Simulation of the Tape-Laying

Process for Thermoplastic

Matrix Composites
M. NARNHOFER, R. SCHLEDJEWSKI
Chair of Processing Composites, Department of Polymer Engineering and Science, Montanuniversität
Leoben, Otto Glöckel-Straße 2, Austria

P. MITSCHANG
Institut für Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Erwin Schrödinger Straße 58, Kaiserslautern, Germany

L. PERKO
Chair of Injection Moulding of Polymers, Department of Polymer Engineering and Science,
Montanuniversität Leoben, Otto-Glöckel-Straße 2, Austria
Received: October 14, 2011
Accepted: July 23, 2012

ABSTRACT: The paper presents an overview of the tape-laying process for

thermoplastic matrix composites and the current state-of-the-art simulation of
this process. As the current mathematical description of the process is partly
based on a Newtonian shear flow and thermoplastics normally show a shear
thinning behavior at higher shear rates, the assumption of a Newtonian shear
flow has been verified. Therefore, the occurring shear rates have been calculated
and compared with the data of a viscosity plot for a polyether ether ketone
material. As a result of this analysis, the assumption of Newtonian shear flow is
shown to be an oversimplification.  C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Adv Polym

Techn 32: E705–E713, 2013; View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI
10.1002/adv.21312

This paper was partially presented at Theplac2011, June 23–24,

2011, Lecce, Italy.
Correspondence to: M. Narnhofer; e-mail: matthias.narnhofer@
unileoben.ac.at.

Advances in Polymer Technology, Vol. 32, No. S1, E705–E713 (2013)


C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING

KEY WORDS: Composites, Simulations, Tape laying, Thermoplastic, Viscosity

Introduction

T he increasing amount of fiber-reinforced plas-

tics used in the aerospace industry raised the
demand for automatic manufacturing processes for
large-scale shells. First concepts of automated tape-
laying machines were developed in the 1960s. These
machines enabled the placement of unidirectional
fiber-reinforced tapes at distinct positions with spe-
cific orientations. This characteristic is the key to ex-
treme structural lightweight composite parts.1
Besides the well-known advantages of a thermo-
plastic matrix such as enhanced fracture toughness,
the opportunity to thermoform the manufactured
part, and easier recyclability compared to thermoset-
ting resins, it is the possibility of an in situ consol-
idation that makes these matrix material class very
attractive. In situ consolidation means that the bond-
ing of the tapes is done online, so that no consecu-
tive process (e.g., autoclave) for full consolidation is
required.2
For the manufacturing of high-quality parts by
means of an automated tape-laying process with in
situ consolidation, a good understanding of the pro-
cess is inevitable. A reliable process simulation is a
good tool to build up this knowledge, because it al-
lows an easy parameter study, to gain data that are
impossible or very difficult and time consuming to
obtain through an experiment.
Fundamentals/State of the Art
THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF
THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING PROCESS
WITH IN SITU CONSOLIDATION
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the fully consolidated
tape, which comes from the spool through the feed
and guiding system, is heated up. The heating
source (e.g., H2 /O2 flame, hot gas torches, laser, and
infrared2–6 ) has to ensure that the thermoplastic ma-
trix of the tape is completely melted by the time
it touches the laminate or tool. It also has to melt
the laminate. The contact between laminate/tool
and tape is established under the compaction roller,
FIGURE 1. Sketch of the basic principle of the
tape-laying process.
which applies a certain compaction force on the line
of contact. Finally, under the roller, the cooling of
the laminate initiates.7 Thus, the thermoplastic tape-
laying process is defined by three physical steps:
1. the heating step,
2. the consolidation step, and
3. the solidification step.
During the heating step, the material is heated
up to a temperature above the thermoplastic matrix
melting temperature. Afterward, the consolidation
step follows. In this step, the contact between the
joining partners is established and the tape is welded
to the laminate under pressure. Finally, in the solid-
ification step the material is cooled down below the
glass temperature. This is also the step where, in the
case of a semicrystalline thermoplastic matrix mate-
rial, most of the crystallization occurs. These steps
are illustrated in Fig. 2. This paper will focus on the
consolidation step.
As shown in Fig. 3, the consolidation consists
of two steps. The first step is to establish an in-
timate contact between the laminate and the tape.
This means that ideally all surface asperities are flat-
tened down so that the contact develops over the
full surface. A good contact is important because
bonding can only occur in contact areas. After estab-
lishing contact, the second step, the polymer healing
process, initiates. As the polymer chains are ther-
mally activated, they can easily move across the in-
terface and build new entanglements. The interface
vanishes.

E706 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING

by Ranganathan et al.9 and is given in Eq. (2):

  h 
∂ρ ∗ ∂ ∗ ∂p z ξ
h + ρ vx(0) + dξ
∂t ∂x 0 ∂x 0 μ
 z  
ξ ∂h
+ C1(x) dξ dz + ρ ∗ =0 (2)
0 μ ∂t

where h (m) is the tape thickness, ρ ∗ (dimension-

FIGURE 2. Process steps of thermoplastic matrix
composite manufacturing.
FIGURE 3. Steps of the consolidation phase.
less) is the ratio between the continuum density and
the composite with no voids, x (m) is the position
in tape width direction, vx(0) (m/s) is the velocity
in the width direction at the bottom of the tape, p
(Pa) denotes the pressure, z (m) is the position in
the traverse direction, ξ (m) is a dummy integration
variable, μ (Pa s) is the transverse shear viscosity,
C1(x) (Pa/m) is a integration constant that may be
obtained from a velocity boundary condition, and
t denotes the time (s).
Several models10–14 were developed to study the
intimate contact problem. It was first described by
Dara and Loos,10 assuming that the surface asperi-
ties are flattened through shear flow. All others are
based on this model, mainly varying the description
of the surface. The latest model was proposed by
Yang and Pitchumani.13,14 Their model, based on a
fractal description of the tape surface, is presented
in Eq. (3):

     15
5 h 0 2 f 2−D +n−4 t p
2·n·D
SIMULATION OF THE HEATING AND (n) 1
Dic(t) = n dt + 1
CONSOLIDATION STEPS f 4 L0 ( f + 1)2 tn+1 μ
For the simulation, each part of the process has (3)
(n)
to be described with an appropriate mathematical where Dic(t) (dimensionless)] is the degree of intim-
model. In the following section, the most recently de- idate contact, f is the scaling ratio between two ad-
veloped models are presented. A heat transfer model jacent generations of asperities in the fractal Cantor
must be used to simulate the first step. This can be set, h 0 (m) denotes the recess depth of the first gener-
done with the first law of thermodynamics as shown ation asperities, L 0 (m) is the total horizontal length
in Eq. (1): of the Cantor set block, D (dimensionless) is the frac-
tal dimension of rough surfaces, and n is the number
  of the asperity generation (dimensionless).
∂T
∇ (k∇T) + q̇ = ρC + ρCv ∂ T (1) Yang and Pitchumani also developed a model for
∂t
the nonisothermal polymer healing process as given
in Eq. (4)15 :
where k (W/m K) is the thermal conductivity vector,
T (K) denotes the temperature, ρ (kg/m3 ) is the den-  t  14
1
sity, q̇ (W/m3 )] is the energy absorbed during melt- Dh = (4)
ing or released during crystallization, C (J/kg K) is 0 tw(T)
the specific heat capacity at constant volume, and
v (m/s) is the velocity vector.8 where Dh is the degree of polymer healing and tw(T)
The next model describes the pressure field under (s) is the welding time depending on the temper-
the roller. An equation for this problem, based on ature. The welding time is strongly related to the
Newtonian transversal shear flow, was developed reptation time of the polymer.15

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv E707

PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING

FUNDAMENTALS CONCERNING THE MELT portional to the shear rate. In most cases, they show a
SHEAR VISCOSITY OF POLYMERS AND shear thinning behavior, which means that when the
THEIR APPLICATION TO THE shear rate reaches a certain value the viscosity starts
TRANSVERSAL SHEAR VISCOSITY to decrease with increasing of the shear rate. Shear
thinning can also be explained with increased chain
Besides such factors molecular weight, the con-
movability, but in this case the movability comes
tent of filler material, and plasticizers, which are
from the opening of entanglements. This explana-
fixed for a given polymeric melt, the viscosity of
tion, however, is not in full accordance with the ob-
a polymeric melt is mainly influenced by the tem-
servations, because particle-filled polymer melts of-
perature, shear rate, and pressure.16
ten show no Newtonian behavior at all.16 Menges16
The change in the viscosity triggered by an in-
proposes that this mismatch results from an in-
crease or a decrease in the melt temperature is based
creased effective shear rate in the melt between the
on a variation of the movability of the polymer
particles because of the volume displacement. This
chains. Near the glass transition temperature, where
would mean that the Newtonian range of the shear
amorphous materials are processed, this movability
rate is below the measured shear rate range. A good
is determined by the free volume between the chains.
description of the full viscosity plot can be done with
This process can be described with the help of the
the Carreau–Model as given in Eq. (7)16
WLF (William–Landell–Ferry) equation, as given in
Eq. (5)17 : A
η= (7)
  [1 + (B γ̇ )]C
−c 1 (T1 − T0 )
ηT1 = ηT0 a T = ηT0 exp . (5)
c 2 + (T1 − T0 ) where η is the viscosity (Pa s) at a certain shear
rate γ̇ (s−1 ), A (Pa s) is the zero shear viscosity, B
where ηT1 (Pa s) is the viscosity at the temperature (s) denotes the inverse transition shear rate, and c
T1 (K), ηT0 (Pa s) is the viscosity at the reference tem- (dimensionless) is the slope of the viscosity plot in
perature T0 (K), a T is the temperature shift factor (di- the shear thinning region.
mensionless), and the two parameters c 1 (dimen- Figure 4 shows the viscosity plot for a Victrex®
sionless) and c 2 (K) are material parameters. c 1 and PEEK (polyether ether ketone) 150PF at different
c 2 depend on the reference temperature. In case the melt temperatures. It can be seen that at least at
reference temperature is chosen as the glass transi- shear rates above 10 s−1 the shear thinning becomes
tion temperature, these parameters are nearly inde- relevant.
pendent of the material.17 Shuler and Advani19 have investigated the
If the melt temperature is far above the glass tran- transversal viscosity depending on the shear rate for
sition temperature, the movability is limited by en- a PEEK/AS4 tape laminate. As a viscosity model for
ergy barriers (e.g., the rotational potentials of parts
of the polymer chains). These can be overcome by
thermal activation. A good description for this pro-
cess is given by the Arrhenius equation, as shown in
Eq. (6)
  
E 1 1
ηT1 = ηT0 a T = ηT0 exp − . (6)
R T1 T0

where E is the activation energy (J/mol) and R =

8, 3144621 (J/mol K) is the universal gas constant.
For the transversal viscosity of a thermoplastic tape,
Mantell and Springer12 and Khan7 also report an
Arrhenius-type dependency on the temperature. It is
the only dependency of the viscosity that is currently
considered for the simulation of the tape placement
FIGURE 4. Viscosity plot for Victrex® PEEK 150PF at
process.12–14,18 different temperatures measured with a parallel plate
Polymeric melts show a non-Newtonian flow be- rheometer. This diagram was plotted by the authors,
havior, which means that the shear stress is not pro- using data from Khan.7

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 PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING
their measurements, they used a modified Carreau
model (Eq. 8):
n−1
2 could be an interesting topic for further investiga-
η = η0 1 + (λγ̇ )2
where η0 (Pa s) is the zero shear viscosity, λ (s) is
the inverse transition shear rate, and n (dimension-
less) is the slope of the viscosity plot in the shear
thinning region. They found a clear dependency
of the transversal shear viscosity to the shear rate.
They also report the transition between Newtonian
and the shear thinning behaviors at a shear rate at
2 × 10−2 s−1 . This is quite interesting because it
is three orders of magnitude lower than the value
found by Khan7 for the pure PEEK and, there-
fore, supports the suggestion of Menges16 presented
above.
Pressure influences on the viscosity are reported
to be based on the compressibility of the melt. The
compressibility of the melt results in two effects:
1. It decreases the free volume between the poly-
mer chains and increases the secondary va-
lence bonds when the pressure is increased.
2. It reduces the available volume for the chain
movement.20
For most of the polymers, the pressure depen-
dency of the viscosity can be described with the
Barus equation (Eq. 9)
η p1 = η p0 a p = η p0 exp (β ( p1 − p0 ))
where η p1 (Pa s) is the viscosity at the pressure p1
(Pa), η p0 (Pa s) is the viscosity at the reference pres-
sure p0 (Pa), a p (dimensionless) denotes the pressure
shift factor, and β (Pa−1 ) reports the pressure coeffi-
cient. This coefficient is reported to have values for
polymeric melts of about 10 × 10−9 to 50 × 10−9
Pa−1 .21
Presently, the authors are not aware of inves-
tigations that deal with the pressure influence on
the transversal shear viscosity. Despite the fact that
Tierney and Gillespie18 reported pressures up to
200 MPa, which would result in a quite high impact
on the pressure to the viscosity for normal polymer
melts, there are doubts whether this influence is re-
ally relevant for fiber-reinforced tapes, because the
amount of the pressure on the matrix is not clear. The
problem for this quantification is, that, as it reported
by Schledjewski,22 the fibers in the tape sometimes
lie directly on other fibers and build “fiber bridges.”
Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv
Through these “fiber bridges,” the pressure is di-
rectly supported by the substrate, which makes the
pressure distribution in the tape quite complex. This
(8)
tions and is not further discussed here.
CALCULATION OF THE WALL SHEAR
RATES UNDER THE COMPACTION ROLLER
The models of Ranganathan, Dara and Loos, and
Yang and Pitchumani are all based on the assump-
tion of a Newtonian shear flow. It is broadly known
that polymers show a shear thinning behavior. Thus
this assumption can only be valid if the shear rates
are lower than the transition shear rate. As it may
be seen in the preceding section, the transition shear
rate is very low; therefore, a verification of the as-
sumption of Newtonian behavior is necessary. This
is described in the following section. The geometry
and flow situation of the tape-laying process is illus-
trated in Fig. 5.
Assuming incompressibility and neglecting a
flow in the z direction, the cross-sectional area re-
mains constant, thus
h 2 b2 = h 1 b1 (10)
where h 1 (m) and b 1 (m) are the thickness and the
width of the tape before the compaction, respec-
tively, and h 2 (m) and b 2 (m) denote the tape thick-
ness and width after compaction, respectively.
The thickness difference d (m) can be calculated
(9) from Eq. (11)
d = h1 − h2 (11)
Incorporation of Eq. (10) into Eq. (11) leads to
   
b1 b1
d = h1 − h1 = h1 1 − (12)
b2 b2
The warp angle can be calculated from Eq. (13)
   
r −d d
β1 = arccos = arccos 1 − (13)
r r
where β1 (deg) is the warp angle and r (m) is the
radius of the compaction roller.
The thickness depending on the angle can be es-
timated with Eq. (14):
h (β) = h 1 − (r − r cos (β)) = h 1 − r (1 − cos (β))
(14)
E709
PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING

FIGURE 5. Front and side view of the geometry and flow situation of the tape-laying process. The compaction roller
rolls to the left side and deforms the incoming tape from the cross section b1 × h1 to the cross section b2 × h2 . As the
mass is conserved, every material that is pressed down has to move to the sides of the tape. This is illustrated with the
volume flow rates V̇ x and V̇ y (m3 /s).

with Mass conservation gives

 
β1 ≥ β ≥ 0 (15) V̇ y(β) v sin(β)b 1 h1
h 1 −r (1−cos (β))
dz
V̇ x(β) = = (19)
2 2
where β (deg) is the angle that defines the com-
paction progress and β = β1 indicates the beginning where V̇ x(β) (m3 /s) represents the volumetric flow
of the compaction, and β = 0 indicates that the com- rate in the x direction.
paction process is completed. Finally, h (β) (m) de- The average velocity in the x direction for an in-
notes the tape thickness at a specific angle β. finitely small element dz depending on the angle can
Combining Eqs. (10) and (14) gives be calculated with Eq. (20):
 
h1 
b (β) = b 1 (16) v sin (β) b 1 dz h1
h 1 − r (1 − cos (β)) V̇ x(β) h 1 −r (1−cos(β))
v̄x(β) = =
h (β) dz 2 · (h 1 − r (1 − cos (β))) dz
where b (β) (m) is the tape width at a defined angle.
v sin (β) b 1 h 1
The compaction velocity v y(β) is given by Eq. (17) = (20)
2 (h 1 − r (1 − cos (β)))2
v y(β) = v sin (β) (17)
where v̄x(β) (m/s) is the average velocity in the x
where v y(β) (m/s) is the velocity in the y direction, direction depending on the angle.
which is the relevant velocity for the compaction, From trigonometric functions, Eq. (21) follows:
and v is the process velocity (m/s). z
The compaction volumetric flow rate V̇ y(β) (m3 /s) β = arcsin (21)
in an infinitely small element dz (m) can be calcu- r
lated with Eq. (18)
Through substitution of Eq. (21) into Eq. (20), we
obtain
V̇ y(β) = v y(β) b (β) dz
  v rz b 1 h 1
h1 v̄x(z) =     2 (22)
= v sin (β)·b 1 · dz (18)
h 1 − r (1− cos (β)) 2 · h 1 − r 1 − cos arcsin rz

E710 Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv

 PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING

Differentiation of Eq. (22) leads to a formulation

of for the shear rate γ̇¯ xz(β) in the x–z plane (s−1 ) at
the y position where the average velocity is v̄x(β) .

dv̄x(z)
γ̇¯ xz(z) =
dz

vb 1 h 1 z2
=    3
 z 2  2
r2 1 − r
h1 + r 1 − rz − 1

vb 1 h 1
+   2 (23)
 z 2
2r h 1 + r 1− r −1
FIGURE 6. Change in tape width depending on the gas
volume used for a 11.88 mm wide PEEK/AS4-tape. This
diagram was plotted by the authors, using data from
with
Khan.7

cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) = 1 (24)
and resubstitution of Eq. (21) results
vb 1 h 1 sin (β) tan (β)
γ̇¯ xz(β) =
(h 1 + r (cos (β) − 1))3
vb 1 h 1
+ (25)
2r (h 1 + r (cos (β) − 1))2
In the x–y plane, the shear rate depends on the
assumption of the degree of adhesion of the tape to
the substrate and the compaction roller. Assuming
no adhesion (totally slipping), no shearing occurs
and the shear rate γ̇xy(y,β) (s−1 ) in the x–y plane is
zero. The other extreme value is full adhesion. For a
Newtonian fluid, the wall shear rates (the shear rate
that occurs directly at the interface between tape and
substrate/compaction roller, they are the maximum
occurring shear rates) in a slit die with full adhesion
can be calculated from Eq. (26)12 :
where γ̇Wxy(β) (s−1 ) is the wall shear rate in the x–y
plane depending on the angle.
Khan has measured the tape width change
for an 11.88-mm wide and 0.14-mm thick PEEK-
150PF/AS4-tape depending on the gas volume for
different process velocities.7 This was measured
with a roller of 50-mm diameter and a compaction
force of 150 N. The results are shown in Fig. 6.
Assuming a gas volume of 12 L/min, the warp
angles for each process velocity can be calculated
with Eq. (13). By using Eq. (25), the shear rates in the
x–z plane γ̇¯ xz(β) can be quantified. The results are
shown in Fig. 7.
Figure 7 shows that average values between 80
and 280 s−1 were obtained for the shear rate in
the x–z plane. For these shear rates, Fig. 4 shows

6V̇
γ̇W = (26)
HS2 Bs

where γ̇W (s−1 ) is the wall shear rate, V̇ (m3 /s) is the
volumetric flow rate, and HS (m) and Bs (m) are the
slit height and width, respectively.
Equation (21) applied to the infinitely small ele-
ment dz results in
FIGURE 7. Shear rates in the tape (b1 = 11.88 mm,
6V̇ x(β) 3v sin (β) b 1 h 1 d1 = 0.14 mm) under the compaction roller (r = 25 mm)
γ̇Wxy(β) = 2 = (27)
h (β) dz (h 1 − r (1 − cos (β)))3 for different processing speeds depending on the angle.

Advances in Polymer Technology DOI 10.1002/adv E711

PROCESS SIMULATION FOR THERMOPLASTIC TAPE-LAYING
FIGURE 8. Wall shear rates (x–y plane) in the tape
(b1 = 11.88 mm, d1 = 0.14 mm) under the compaction
roller (r = 25 mm) for different processing speeds
depending on the angle under assumption of full
adhesion.
about 40%–60% lower matrix viscosity compared to
the zero shear viscosity. As explained before, these
shear rates are average values and the maximum
shear rates will be definitely much higher. Thus,
even if it is assumed that no adhesion to the sub-
strate and the compaction roller occurs (this means
no shearing in the x–y plane), shear thinning is im-
portant to consider. In the case of assuming full ad-
hesion to the substrate and the compaction roller,
the wall shear rates can be calculated from Eq. (27).
The results for each compaction state are shown in
Fig. 8.
As Fig. 8 shows, in the case of full adhesion, the
wall shear rates under the roller have values up to
2500 s−1 . This means, in the case of a linear extrapola-
tion, a reduction of the viscosity (see Fig. 4) of about
80%. Shuler and Advani.19 report for η0 a value of
2.5 Mpa s, for n a value of 50 s, and for n a value
of 0.65 at a temperature of 370◦ C. Thus, using these
values and the calculated shear rates in their Carreau
model leads to viscosity decreases of about 94%–96%
for the x–z plane. In the case of wall adhesion, this
results in viscosity decreases up to 98%. Although
these values for the shear rate decreases have to be
used with caution, because Shuler and Advani19 did
not use the exactly same material as Khan7 and it is
an extrapolation over two orders of magnitude; they
support the viscosity decreases found with the vis-
cosity plot of the pure matrix material. This leads to
another problem, as the shear rate distribution and
the viscosity under the compaction roller is no longer
a single value but an entire distribution. Generally,
it can be said that assuming a Newtonian shear flow
E712
instead of a shear thinning behavior leads to an un-
derestimation of the velocities and an overestima-
tion of the pressure.
Conclusions
Currently, the state of the art in simulating the
tape-laying process for thermoplastic matrix com-
posites is based on a Newtonian viscous shear flow.
As it is broadly known that thermoplastics show a
shear thinning behavior at higher shear rates, the
assumption of a Newtonian shear flow can only be
true if the shear rates are very low. For PEEK, the
shear thinning becomes relevant at shear rates above
10 s−1 . The calculations presented in this paper show
that the real shear rates range between 80 and 280 s−1
in the x–z plane. In the x–y plane, they are zero in
the case of no adhesion to the substrate and the com-
paction roller and in the case of full adhesion they
are up to 2500 s−1 . For the PEEK material, these shear
rates signify a reduction of at least 40% in the vis-
cosity. This result is also supported by the results
of Shuler and Advani.19 Thus, the assumption of a
Newtonian shear flow can be seen as an oversimplifi-
cation. As a result, the occurring velocities will be un-
derestimated and the pressures overestimated. The
next step in developing a reliable process simulation
of the tape-laying process with thermoplastic matrix
composites will be further research on the flow be-
havior of the tape at processing conditions. This is
important because it is expected to have significant
influence on the occurring velocities and pressures
and therefore also on the degree of intimate contact.
Furthermore, new models for the simulation have
to be designed. These models have to be tested and
compared to experimental results, as well as to the
traditional simulation models, to gain knowledge of
the influence of the flow behavior on the welding
quality of the tape-placement process.
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