NEUROTRANSMITTERS

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that transmit messages or impulses

from neuron to another neuron, glandular cell or muscle cell. It is used to send
signals from one part of the body to another
A neurotransmitter can either be:
1. Excitatory neurotransmitters – trigger depolarisation, increasing the
likelihood of a response
2. Inhibitory neurotransmitters – trigger hyperpolarisation, decreasing the
likelihood of a response
EXAMPLES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

STRUCTUR NEUROTRANSMI MECHANISM PHYSIOLOGIC Chemical structure

AL TTER OF ACTION EFFECTS
CATEGORY
AMINO GABA (Gamma inhibitory Inhibits neuron firing
ACID amino butyric in the CNS wherein
acid) high levels improve
focus while low
levels cause anxiety
C4H9NO2
Glutamate excitatory Regulates
develipment and
creation of new
nerve pathways, this
involved in learning
and memory
C5H9NO4
MONOAMIN Dopamine Generally Controls complex
E excitatory; movements,
may be motivation,
inhibitory at cognition; regulates
some sites emotional response
C8H11NO2
Epinephrine excitatory Regulates heart rate
and sympathetic
nervous system that
is responble for the
body’s fight or flight
response.
C₉H₁₃NO₃
Histamine neuromodul Alertness, control of
ator gastric sections,
cardiac stimulation,
peripheral allergic
 response
C5H9N3
Norepinephrine Excitatory or Increases heart rate
inhibitory and blood pressure,
and triggers the
release of gluose
from energy stores

C8H11NO3
Serotonin inhibitory Regulate appetite
and digestion, sleep
and wakefulness,
temeprature and
regulation, sexual
behaviors,
regulation of
motions
C₁₀H₁₂N₂O
PEPTIDE Endorphin inhibitory Reduce pain and Tyrosine-gly-gly-phenyl-
boost pleasure, methionine-cooh
resulting in a feeling C158H251N39O46S
of well-being
OTHER acetylcholine Excitatory to Contracts smooth
MOLECULE vertebrate muscles, dilates
S skeletal blood vessels
muscles; (vasodilation),
excitatory or
inhibitoy at
increases bodily
secretions and slows
C7NH16O2+
other sites heart rates

THE ROLE OF INSULIN AND GLUCAGON IN METABOLISM

The beta cells and alpha cells of the pancreas takes a big role in metabolism as it
produces insulin and glucagon respectively. As the blood glucose levels rise, beta
cells also increases the release of insulin. This is because insulin is the one
responsible for lowering the blood glucose level as it allows the glucose to enter the
cell and eventually be converted as an energy source. This hormone also stimulates
the liver to convert glucose to glycogen to be stored for later use. for To avoid
hyperglycemia from happening, beta cells continuosly releseases insulin through a
negative feedback loop. However, continually releasing insulin could also result to
hypoglycemia, and that is why the hormone glucagon exists. Glucagon raises the
blood glucose levels by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in
skeletal msucle cells and liver cells. Glucose can the be used as energy by muscle
cells and released into circulation by the liver cells. It also stimulates adipose cells
to release fatty acids into the blood. This way, the glucagon can increase the blood
gluoce levels to normal hemostatic levels. Alpha cells also continuously releases
glycogen through a negative feedback loop, that’s why insulin and glucagon needs
to work together to maintain homeostatic glucose levels.
DURING STARVATION
Glucagon levels start to rise, and insulin levels starts to drop. Glucagon then
stimulates the body to breakdown fatty acids, which leads to the increase of Acetyl-
coA molecules. Acetyl-coA enters the kreb’s cycle to eventually produce electron
carrier molecules that will allow to produce ATP in the electron transfer chain.
However, if the body will continue to starve for like 2-3 days more, the levels of
acetyl-coA will continue to rise up, and the accumulation of this produces excess
keton bodies through ketogenesis. After that, the body will shift from using glucoe
to ketone as an energy fuel.
DURING DIABETES MELLITUS
In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells cannot produce enough insulin to help the glucose
enter the cell for glucose breakdown, thus cannot produce ATP. So in order to
produce ATP, the cells will use fats rather than glucose and eventually will release
ketones in the blood stream. Therefore, in type 1 diabetes, the glucose levels will be
high, and instead of insulin, the ketones will be present.
In type 2 diabetes, the body resists the effect of insulin, so the glucose wouldn’t be
able to break down either. Since the cell wouldn’t be able to break down any
glucose, the body would starve more. The glucose build up would be converted to
glycogen by the liver, and some would be converted to triglycerides which are fats.