Engine Design and Operation: Discussion Topics

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Engine design and operation
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© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Discussion topics
• What is an internal combustion engine

• Four-stroke cycle engine - gasoline and diesel
• Engine hardware
• Engine lubrication regimes
• Heavy-duty diesel emissions
• Summary

The internal combustion engine
What is an internal combustion engine?
The reciprocating internal combustion engine generates

power by converting chemically bound energy into work by
the use of reciprocating motion
Ideal Conditions
Carbon Energy
Fuel Oxygen dioxide Water
Reality
Gasoline Air CO2 SOx
or 78% N2 Water Energy
Diesel 21% O2 NOx HC

Four-stroke cycle engine
Intake
As piston moves down or toward crankcase, intake valve opens and partial vacuum is
created in cylinder. Vaporized air-fuel mixture is forced into cylinder by atmospheric
pressure.
Compression
Intake valve closes. As crankshaft rotates, piston moves up and compresses air-fuel
mixture.

Power
Ignition system fires spark plug to ignite mixture just before piston reaches top of its
travel. Expanding gases, which result from burning of fuel, force piston down to turn
crankshaft.
Exhaust
After fuel charge is burned, exhaust valve opens. Burned gases are forced out of cylinder
by upward movement of piston.

Gasoline and diesel combustion
Homogenous
Spark plug Fuel injector
charge
Stratified charge
Gasoline engine Diesel engine

(Spark ignition engine) (Compression ignition engine)
Main components of an internal

combustion engine
Rockers Camshaft
Valve springs
Valve
Piston
Piston rings
Cylinder block
Oil filter
Con rod
Journal bearings
Crankshaft
Oil pump
Oil
Sump

Additional components of gasoline and

diesel engines
Spark plug Fuel injector
Fuel pump
Distributor
Typical gasoline Typical diesel

engine engine
Compression ratios
Gasoline engine Diesel engine
C.R. 11:1 C.R. 16:1
Lower to Higher for

avoid compression
pre-ignition ignition
TDC BDC TDC BDC
Ratio of the volume of the combustion chamber and cylinder volume

measured when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke to the volume
when the piston is at the top of its stroke.
Temperature distribution of diesel and

gasoline engines
Gasoline Engine Diesel Engine
This image cannot currently be display ed.
°C °C
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400 500
Median distribution temperature of light alloy pistons. Shaded portions show

that structural and functional characteristics influence temperatures.
Engine breathing systems

• Two categories for engine breathing
– Naturally aspirated – using suction from the engine
– Pressure charging – forcing air into the cylinder
• Pressure charging is applicable to gasoline and diesel
• Power output depends on the quantity of fuel and air that can be
burned
• Naturally aspirated engines are limited by atmospheric pressure
• Pressure charging means that more fuel can be added, producing
more power
• Two types of pressure chargers
– Turbocharger (driven by exhaust gases)
– Supercharger (driven by the engine)

Turbocharging and supercharging
Turbocharger
Compressor Turbine
Supercharger
Different valve configurations

Pushrod
Rocker
Push Rod
Lifter
Camshaft


Single overhead cam (direct acting)
Camshaft
Bucket Tappet

Single overhead cam
Rocker
Camshaft


Double overhead cam
Camshafts
Tappets
Hydraulic valve lifter
oil flows in
Tappet Tappet
Camshaft Camshaft
• The engine oil used as hydraulic fluid

• Ensures that the cam lobes is in constant contact with the tappet
• Less wear and less noise while the engine is running

Variable valve timing (VVT)
• Valves open and close at different times in the cycle and to varying amounts of lift
depending on the engine speed and load
• Engines perform well across wide range of engine speeds and loads
• Less compromise between efficiency and performance
• Many different mechanical, hydraulic, and electronic options have been
developed for VVT
Pressures in an engine cylinder

Max cylinder pressure
800
Intake
Intake
Compression
Compression
600 Power
Power
Exhaust
Exhaust
Pressure, PSI
400
Ignition point
200
Advance Retard
14.7
0° 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° 630° 720°
Degrees of Crankshaft Rotation and Piston Strokes

Effect of air/fuel ratio on combustion

gas composition
Stoichiometric Stoichiometric = 14.7 parts air to

100
1 part fuel
Concentration (Approximate Ranges – Not to
90
Engine efficiency
CO, NOx and HC Emissions
NOx – caused by high in-cylinder

80
temperatures experienced under
70 moderate to heavy load
60 NOx
scale)
HC – unburned hydrocarbons (fuel)

50
40 HC CO – carbon monoxide results from
incomplete combustion of fuel in a
30
low oxygen environment
20 CO
10
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Rich Air-Fuel Lean
Ratio
Engine lubrication regimes

CONFORMING SURFACES
• Hydrodynamic – moving surfaces completely
separated by a film of lubricant
– Piston rings, bearings
• Mixed – surfaces are still separated but asperities occasionally interact
– Piston rings, gears
• Boundary – surfaces come into closer contact, asperities start to break off,
intense localized heat begins to activate anti-wear additives in the lubricant
to form protective films
– Piston rings, gears
NON-CONFORMING SURFACES
• Elasto-hydrodynamic – rolling contact surfaces are
separated but undergo elastic deformation
– Valve train, cam and followers

Piston ring and cylinder lubrication mode
50% of engine friction is between

piston rings and liner
Piston ring action

Intake Stroke Compression and Exhaust
Strokes
Cylinder Scrapes surplus Ring rides on film of oil;
oil from walls absolute viscosity of
lubricant influences film
thickness
Enlarged view showing

how ring tips and
Piston presents lower edge to Cylinder wall
cylinder wall.

Piston ring action

Firing Stroke
Head
Fired fuel mix
Firing pressure pushes

ring down until entire
ring face engages
cylinder wall Piston
Cylinder
wall
Emissions

Emissions drives changes in

diesel engine hardware and oil quality
Federal On-Highway Emissions Legislation
0.60
Particulate emissions (g/bHp-hr)
1988
API CE
0.25
1991
API CF-4
0.10
2002 1998 1994
0.05 API CI-4/CI-4 Plus API CH-4 API CG-4
0.01
0.2 1.2 2.5 4.0 5.0 10.7

2010 2007
API CJ-4 API CJ-4 NOx emissions (g/bHp-hr)
• Ever tightening emissions regulations drives evolution of engine hardware
• Have achieved near zero exhaust emissions for Class 8 On-Highway vehicles
Off-Highway legislation trails on-highway by a

few years
Federal Off-Highway Emissions Regulations
HP 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
0-10 (7.8) / 0.75 (5.6) / 0.60

(5.6) / 0.30
11-24 (7.1) / 0.60 (5.6) / 0.60
15-48 (7.1) / 0.60 (5.6) / 0.45 (5.6) / 0.22 (3.5)/0.02

(3.5) / 0.02
49-74 (3.5) / 0.22 (3.5)/0.02

6.9 / --- (5.6) / 0.30
75-99 (3.5) / 0.30
(2.5) / 0.01 (0.30) / 0.01
100-173 6.9 / --- (4.9) / 0.22 (3.0) / 0.22
174-301 6.9 / 0.40 (4.9) / 0.15 (3.0) / 0.15
301-602 6.9 / 0.40 (4.8) / 0.15 (3.0) / 0.15 (1.5) / 0.01 (0.30) / 0.01
603-751 6.9 / 0.40 (4.8) / 0.15 (3.0) / 0.15

(2.6) / 0.07 (2.6) / 0.03
>751 6.9 / 0.40 4.8 / 0.15
(0.50) / 0.07* (0.50) / 0.02**
Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3 Tier 4 Interim Tier 4 Final NOx / PM, g/HP-hr (NOx + HC) / PM, g/HP-hr
*Applies to portable power generation > 1200hp **Applies to portable power generation > 751hp

Diesel combustion zones

Combustion Chamber Volume Identification Combustion Chamber Volume Distribution
Gasket Injector Valve
Object of future
Liner development
(zone of poor
air utilization)
Block
Piston Rings
@TDC
Head Gasket Crevice Volume Piston-to-head

Top Land Crevice Volume Clearance
Valve Recess Piston Bowl
Diesel combustion zones
2017 Volvo “Wave” Piston
• Higher compression ratio 16:1 17:1

• More complete fuel burn
• Flame propagation control
• Makes better use of Oxygen at center of
combustion chamber
Reprinted with Permission from Volvo Group Trucks Technology
Piston design changes to reduce emissions

Reduced Crevice Volume
Older Designs Newer Design
Caterpillar Cummins
Raised top ring
Reduced crownland clearance
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) for NOx control

• NOx are formed at high Turbocharger
combustion temperatures
EGR cooler
• Exhaust gas has a high
heat capacity Exhaust manifold
• EGR consequences
• reduces engine
efficiency
CAC
• increases soot
production
• EGR used to meet NOx

emission limits
• 2002 Light EGR EGR crossover pipe EGR valve Inlet manifold
(10-20%)
• 2007 Heavy EGR
(20-35%) EGR routed from exhaust manifold to intake manifold
© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012 NOTE: In use since 2002
Diesel particulate filter (DPF) reduces

exhaust soot
• Filter service is required to
remove ash build-up 90+% Efficiency
• Filter Regeneration
• Passive
• Active
• Organic matter is burned off Filter
leaving small amount of
incombustible ash
• As filter fills with soot Oxidation catalyst
back pressure builds Fuel

Injector
• Particulate matter ‘soot’ enters
the filter
© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012 NOTE: In use since 2007
Volvo compact DPF packaging on Volvo truck
2007‐2016
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NOx control

• Key Components
• Hot Exhaust gas
• Diesel Exhaust Fluid
• Catalyst
• DEF injected after DPF

• DEF vaporizes and
decomposes into Ammonia
• Ammonia + NOx
pass over catalyst and
form N2 and water vapor
• SCR - key advantage OEMs could

re-advance injection timing
NOTE: In use since 2010
SCR unit and DEF TANK packaging on

Volvo truck
2010‐2016
Next Generation Exhaust After treatment
• First major redesign of emission

after treatment system
• 1 box solution weighs

significantly less and takes up
less space
• New copper-zeolite coating

improves low temperature NOx
conversion for improved
emissions control
Mack CleartechTM one 2017+
• Mack – CleartechTM one
• Cummins – Single ModuleTM
Continuing hardware changes will affect future

formulations
Design change Resulted in change
Higher top rings Higher upper piston temperatures
Exhaust gas recirculation Higher oil temperatures
Increased BMEP Need for better oxidation stability
Higher fuel injector pressures Greater stress on oil in crankcase
Retarded timing Increased soot loading of oil
Lower oil consumption Less fresh make-up oil
Exhaust after treatment devices Chemical limits on oil formulation
Engine downsizing + Turbocharging + GDI Higher Oxidation, LSPI

Summary
• Internal combustion engines convert chemical energy into work
– 4 stroke process: Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust
• Modern gasoline and diesel engines have many common parts but differ in
ignition source, engine temperatures and pressures, plus combustion
chemistry, making the diesel lubricating environment more severe
• Heavy-duty diesel emissions requirements are having a significant impact

on engine design and lubricant formulation
• Engine oil has many responsibilities (bearings, ring & liner, valvetrain,
turbo, etc.) a balance of viscometric properties and additive chemistry is
required to provide satisfactory lubrication in all phases of engine operation
• Engine design and operating conditions are constantly evolving, placing

ever more stringent demands on the crankcase lubricant
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Performance you can rely on.

Engine design and operation

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

• What is an internal combustion engine

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

The internal combustion engine

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

What is an internal combustion engine?

The reciprocating internal combustion engine generates

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Four-stroke cycle engine

Four-stroke cycle engine

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Four-stroke cycle engine

Four-stroke cycle engine

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Gasoline and diesel combustion

Gasoline engine Diesel engine

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Main components of an internal

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Additional components of gasoline and

Spark plug Fuel injector

Typical gasoline Typical diesel

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Lower to Higher for

TDC BDC TDC BDC

Ratio of the volume of the combustion chamber and cylinder volume

Temperature distribution of diesel and

This image cannot currently be display ed.

Median distribution temperature of light alloy pistons. Shaded portions show

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Engine breathing systems

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Turbocharging and supercharging

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Different valve configurations

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Different valve configurations

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Different valve configurations

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Different valve configurations

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Hydraulic valve lifter

• The engine oil used as hydraulic fluid

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Variable valve timing (VVT)

Pressures in an engine cylinder

Degrees of Crankshaft Rotation and Piston Strokes

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Effect of air/fuel ratio on combustion

Stoichiometric Stoichiometric = 14.7 parts air to

NOx – caused by high in-cylinder

HC – unburned hydrocarbons (fuel)

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Engine lubrication regimes

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Piston ring and cylinder lubrication mode

50% of engine friction is between

© INFINEUM INTERNATIONAL LIMITED 2018. All Rights Reserved. 2018012

Piston ring action

Enlarged view showing