® Academy of Management Journal

1999, Vol. 42, No. 6, 687-695.

EARLY-CAREER JOB FACTORS INFLUENCING THE

PROFESSIONAL COMMITMENT OF MEDICAL
TECHNOLOGISTS
GARY BLAU
Temple University

In this study, routine task responsibilities and professional organization memberships

had positive effects on the professional commitment of medical technologists in the
first four years of their careers, but advanced professional research activities had a
negative effect. I obtained these results after controlling for a set of initial attitude,
personal background, organizational context, and professional socialization variables.

The world of work is experiencing rapid change.
America's largest employer is now a temporary
agency, Manpower, Inc. (Hall & Moss, 1998). As
organizations continue to restructure and revise the
"psychological contract" defining mutual organiza-
tion-employee expectations (Morrison & Robinson,
1997), and as the contingent workforce grows, em-
ployee commitment may be shifting from organiza-
tion to occupation (Johnson, 1996). In their recent
review of organizational socialization research,
Saks and Ashforth (1997) proposed extending so-
cialization theory to occupations and professions.
More empirical research has focused on variables
affecting employees' "careers" in organizations
(e.g., Dalton, Thompson, & Price, 1977; Saks & Ash-
forth, 1997) than has focused on occupations and
professions. This research note assesses the incre-
mental impact of professional behavior and task
variables on the professional commitment of ear-
ly-career medical technologists. These individu-
als work in a variety of health-related laboratory
settings, including hospitals and independent
laboratories. They are responsible for the accu-
rate performance of tests that determine the pres-
ence of a disease. The main requirements for
becoming a medical technologist are a baccalau-
reate degree and initial laboratory training or
work experience.
Van Maanen and Barley described an occupa-
tional community as "a group of people who
consider themselves to be engaged in the same
sort of work" (1984: 287) and as people whose
The author thanks the Board of Registry of the Amer-
ican Society of Clinical Pathologists for permission to use
these data. The manuscript comments of Mary Lunz and
Thomas O'Neill from the Board of Registry are gratefully
acknowledged. Thanks also to the three anonymous re-
viewers, whose comments collectively improved the
quality of this work.
687
identity is partially based on the mastery of spe-
cific occupational tasks. This occupational iden-
tity transcends employing organizations. Van
Maanen and Barley viewed professions as a sub-
set of occupational communities. This view is
consistent with the ideas of Kerr, Von Glinow,
and Schriesheim (1977), who noted that a profes-
sion is a special type of occupation, one whose
members exhibit high levels of such characteris-
tics as expertise, autonomy, a belief in the regu-
lation of the profession by its members, and a
belief in the importance of the services the pro-
fession provides. A 1995 decision by the National
Labor Relations Board (1995) affirmed that med-
ical technology is a profession.
There is a rich literature investigating specific
occupations (for instance, actors, card players, po-
lice and prison officers) from a qualitative perspec-
tive (e.g.. Carter, 1994; Hayano, 1982; Layder,
1984). However, Collin and Young (1986) critiqued
occupational research for being cross-sectional,
male-biased, and neglectful of context. The re-
search reported here had a longitudinal design, a
sample primarily composed of women, and con-
trols for contextual factors.
This study tracked recently graduated medical
technologists over the first four years of their ca-
reers; the median sample member age was 25. This
time frame and median age placed the medical
technologists studied here in the establishment
stage of their careers, according to several general
career development models (Greenhaus & Gal-
lanan, 1994; Levinson, 1986; Super, 1980). Al-
though there have been longer studies of careers
(e.g.. Bray, Campbell, & Grant, 1974), such studies
have been organization-based. Other research has
focused on specific career issues such as midcareer
change (Neapolitan, 1980) or career plateauing (Et-
tington, 1998). This study focused on employees'
early occupational careers.
688 Academy of Management Journal
CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND AND
HYPOTHESES
Influences on Professional Commitment
According to general career development models
(Levinson, 1986; Super, 1980), having selected an
occupation and initial jobs, establishment-stage
employees should focus on mastering the technical
aspects of their jobs and learning the norms, rules,
and values of their employing organizations. Orga-
nization-based career theory also offers a useful
perspective on early careers. Applying the study
time frame of four years to the four-stage organiza-
tional model of professional careers (Dalton et al.,
1977; Thompson, Baker, & Smallwood, 1986) sug-
gests that medical technologists should be moving
out of stage 1 (apprentice-dependence) and into
stage 2 (colleague-independence). Thompson and
colleagues (1986) noted that stage 1 professional
employees are chiefly expected to focus on compe-
tently performing detailed and routine work within
time constraints. This formulation suggested that
the early-career medical technologists studied here
should be more comfortable performing routine
tasks while beginning to learn nonroutine (com-
plex) tasks. Consistent independent completion of
complex tasks by medical technologists should not
be expected until the end of stage 2. Stage 2 of the
Thompson et al. (1986) model corresponds to the
later achievement stage for career development
models (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994; Levinson,
1986).
Research has shown positive relationships be-
tween in-role professional bebaviors like reading
professional journals and holding professional as-
sociation memberships and affective professional
commitment (Morrow & Goetz, 1988; Morrow &
Wirth, 1989) among university employees and ac-
countants. Positive relationships between profes-
sional reading and association memberships and
subsequent professional commitment were ex-
pected for medical technologists.
Bailyn (1981) argued that a "slow burn" or ap-
prenticesbip approach to organizational careers,
with a long training period and a slow increase in
the challenge posed by assignments, is likely to
result in a crisis-free midcareer stage for profes-
sional employees. Tbis approach contrasts with an
emphasis on early job cballenge and quick promo-
tion to higher-level management (e.g., Berlew &
Hall, 1966). Applying the slow burn and career
models to early career medical technologists sug-
gests that increased professional reading, organiza-
tional memberships, and routine task assignments
should have positive relationships to their profes-
sional commitment.
December
However, prematurely accelerating the career de-
velopment of medical technologists, what Levinson
(1986) described as "too much, too soon," may have
a negative effect on their professional commitment.
Employees should first master routine tasks before
tackling more complex tasks (Thompson et al.,
1986). Prematurely taking on complex task assign-
ments or getting involved in more advanced pro-
fessional administrative or research activities can
result in failure, thus damaging an employee's mo-
tivation. Complex task assignments and advanced
professional involvement are more appropriate in
later career stages (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994;
Thompson et al., 1986).
Control Variables
Morrow (1993) suggested that professional com-
mitment is a more stable type of work commitment
tban feelings about a job or organization. Prior re-
search (e.g., Staw & Ross, 1985) has shown that
work attitudes such as job satisfaction may have a
dispositional component. Therefore, controlling for
the impact of medical technologists' earlier profes-
sional commitment and job satisfaction on their
subsequent professional commitment was appro-
priate.
Other antecedents controlled for included per-
sonal background, organizational context, and so-
cialization variables, since these can affect profes-
sional or occupational commitment (Morrow,
1983). The personal background variables included
age, gender, marital status, and number of children.
Older medical technologists should have higher
commitment because they have probably changed
occupations and are now "re-investing" (Smart &
Peterson, 1997). If women feel they are ghettoized
in their occupations (Miller & Garrison, 1982), their
commitment may be damaged. Unmarried employ-
ees can often focus more energy on their careers
than married people (Blau, 1985a). Having depen-
dents, however, can strengthen affective commit-
ment indirectly by making it harder for an em-
ployee to think about changing occupations
(Neapolitan, 1980).
Organizational context variables controlled for
included workforce reduction, sbift, and scbedule.
Workforce reduction can negatively impact career
motivation (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994). Working
a non-day shift and part-time status may negatively
affect commitment to a profession (Morrow, McEl-
roy, & Elliott, 1994). Non-day shifts generally do
not provide as stimulating a work environment as
day shifts, and part-time status does not foster pro-
fessional identification. Given the investment re-
quired to become a medical technologist, it is rea-
1999
sonable to expect that most early-career medical
technologists would want full-time employment on
the day shift.
Four socialization control variables were consid-
ered; educational level, job preparation, expected
job utility, and job change. The more education
(Van Maanen & Barley, 1984) and job preparation
(Morrow, 1983) an individual has, the more com-
mitted she or he should be to a profession. Ex-
pected job utility measures the perceived relevance
of a present job to an individual's career develop-
ment. Bedeian, Kemery, and Pizzolatto (1991)
found a positive, cross-sectional relationship be-
tween the expected utility of nurses' present jobs
and their affective professional commitment. Since
unhappy employees often make a job change (Ger-
hart, 1987), I controlled for the impact of job change
on subsequent early-career medical technologists'
professional commitment.
To summarize, two hypotheses were tested in
this study:
Hypothesis 1. With initial attitude, personal
background, organizational context, and career
socialization variables controlled for, profes-
sional reading, number of organizational mem-
berships, and performing routine tasks will be
positively related to the professional commit-
ment of early-career medical technologists.
Hypothesis 2. With initial attitude, personal
background, organizational context, and career
socialization variables controlled for, advanced
professional administrative and research behav-
ior and performing complex tasks will be nega-
tively related to the professional commitment of
early-career medical technologists.
METHODS
Sample and Procedures
In 1993, the Board of Registry of the American
Society for Clinical Pathologists began a longitudi-
nal study of the career patterns of recently gradu-
ated medical technologists. Surveys were distrib-
uted in 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996 to a randomly
stratified sample of recently graduated medical
technologists. In 1993 (time 1), of the 2,002 surveys
mailed out, 1,156 (58%) usable surveys containing
personal background (sex, age, marital status), ed-
ucational level, and job preparation data were re-
turned. At this point the cohort changed to the
individuals who had responded. In 1994 (time 2),
832 of 1,156 surveys (72%) were returned by
matched respondents. Matching was done by using
social security numbers. Information on personal
Blau 689
background, initial professional commitment, pro-
fessional behaviors, and expected job utility was
collected. In 1995 (time 3), 739 of the 1,156
matched respondents (64%) responded to the third
survey, which collected- data on personal back-
ground, organizational context (that is, workforce
reduction, shift, schedule), job changes, task re-
sponsibilities, and overall job satisfaction. Finally,
in 1996 (time 4), 672 of 1,156 matched respondents
(58%) provided a second round of data on profes-
sional commitment and personal background, in-
cluding information on number of children.
Although there were 672 repeat respondents
across the four surveys, some respondents did not
answer all of the items. Also, respondents were
asked to not respond to organizational context,
work attitude, or perception items in any year they
were not employed in a laboratory setting. (These
individuals were kept in the sample database in
case they again became employed in a laboratory.)
For the variables in this study, complete data were
available for 484 medical technologists. A 1993
demographic comparison (on age, sex, marital sta-
tus, and education) of the 484 respondents with
complete data to the 672 (1,156 - 484) with incom-
plete data indicated no significant differences.
Variable analyses below are based on the 484 re-
spondents with complete data.
A 1993 demographic breakdown of this sample
showed that their median age was 25 years, with a
range of from 21 to 55; 76 percent were women; 97
percent had baccalaureate degrees, and 3 percent
had graduate degrees; 55 percent were not married,
and 45 percent were married; and 58 percent
worked in urban locations, 24 percent in suburban
locations, and 18 percent in rural locations. Most
respondents had recently earned certification as
medical technologists and. were thus employed. By
1996, 67 percent of the sample respondents were
married. The other demographics (for instance, age)
either increased as expected or remained stable.
Measures
Dependent variable: Professional commitment,
1996. This variable was measured using five items
adapted from a career commitment scale developed
earlier (Blau, 1985a). Career commitment is defined
as "one's attitude towards one's profession or vo-
cation" (Blau, 1985a: 280). The five items used for
this study were: "If I could get another job other
than being a medical technologist, and get paid the
same amount of money, I would probably take it,"
"I definitely want a career for myself in medical
technology," "If I could do it all over again, I would
choose to work in the medical technology profes-
690 Academy of Management Journal
sion," "I would recommend a career in medical
technology to others," and "I am disappointed that
I ever entered the medical technology profession."
Item responses were made on a four-point scale
ranging from 1, strongly disagree, to 4, strongly
agree.
Independent variables. The independent vari-
ables measured professional behaviors and task re-
sponsibilities. For professional behaviors, three dif-
ferent self-reported measures covered professional
reading, number of organizational memberships,
and advanced professional involvement. First, a
one-item measure asked the medical technologists
"How many hours a week did you spend reading
clinical laboratory science related materials in
1994?" (1 = 0 hours, 2 = 1-2 hours, 3 = 3-4 hours,
and 4 = 5 or more hours). This measure was labeled
professional reading hours, 1994. Medical technol-
ogists can belong to professional organizations at
three levels: a general national level (organizations
include the American Society of Glinical Patholo-
gists and the American Society for Clinical Labora-
tory Science), a specialized national level (organi-
zations include the American Society of
Hematology and the American Society of Microbi-
ology), and a state or local level. Respondents re-
ceived a list of nine organizations and were asked
"To which of the following professional organiza-
tions did you belong in 1994? (check all that ap-
ply)." This measure w^as labeled organizational
memberships, 1994.
To measure advanced professional involvement,
I adapted a ten-item measure from Rudmann, Lunz,
and Summers (1995), asking the medical technolo-
gists about their participation in various profes-
sional activities during 1994 (1 = never, 2 = some-
times, and 3 = frequently). "Scree" and eigenvalue-
greater-than-one tests (JFord, MacCallum, & Tait,
1986) on a principal components analysis of the ten
items indicated that a two-factor solution was the
most appropriate, and this solution accounted for
44 percent of the total variance. "Varimax" rotation
was used after the two factors were extracted. The
two factors identified were named professional be-
havior, research, 1994 (seven items, eigenvalue =
3.22), and professional behavior, administrative,
1994 (three items, eigenvalue = 1.21). Examples of
professional behavior, research, 1994, items are
"presented a professional paper/poster," "partici-
pated in research projects," and "publisbed a pro-
fessional paper." Examples of professional behav-
ior, administrative, 1994, items are "held office in a
professional organization" and "served as a com-
mittee member."
Task responsibilities (in 1995, time 3) were mea-
sured by a 30-item scale (Rudmann et al., 1995) on
December
which respondents were asked how often they per-
formed various tasks (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 =
sometimes, and 4 = frequently). Scree and eigen-
value-greater-than-one tests (Ford et al., 1986) on a
principal components analysis of these 30 items
indicated that a two-factor solution was the most
appropriate, and this solution accounted for 34 per-
cent of the total variance. Varimax rotation was
used after factor extraction. The two factors identi-
fied were complex tasks, 1995 (18 items, eigen-
value = 7.51), and routine tasks, 1995 (9 items,
eigenvalue = 2.58). These factor results are consis-
tent with Ludlow's (in press) results. Examples of
complex tasks, 1995, items are "purchase reagents"
and "evaluate new instruments." Sample routine
tasks, 1995, items are "collect and prepare speci-
mens" and "recognize normal and abnormal values."
Control variables. Controls consisted of initial
professional commitment, job satisfaction, per-
sonal background, organizational context, and so-
cialization variables. Professional commitment,
1994, was measured with the same five items (Blau,
1985a) noted above for the 1996 commitment mea-
sure. Job satisfaction, 1995, was based on Spector's
(1985) 36-item measure, which sums nine facet
scales (4 items per facet) assessing pay, promotion,
supervision, benefits, contingent rewards, operat-
ing procedures, coworkers, nature of work, and
communication (1 = strongly disagree,. 2 = dis-
agree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree).
Personal background variables. These were
measured for 1993, time 1. Sex, 1993, was dichot-
omously coded (1 = woman, 2 = man), as was
marital status [married, 1993; 1 = not married, 2 =
married). Age, 1993, was based on respondents'
filling in their years of birth. In 1996 (time 4), a
second marital status measure (married, 1996) was
collected, as well as children, 1996 ("How many
dependent children do you have?"; 1 = 0 to 10 =
more than 8).
Organizational context variables. These were
measured in 1995, at time 3. Workforce reduction
(laboratory reduction, 1995) was measured by tbe
question "Was the number of laboratory personnel
reduced in 1995?" (1 = no, 2 = yes). Shift, 1995
(1 = day, 2 = not day), and schedule, 1995 (1 =
full-time and 2 = part-time), were also measured.
Socialization variables. Job preparation, 1993,
was a 30-item scale corresponding to the above-
mentioned task responsibilities items (Rudmann et
al., 1995). The medical technologists were asked
about the quality of their educational preparation
for their task responsibilities (1 = poor, 2 = fair,
3 = good, and 4 = excellent). Degree, 1993, was
coded as 1, baccalaureate, or 2, graduate. Job
change, 1995 ("Did you cbange jobs during
1999
1995?"), was coded as 1, yes, or 2, no. Expected job
utility, 1994, used two items based on Bedeian and
colleagues' (1991) work; one item was "My present
job is relevant to the growth and development of
my career in medical technology" (1 = strongly
disagree, 4 = strongly agree).
RESULTS
Means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and
correlations among all variables are reported in Ta-
ble 1. The means for both professional behavior
measures are quite low; for administrative behav-
ior, the mean is 3.5 (possible range = 3-9), and for
research behavior, the mean is 8.3 (range = 7-21).
Many medical technologists w^ere members of more
than one professional organization, and they aver-
aged 2.1 hours per week reading professional ma-
terials. The routine tasks mean of 31 is high
(range = 9-36), but for complex tasks, the mean of
33.5 (range = 18-72) is somewhat low. These vari-
able means are consistent with early-career-stage
models (Levinson, 1986; Thompson et al., 1986).
Multi-item scales had internal consistencies of at
least .70, except for administrative professional be-
havior and routine tasks (for both, a = .68), using
Cronbach's alpha (Nunnally, 1978). The observed
correlations provided background data for testing
hypotheses.
The results of hierarchical regression analyses
used in testing the two hypotheses are shown in
Table 2. As noted earlier, measures of initial atti-
tude, personal background, organizational context,
and socialization were control variables (model 1).
Witbin the task and professional behavior indepen-
dent variables set, entered in model 2, number of
organizational memberships and routine tasks are
significantly, positively related to subsequent pro-
fessional commitment (Hypothesis 1), and research
professional behavior is significantly, negatively
related (Hypothesis 2) to subsequent commitment.
These results provide partial support for Hypothe-
ses 1 and 2. Cumulatively, 38 percent (adjusted R^)
of 1996 professional commitment was explained,
which is significant (F20,462 - 14.74, p < .01).
For the 543 repeat respondents who provided
1994 and 1996 professional commitment measures,
there was a significant decrease in the mean level of
professional commitment (1994, 14.4; 1996, 13.3;
^542 ~ 9.01, p < .01). I conducted additional anal-
yses to test whether this significant decline in
repeat-respondent professional commitment was
"real" or a function of sample mortality (that is,
only less committed medical technologists re-
sponded again in 1996). For the 1994 sample, 801
individuals completed the 1994 professional com-
Blau 691
mitment scale. Of these 801, 543 medical technol-
ogists also responded to the 1996 professional com-
mitment scale (these were repeat respondents), and
258 did not. An independent-samples i-test com-
parison between tbese two groups on 1994 profes-
sional commitment was significant (^799 = -3.17,
p < .05, two-tailed test). The 543 repeat respon-
dents had a mean of 14.43, and the 258 dropouts
had a mean of 13.71. The direction of this small but
significant 1994 difference in means on profes-
sional commitment indicates that the repeat re-
spondents were more committed in 1994 than
those wbo bad at least temporarily dropped out.
Using 1996 professional commitment data, I per-
formed a second analysis comparing the repeat re-
spondents [n = 543) to a newcomer group (n = 69).
An independent-samples t-test comparison be-
tween tbese two groups was nonsignificant (tgio =
-0.15, p > .87, two-tailed test). The repeat-respon-
dent professional commitment mean was 13.28,
and for the newcomers it was 13.22. Collectively,
these additional analyses indicate that the signifi-
cant decline in repeat-respondent professional
commitment from 1994 to 1996 was not due to my
receiving responses only from less professionally
committed medical technologists.
DISCUSSION
Overall, the study's findings are somewhat mod-
est. The regression and correlational results to-
gether suggest a delicate mix of task responsibilities
and professional behaviors should be maintained
to enbance early-career medical tecbnologists'
commitment as they move through either general
(Super, 1980) or professional (Thompson et al.,
1986) career stages. Routine tasks, professional
reading, and organizational memberships are all
positively related to professional commitment.
These findings support Bailyn's (1981) slow burn
model.
However, early involvement in researcb behavior
was negatively related to subsequent professional
commitment. Whether the medical technologists
became prematurely involved in research activities
voluntarily or involuntarily is unknown. Being an
"eager beaver" and voluntarily getting involved in
research projects, curriculum development, and so
forth may overload a medical technologist and have
a negative impact on his or her commitment. There
may be a dues-paying process (Schein, 1971) that
should precede becoming a fully accepted partici-
pant in researcb activities. Of course, such overload
may be involuntary if organizations push early-
career medical technologists prematurely into re-
 CO

o o

o
X)
CJJ rH
CO O

rH CO CO
o a
OJ
O
o o o .a

68)
CO CO CO CO
CM
o
1
JH r-t CO
o o rH
o
1
O5 ^ o CO CO
rH O O o
o
1 1 1 1 1
d rH rH

1 1 1
o o o o o CM o o rH
1 1 1 1 1 1
03
CV>

o 1

£
o

' '
CO ^ ^, o

1 1
CM CO CM r H

1
I
CM

-a 1 1 03
^ O ^ r H C O O C M ^ C M rH CM

1 1 1, 1 o
cr, tv rH

o
=0 r H rH CO

w •"" 1 1 q
CO r H o CO
V
n.
1
o c o o c n c o i n ^ c M i n l ^ . . rH i n CO
.2 1 1

O O O O O O O O O O O r H r H o O in o
I I 1 I I I
CM 03 CO CO CM

II II 1 o
X)
rH rH in CB

55
j ^ i n c M O i n c c t v o i i n o i n ^ i n c n ^ CO i n in 03 CM
1 0
.2 0
.5 0

6 0
8 0
3 1

0 3
5 0
.0 0

.6 0
.1 0
.5 0

4 3

0 12
.4 1
.1 15

a;
in
q
I V
a,
o"

S
a
£
DO

O
XI

II "a
< ; CB
o
a
1999 Blau 693

TABLE 2 to the decline in commitment. The current sample

Results of Regression Analyses" was drawn from hundreds of different organiza-
tions across the United States, and almost half of
Model Model the respondents indicated a laboratory workforce
Variable 1 2
reduction in 1995. This spillover impact perhaps
Control reflects the current pervasive change and uncer-
Professional commitment, 1994 .46** .45** tainty in the health care industry [Dwore, Murray,
Job satisfaction, 1995 .27** .26** Parsons, Smith, Vorderer, & Gustafson, 1997). The
Age, 1993 .11* .11* nature of the respondents comprising this sample,
Sex, 1993 -.02 -.02
Married, 1993 .04 .03
early-career medical technologists, is also impor-
Married, 1996 .03 .02 tant to consider. Initial enthusiasm about getting a
Cbildren, 1996 .09 .08 job in one's profession after graduation, reflected in
Laboratory reduction, 1995 -.12* -.11* higher commitment in 1994, may have given way to
Sbift, 1995 -.03 -.03 perceptions of a harsher reality in actual work en-
Scbedule, 1995 .01 .02
vironments by 1996. Helmreich, Sawin, and
Degree, 1993 .06 .06
Job preparation, 1993 .02 .03 Carsrud (1986) discussed such a "honeymoon ef-
Expected job utility, 1994 .07 .08 fect" for employee motivation.
Job cbange, 1995 -.04 -.04

Total adjusted fl^ .33**

Independent
Organizational memberships, 1994
Professional reading hours, 1994
Professional behavior, administrative, 1994
Professional behavior, researcb, 1994
Routine tasks, 1995
Complex tasks, 1995
Adjusted ^R^
Overall F
Overall adjusted R^
" Values are standardized regression coefficients. Through-
out, df = 482.
* p < .05, two-tailed test
** p < .01, two-tailed test
search activities or complex tasks. Such explana-
tions are speculative and await testing.
As the present medical technologist sample nat-
urally ages into the later-career-achievement stage
(Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994) or into stages 2 and 3
ofthe professional career model (Thompson et al.,
1986), I would expect them to take on more com-
plex tasks and exhibit higher levels of advanced
professional hehaviors. Such hehaviors, in these
later career stages, would be expected to show pos-
itive relationships to professional commitment.
There are other study results to discuss. As
noted, repeat-respondent professional commitment
significantly decreased from 1994 to 1996. The dif-
ficulty in explaining this decline reflects what Go-
lembiewski, Billingsley, and Yeager (1976) referred
to as beta versus gamma change. The significant,
negative relationship between perceived workforce
reduction and subsequent professional commit-
ment suggests that the former may have contributed
Study Limitations
There are three general study limitations to dis-
.10* cuss: model specification, measurement validity,
.08
and research design. Each of these limitations con-
-.07
-.11* tributed to the overall result that only 38 percent of
.12* the variance in subsequent affective professional
-.04 commitment was explained. Model specification
concerns whether all relevant variables have
.05**
been included. Here, locus of control should have
14.74**
.38** been controlled for, since prior research (e.g.,
Blau, 1985a) has indicated that individuals with
an internal locus of control have higher career
commitment.
Regarding measurement validity, it is important
to acknowledge that the verbal anchors used for the
professional behavior items may have been subjec-
tively interpreted. For example, one respondent's
"frequently" response could be another's "some-
times." Providing a frequency range for each verbal
anchor (for instance, "sometimes" = 1-3 times)
would have allowed for more precise measure-
ment. Another measurement issue was the use of a
yes/no response for the question on workforce re-
duction. Although laboratory reduction had a sig-
nificant impact on professional commitment, its
measurement was thus restricted.
There are research design issues to acknowledge.
Given the unfolding of incremental task responsi-
bilities and professional behaviors suggested by ca-
reer stage models (e.g.. Super, 1980; Thompson et
al., 1986), gathering additional waves of profes-
sional behavior and task responsibilities data may
have helped to account for more professional com-
mitment variance. I measured only the affective
dimension of professional commitment. Recent re-
search supports an occupational commitment con-
694 Academy of Management Journal
struct with three dimensions (affective, normative,
and continuance; Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993).
Implications For Future Research
It would be important to test the generalizability
of these findings for early-career medical technol-
ogists with other professional employees such as
nurses and accountants. Consistent with Bailyn's
(1981) slow burn career approach, my study results
suggest that supervisors play a critical role in help-
ing medical technologists make successful early-
career transitions. Baird and Kram (1983) identified
a number of task and personal needs that subordi-
nates require their supervisors to meet in different
career stages. During the establishment stage, these
needs include providing performance feedback,
coaching, acceptance, and confirmation (Greenhaus
& Callanan, 1994).
Other research has shown that supervisors
must take delegation risks with their subordi-
nates to develop them (Leana, 1986) and that
successful delegation-performance (supervisor-
subordinate) interactions are necessary for devel-
oping higher-level leader-member exchanges
(Bauer & Green, 1996). The results from this
study suggest that supervisors should carefully
consider the career stage of an employee when
they either delegate tasks or encourage the
employee to take on additional job challenges.
Premature delegation may diminish employees'
occupational motivation. Additional study of su-
pervisors' impacts on employee occupational
commitment at different career stages is needed.
Another research issue is whether an organiza-
tion that invests in strengthening its employees'
professional commitment benefits from increased
employee loyalty to the organization.
REFERENCES
Baird, L., & Kram, K. 1983. Career dynamics: Managing
the superior/subordinate relationship. Organiza-
tional Dynamics, 11(3): 46-64.
Bailyn, L. 1981. The slow burn way to the top: Some
thoughts on the early years of organizational careers.
In C. Derr (Ed.), Work, family and the career: 115—
125. New York: Praeger.
Bauer, T., & Green, S. 1996. Development of leader-mem-
ber exchange: A longitudinal test. Academy of Man-
agement Journal, 39: 1538-1567.
Bedeian, A., Kemery, E., & Pizzolatto, A. 1991. Career com-
mitment and expected utiUty of present job as predic-
tors of turnover intentions and turnover behavior. Jour-
nal of Vocational Behavior, 39: 331-343.
December
Berlew, D., & Hall, D. 1966. The socialization of manag-
ers: Effects of expectations. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 11: 207-233.
Blau, G. 1985a. The measurement and prediction of ca-
reer commitment. Journal of Occupational Psychol-
ogy, 58: 277-288.
Blau, G. 1985h. Relationship of extrinsic, intrinsic and
demographic variables to withdrawal. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 70: 442-450.
Bray, D., Campbell, R., & Grant, D. 1974. Formative
years in business: A long-term AT &• T study of
managerial lives. New York: Wiley.
Carter, K. 1994. Prison officers and their survival strate-
gies. In A. Coffey & P. Atkinson (Eds.), Occupational
socialization and working lives: 101-122. Alder-
shot, England: Avebury.
Collin, A., & Young, R. 1986. New directions for theories
of career. Human Relations, 9: 837-853.
Dalton, G., Thompson, P., & Price, R. 1977. The four
stages of professional careers: A new look at perfor-
mance by professionals. Organizational Dynamics,
5(1): 19-42.
Dwore, R., Murray, B., Parsons, R., Smith, P., Vorderer,
L., & Gustafson, G. 1997. Job satisfaction of selected
categories of hospital managers. Hospital Topics,
75(2): 14-21.
Ettington, D. 1998. Successful career plateauing. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 52: 72-88.
Ford, J., MacCallum, R., & Tait, M. 1986. The application
of exploratory factor analysis in applied psychology:
A critical revievir and analysis. Personnel Psychol-
ogy, 39: 291-314.
Gerhart, B. 1987. How important are dispositional factors
as determinants of job satisfaction? Implications for
job'design and other personnel programs. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 72: 366-373.
Golembiewski, R., Billingsley, K., & Yeager, S. 1976.
Measuring change and persistence in human affairs:
Types of change generated by OD designs. Journal of
Applied Behavioral Science, 12: 133-157.
Greenhaus, J., & Callanan, G. 1994. Career management.
Fort Worth: Dryden.
Hall, D., & Moss, J. 1998. The new protean career con-
tract: Helping organizations/employees adapt. Orga-
nizational Dynamics, 26(1): 22-37.
Hayano, D. 1982. Poker faces: The life and work of
professional card players. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Helmreich, R., Sawin, L., & Carsrud, A. 1986. The honey-
moon effect in job performance: Temporal increases in
the predictive power of achievement motivation. Jour-
nal of Applied Psychology, 71: 185-188.
Johnson, R. 1996. Antecedents and outcomes of corporate
refocusing. Joumal of Management, 22: 439-483.
1999
Kerr, S., Von Glinow, M., & Schriesheim, J. 1977. The
study of "professionals" in organizations: The case
of scientists and engineers. Organizational Behav-
ior and Human Performance, 18: 329-345.
Layder, D. 1984. Sources and levels of commitment in
actors' careers. Work and Occupations, 11: 147-162.
Leana, G. 1986. Predictors and consequences of delegation.
Academy of Management Joumal, 29: 754-774.
Levinson, D. 1986. A conception of adult development.
American Psychologist, 41: 3-13.
Ludlow, L. In press. Scale structure: An integrative data
analysis approach. Educational and Psychological
Measurement: In press.
Meyer, J., Allen, N., & Smith, G. 1993. Gommitment to
organizations and occupations: Extension and test of
a three-component conceptualization. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 78: 538-551.
Miller, J., & Garrison, H. 1982. Sex roles: The division of
labor at home and in the workplace. In R. H. Turner
& J. F. Short (Eds.), Annual review of sociology, vol.
8: 237-262. Palo Alto, GA: Annual Reviews.
Morrison, E., & Robinson, S. 1997. When employees feel
betrayed: A model of psychological contract violation.
Academy of Management Review, 22: 226-256.
Morrow, P. 1983. Goncept redundancy in organizational
research: The case of work commitment. Academy
of Management Review, 8: 486-500.
Morrow, P. 1993. The theory and measurement of work
commitment. Greenwich, GT: JAI Press.
Morrow, P., & Goetz, J. 1988. Professionalism as a form of
work commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
32: 92-111.
Morrow, P., McElroy, J., & Elliott, S. 1994. The effect of
preference for work status, schedule and shift on
work-related attitudes. Journal of Vocational Be-
havior, 45: 202-222.
Morrow, P., & Wirth, R. 1989. Work commitment among
salaried professionals. Joumal of Vocational Be-
havior, 34: 40-56.
National Labor Relations Board. 1995. Group Health Asso-
ciation, Inc., vs. C. X. Fedor Petitioner and Office and
Professional Employee International Union Local 2,
AFL-CIO. Gase 5-RD-1102 (317 NLRB No. 37).
Blau 695
Neapolitan, J. 1980. Occupational change in mid-career:
An exploratory investigation. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 16: 212-225.
Nunnally, J. 1978. Psychometric theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Rudmann, S., Lunz, M., & Summers, S. 1995. Entry-level
technologists report job preparedness. Laboratory
Medicine, 26: 717-719.
Saks, A., & Ashforth, B. 1997. Organizational socializa-
tion: Making sense of the past and present as a pro-
logue for the future. Journal of Vocational Behav-
ior, 51: 234-279.
Schein, E. 1971. The individual, organization and career:
A conceptual scheme. Joumal of Applied Behav-
ioral Science, 7: 401-426.
Smart, R., & Peterson, G. 1997. Super's career stages and
the decision to change careers. Journal of Voca-
tional Behavior, 51: 358-374.
Spector, P. 1985. Measurement of human service staff
satisfaction: Development of the Job Satisfaction
Survey. American Journal of Community Psychol-
ogy, 13: 693-713.
Staw, B., & Ross, J. 1985. Stability in the midst of change:
A dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 70: 469-480.
Super, D. 1980. A life-span approach to career develop-
ment./ourna/o/yocatio/ia7 Behavior, 16: 282-298.
Thompson, P., Baker, R., & Smallwood, N. 1986. Improv-
ing professional development by applying the four-
stage career model. Organizational Dynamics,
14(2): 49-62.
Van Maanen, J., & Barley, S. 1984. Occupational com-
munities: Gulture and control. In B. M. Staw &
L. L. Gummings (Eds.), Research in organiza-
tional behavior, vol. 6: 287-365. Greenwich, GT:
JAI Press.
Gary Blau (Ph.D., University of Gincinnati) is a professor
of organizational behavior and human resources in the
Fox School of Business and Management at Temple Uni-
versity. His research interests focus on topics related to
employee attitudes and behaviors.