The Limit of a Function

Let us define the open neighborhood of a point x ∈  to be an open interval

containing the point x . The ε -neighborhood about x ∈  let us define to be the

open interval ( x − ε , x + ε ) .

Definition 1. We say that a is a limit point of a set S ⊂  if every neighborhood of

a contains infinitely many points from S .

This condition is obviously equivalent to the assertion that every neighborhood of

a limit point a contains at least one point of S different from a itself. (Verify this

statement!)

We now give some examples.

If S  | n ∈   , then the only limit point of S is 0 ∈  .

1
Example 1. =
n 

Example 2. For an open interval (a, b) every point of the closed interval [a, b] is a

limit point, and there are no others.

Example 3. For the set  of all rational numbers every point of  is a limit point,

for as we know, every open interval of the real numbers contains rational numbers.

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Theorem 2. (Bolzano-Weierstrass 1). Every bounded infinite set of real numbers

has at least one limit point.

Definition 3 (Cauchy 2). Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the

domain D ⊂  . We say that the limit of the function f when x tends to a is the

number L , if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that | f ( x ) − L |< ε for every

x∈D such that 0 <| x − a |< δ .

Geometrically this concept is expressed in figure 1.

Figure 1.

If L is the limit of a function f when x tends to the point a , we express this fact
by the writing lim f ( x ) = L .
x →a

1
B. Bolzano (1781-1848) - Czech mathematician and philosopher.
K. Weierstrass (1815-1897) - German mathematician who devoted a great deal of attention to the logical
foundations of mathematical analysis.
2
Baron Augustin-Louis Cauchy (21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857) was a French mathematician
and physicist who made pioneering contributions to analysis.

2
A deleted neighborhood of a point a (sometimes called a

punctured neighborhood) is a neighborhood of a , without a . So, 0 <| x − a |< δ

defines the punctured neighborhood of the point a . This neighborhood further we


will denote by U δ (a ) .

Thus, we can reformulate the limit of a function using the notion of the deleted

neighborhood.

Definition 4. Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the domain

D ⊂. We say that the limit of the function f when x tends to a is the number L ,

if for every ε neighborhood of L there is a deleted neighborhood of a in D whose

image under the mapping f : D →  is contained in the given ε neighborhood of L.

(see Figure 1.)

x2 − 1
Example 4. lim =2.
x →1 x −1
Proof. Let us choose arbitrarily ε > 0 number and fix. If x ≠ 1 , then
x2 − 1
f ( x )= = x +1.
x −1
Then inequality | f ( x ) − 2 |< ε is equivalent to the inequality | x − 1 |< ε . It’s clear that
if we take δ ≤ ε then
0 <| x − 1 |< δ ⇒ | f ( x ) − 2 |< ε .
▄

There is a close connection between the concept of the limit of a sequence studied

in the preceding lectures and the limit of an arbitrary numerical valued function

expressed by the following theorem.

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This theorem is sometimes called the statement of the equivalence of the Cauchy

definition of a limit (in terms of neighborhoods) and the Heine3 definition (in terms

of sequences).

Definition 5. (E . Heine ). Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the

domain D ⊂  . We say that the limit of the function f when x tends to a is the

number L , and write lim f ( x ) = L if, for every sequence ( an )n≥1 of points from D \{a}
x →a

converging to a , the sequence ( f ( an ) )n≥1 converges to L .

Theorem 3. Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the domain

D ⊂. Then lim f ( x ) = L holds according to Cauchy if and only if for every
x →a

sequence ( an )n≥1 of points from D \{a} converging to a , the sequence ( f (a ))

n n ≥1

converges to L . In other words to say the Definition 3 and the Definition 5 are

equivalent definitions.

Proof. Let us prove the necessary part of this theorem: If lim f ( x ) = L holds
x →a

according to Cauchy, then for every sequence ( an )n≥1 of points from D \{a}

converging to a , the sequence ( f ( an ) )n≥1 converges to L.

From the Definition 3 of limit for any ε > 0 , there exists δ > 0 such that

x ∈ D ∩ U δ ( a ) ⇒ f ( x ) − L < ε . Because lim an = a there exists the natural number N
n →∞

3
E . Heine (1821-1881) - German mathematician.

4
 
such that 0 < an − a < δ if n > N . But then an ∈ D ∩ U δ (a) ⇒ f (an ) − L < ε and

therefore the sequence ( f ( an ) )n≥1 converges to L in the sense of Heine.

Sufficiency. If for every sequence ( an )n≥1 of points from D \{a} converging to a , the

sequence ( f ( an ) )n≥1 converges to L , then lim f ( x) = L according to Cauchy.

x→a

Let us prove this statement by the method of contradiction. If lim f ( x ) ≠ L

x →a

according to Cauchy, then there exists a ε neighborhood Vε ( L) of a point L , such


that for any n ∈  , there is a point an in the deleted U (a ) -neighborhood of a in D ,
1
n

such that f (an ) ∉Vε ( L) . But this means that the sequence ( an )n≥1 tends to a ( lim an = a
n →∞

) but the sequence ( f ( a ) ) does not converge to L . This contradiction to the

n n ≥1

assumption proves that lim f ( x) = L .

x→a

Theorem 4. Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the domain

D ⊂  . If lim f ( x ) exists, then it is unique.

x →a

Proof.

We will prove this statement by the method of contradiction. Let us assume that

there exist two limits for the function f at a point a . lim f ( x ) = A1 and lim f ( x ) = A2 ,
x →a x →a

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 A1 − A2
where A1 ≠ A2 . Let us take ε = the positive number. Then by definition of
2


limit, we find numbers δ1 and δ 2 such that f ( x ) ∈ ( A1 − ε ; A1 + ε ) if x ∈ U δ (a ) and 1


f ( x ) ∈ ( A2 − ε ; A2 + ε ) if x ∈ U δ 2 ( a ) . But then for δ = min{δ1 , δ 2 } we have


f ( x ) ∈ ( A1 − ε ; A1 + ε ) ∩ ( A2 − ε ; A2 + ε ) =
∅ if x ∈ U δ ( a ) . But this is impossible, that

means the assumption A1 ≠ A2 is wrong, so A1 = A2 .

Limit of function and the Arithmetic Operations

Theorem 5. Let f : D →  and g : D →  are two functions and a is the limit point

for D . Then If lim f ( x ) = A , lim g ( x ) = B , then

x →a x →a

a) lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x ) ) =
A+ B;
x →a

b) lim ( f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) ) =
A⋅ B ;
x →a

 f ( x)  A
c) lim   = , if g ( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ D and B ≠ 0 .
x →a
 g ( x)  B

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Theorem 5 is an immediate consequence of the corresponding theorem on limits of

sequences.

Limit of function and Inequalities

Theorem 6.
a) Let f : D →  and g : D →  are two functions and a is the limit point for D .

If lim f ( x ) = A , lim g ( x ) = B and A < B then there exists a deleted U δ (a)
x →a x →a

neighborhood of a in D at each point of which f ( x)  g( x) .

b) (Squeeze property) Let f : D → , g:D→ and h : D →  are three

functions, a is the limit point for D , and f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x ) hold for all x

=
from a small neighborhood of a . Then if lim =
f ( x ) lim h( x ) A there exists
x →a x →a

also lim g ( x ) and lim g ( x ) = A .

x →a x →a

(See Figure 2.)

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 Proof.
a) Choose a number C such that A < C < B. By definition of limit, we can
 
find deleted neighborhoods U ′ (a ) and U ′′ (a ) of a in D such that

 
f ( x ) − A < C − A for x ∈ U ′ ( a ) and g ( x ) − B < B − C for x ∈ U ′′ ( a ) . Then at any

point of a deleted neighborhood U (a ) ⊂  U ′ (a ) ∩ U ′′ (a )  , we find

  

 

f ( x) < A + C − A = C = B − ( B − C ) < g ( x) .

=
b) If lim =
f ( x ) lim h( x ) A , then for any fixed ε > 0 there exist deleted
x →a x →a

  
neighborhoods U ′ (a ) and U ′′ (a ) of a in D such that A − ε < f ( x ) for x ∈ U ′ (a )


and h( x ) < A + ε for x ∈ U ′′ (a ) . Then at any point of a deleted neighborhood

U ( a ) ⊂  U ′ ( a ) ∩ U ′′ ( a )  , we have A − ε < f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x ) < A + ε . That is

  

 

A − ε < g ( x ) < A + ε , and consequently

lim g ( x ) = A .
x →a

One-Sided Limits

Definition 6. Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the domain

D ⊂.

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 1) We say that the limit from the left or the left-hand limit of f exists at the

point a and is the number L , if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − L |< ε for every x ∈ D such that a − δ < x < a. This fact we denote by

lim f ( x ) = L .
x →a −

2) We say that the limit from the right or the right-hand limit of f exists at the

point a and is the number R , if for every ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

| f ( x ) − R |< ε for every x ∈ D such that a < x < a + δ . This fact we denote by

lim f ( x ) = R .
x →a +

Theorem 7. Let f : D →  be a function and a be a limit point of the domain

D ⊂. Than limit of f at point a exists if and only if the limit from the left

and the limit from the right of f at point a exists and are equal.

i.e. lim f ( x ) =
A ⇔ lim f ( x ) = A.
lim f ( x ) =
x →a x →a − x →a +

Prove it!

 − x 2 + 6, 0 ≤ x < 2
Example 5. Examine a limit of the function f ( x ) =  at point 2.
 x − 1, 2≤ x≤4

9
 Figure 3.

Solution. lim f ( x ) = 2 and lim f ( x ) = 1 . Because the one-sided limits are different
x →2− x →2+

numbers then limit of f at point 2 does not exist.

Limits at Infinity

Definition 7.

1) Let f : ( a; + ∞ ) →  is a function. We say that the limit of f when x

approaches to infinity exist and, is number L , if for every ε > 0 there exists

a real number M ε ∈  such that | f ( x ) − L |< ε for every x > M ε . This fact we

denote by lim f ( x ) = L .
x →+∞

2) Let f : ( −∞; a ) →  is a function. We say that the limit of f when x

approaches to minus infinity exist, and is number Q , if for every ε > 0 there

exists a real number mε ∈  such that | f ( x ) − Q |< ε for every x < mε . This fact

we denote by lim f ( x ) = Q .
x →−∞

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Recall that the symbol ∞ , called infinity, does not represent a real number. We can

not use ∞ in arithmetic in the usual way, but we can use the phrase "approaches ∞

" to mean "becomes arbitrarily large positive" and the phrase "approaches - ∞ " to

mean "becomes arbitrarily small negative."

1 1
Example 6. lim = 0 and lim = 0 .
x →−∞ x x →+∞ x

Figure 4.

In the case when lim f ( x ) = L or lim f ( x ) = Q we say that the function has the
x →+∞ x →−∞

horizontal asymptote/s and they are given by equation/s y = L and y = Q .

Infinite Limits

A function whose values grow arbitrarily large can sometimes be said to have an

infinite limit. Since infinity is not a number, infinite limits are not really limits at

all, but they provide a way of describing the behavior of functions that grow

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arbitrarily large positive or negative. A few examples will make the terminology

clear.

1
Example 7. Describe the behavior of the function f ( x ) = near the point x = 0.
x2
Solution. As x approaches 0 from either side, the values of f ( x ) are positive and

grow larger and larger (see Figure 5), so the limit of f ( x ) as x approaches 0 does

not exist. It is nevertheless convenient to describe the behavior of f near 0 by

1
saying that f ( x ) approaches ∞ as x approaches zero. We write lim = ∞.
x →0 x2

Figure 5.

Observe how the graph of f approaches the y-axis as x approaches 0. The y-axis is

a vertical asymptote of the graph.

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