kiyg & Ken = CRA84ER Nan OFK NO. = ban. 26yn) WOU tet No.of nate tn a Joint = 4 % Tete! Boy shee 4g =h96 nn) Sl pew = Bothy Aeremgements Can “EEN temd & Lensile force. giver eK) STAR ame DETER MENATSON on DIMENSIONS. OF Temiaee Pisce PLA: 6-43, Cee_ause 6 fo (Poge-2) 7 (Pgs) Table ~C0 gh nail a Taple- Ge PIERS (ea Gere fa | aa edd “are Ind Miah 4 4@¢eh = 104-3 eon lod tod = 83:5 {iaoe! feo He G2 Cpge 66) “able 54 (He 8 (SLIP AT Tue SomNT ais gaIc0 “TWiceness Is Given OS 3mm and whichis In agreement wilh Minimenn WRicknese Yeqiivenenk of 26-625 rm ~~ * CHE ieee mm etarom Sure, Aiarore a 1Bde=! 213-66 wate BOrmrim oe See See r 7 e a hee tod A ED) savew| ‘es Nail Pre - drilled Timber ba” Linber Cormetne” |. y= Ksey ake We 3 = IPP Geo 88s 2 2 YRS IE 20 P= O-4GKN = 490N a ens ON ETE Kees BPE F6 : t ge OND FineIf Stee] Slice plate is used put See See glee eee G45 | S#5 Steer piave-7o-T2mpe2 TomNT S45 STEEL PLATE To - Timaea ToNT Lpge-9) (ava : ge) | Minium thickness of & Hate See”! on }2nm, thickness of Steel Pate Used AS Sm > (2mm > P Basic toed = Basiclead sro 5 y, y— Clause Gt-5:2 (PH) Table 6! 46 | = O27-875 # 1-25 = 78y.8yN Minimum benchabion veqpived 3n pomt side = 2.6:495imm Thickness oF the guset blake sien. 32mm. & Shorter nai} 9 32 mr 25m Nall Con be ia a #n Sle Shear @f 335mm Abbess Use of grim Lesex Steel Guvet folate, Instead of 38mm D5 Eimer, Recticcs & nai] size to almost I of What Is vequived If Later is used, [b5mm =~ Sem] { [ BEE}. Minimum size of tnwer mernioer= 0-854 Sterndanel thi ctenese pose =O-S5¥ 2H =22mm_ Minimum Pot stde Peneha ben = 26:625M0m 253.9 min Matmum Head Side Penetration = 26.625mm EDP imm 68 wetbextuss deb= Gores - OB minimum LengsQed nail Yequived = 23429427 2 Fm Sistaawd @e-3B) bo wsnstsins ord, bnalsiesS, = by c rien SI ume) 1a. 3 fF beitsite ett mma et bse 3° aD 19 slant Mae WEY = asl & AFB-HSO ~ mimaesd@ =obie fore mf bsviupsy rethebored mumiain onl sncaup cd be gerbe” mOZES Yom en sdl2 steered MTSE fp live vosret2 % fan. ey ade Ten a oomn idd Ieobrest® ABO a -yscfmrony vst £9 Sie muynrintih ay = RR FER-0= mmes am REE MMACSAe = cro wvtarse| sbre divie. pmarein peed mtsnad shiz hase squint we GS ae mMMACHSS 90 wt 2 ge5 8) | < lable GS eemmen.04 Tobal uplift force per nain = Goo x2eo wt ED = FIA fail tiometer = Brown. Basic wr bh drawal Ved = 10:€GA! [nme & Paint Side penchabion Yequredl = eas rom = G63 mm aC we Pme : & Vequivedd minimum Jenth” 05 ot) 26466343 ne PBECB 2 Bin& GoriED FOIv7s - % PY BPO aa wthrce member timber to birder joint (Belted) ae |e ce SS a ‘eecpainaeh, mA Raval q te, rae st gon 5%) one lobe Wiceeces Unleded edge crore isd ea To bot é aesonians vedas d_=/B-Bbrm = [B-bbrm ay Ibe Pabcity Permissive lott load = Basle load ® Weg Kap Tate | Bosre tends HOF Kal. "9 66:6 Ke g> OR key = p= ened p- 302: = 0.9% 5p wise wo . aes Permissitte Load = oer OF * og7 = UFO TEMBER Splice PLATE Ol a ent Summ 62, | Sue at Josnr Ox) stb. FL . 2t60A) (a) Keer Te 9 Koor 2 Pda = esr" Bate = 1B A5FUS Bus ato. ©: 208mm 13,989 BS ——-