Dynamic Evidence of Dark

Matter
Randeer Pratap Gautam
(email- randeer.gautam@studium.uni-hamburg.de)
Date: 16 December,2020

Image credit: Zarija Lukic/Berkeley Lab

 Contents
1. History
1.1. Contributions from Fritz Zwicky
1.2. Contributions from Vera Rubin
2. Rotational Curves of Spiral Galaxy
2.1. Measurement
2.2. Analysis
2.3. Mass Distribution
2.4. Mass to Luminosity Ratio
3. Virial Theorem on Galaxy Clusters
3.1. Virial Theorem and its Application
3.2. Mass of Galaxy Cluster from Virial Theorem
4. X-Rays from Galaxy Clusters
4.1. X-Ray Observations
4.2. X-Ray Origin
4.3. Temperature of Gas
4.4. Bremsstrahlung Radiation
4.5.Mass Calculation
5. Bullet Cluster
6. Gravitational Lensing
6.1. Mass of Galaxy Cluster from Strong Lensing
6.2. Microlensing and MACHOs
6.3. Search for MACHOs
7. References
 1.1 Contributions of Fritz Zwicky

• Zwicky applied Virial theorem to the redshifts of the Coma Cluster observed by Hubble
and Milton Humason (1931). Zwicky was the first cosmologist to apply Virial Theorem.
Zwicky 1933 Paper:
• Estimated 800 Galaxies in Coma Cluster
• Mass of each Galaxy =109 Mo (according to Hubble estimate);
Radius of Cluster= 106 Light Years.
𝟏
▪ Virial Theorem: 𝛆̅𝒌 = − 𝛆̅ത 𝒑
𝟐
3 𝑀2
▪ Ω= − Γ (Total Potential Energy of the System such that 𝛆̅𝒑 = Ω/M= – 64 x109 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −2 )
5 𝑅
𝑣̅2 ε𝑝
▪ ε𝑘 = = − ⇒ 𝑣= 80km/sec
2 2
▪ Observed average velocity dispersion along the line-of-sight was approximately 1000 km/s.

Zwicky 1937 Paper:

• This time assumed 1000 galaxies in Coma Cluster with an observed velocity dispersion of
700km/sec within a radius of 2x106 Light Years, and solving for the average galaxy’s mass.
• The Mass of Cluster= 4.5x1013Mo ⇒Mass of Each Galaxy in Cluster= 4.5x1010Mo;
⇒ Mass to Light Ratio ~ 500 (Assuming average Galactic Luminosity= 8.5 × 107 Lo)
 1.2 Contributions of Vera Rubin

Rotational velocities for OB associations in M31, as a function of distance from the center. Solid curve, adopted rotation curve
based on the velocities. For R < 12', curve is fifth-order polynomial; for R > 12', curve is fourth-order polynomial required to
remain approximately flat near R — 120'. Dashed curve near R = 10' is a second rotation curve with higher inner minimum.
(Image Credits: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1970ApJ...159..379R)
 2.1. Rotational Curves of Spiral
Galaxies(Measurement)
• Stellar Observations are made from Photometric
Methods including CO line(for Central Bulge) & Hα
line(HII region).
• Accompanied by Neutral Hydrogen H I (emits narrow
spectral line at 1420 MHz or 21cm wavelength) in many
spirals extended far beyond the starlight.
• Methods of Finding Rotational Velocity of Stars:
1. Doppler Shift:
𝜆𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 1+𝛽
= γ(1+β) = ;
𝜆𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 1+𝛽

for β<<1 ⇒
𝜆𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣̅(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣̅𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜆𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
= 1+β; where β= 𝑐
▪ Tangential Velocity: Perpendicular to the line of Sight
𝑑𝜃
𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =k × (the star's distance) x ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ;

⇒ 𝑣𝑐 = (𝑣𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )2 + (𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 )2
 2.1 Rotational Curves of Spiral Galaxies(Analysis)

Radial surface brightness

distribution of the spiral
galaxy NGC 3198 ( High
Luminous Galaxy i.e.,
Maximum Contribution of
Disc)

Expected rotation curve

from stars(Disc) and gas;
Cannot reproduce the
BOSMA RELATION observed Flatness at large
R)

Credits: From Begeman K 1987 PhD Thesis University of Groningen,

http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~george/ay20/eaa-darkmatter-obs.pdf
2.2 Mass Distribution
• Direct Method:
1. Spherical Case: Gives good Approximation at Central
Regions, but fails at outermost region due to edging effect of
integration
⇒
2. Flat-Disc Case:

Interpretations:
➢ SMD Strongly Concentrated at Center.
➢ More Dark Matter in Low Luminous Region.
➢ Central Regions are better fit by Spherical
Assumption(BULGE).
➢ Flat Rotation up to 50kpc (in agreement with NFW Profile)

Directly calculated SMD of the Milky Way by spherical

(black thick line) and flat-disk assumptions by log-log
plot. The straight line represents the black hole with
mass 3.6 × 106 M⊙.
Credits:https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept16/Sofue/Sofue4.
html
 2.3 Mass Distribution(Mass to Luminosity Ratio)

M/L ratios in spiral galaxies normalized at scale radii using data

from Takamiya and Sofue (1999), where L is the optical
Image Credits:
luminosity. H is Hubble’s Constant-
https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Faber/Faber3_2.html#Table%202
(Source: https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept16/Sofue/Sofue4.html)
 3.1 Virial Theorem and its Application

• Conditions to Apply Virial Theorem(For measurement of Dark Matter):

▪ Stable Equilibrium ( i.e., Gravitationally Bound and neither contracting nor expanding).
▪ Galaxies with strangely fast peculiar velocities to be ruled out.
▪ The velocity distribution of galaxies in clusters is Isotropic.
• Virial Theorem: The total Gravitational Potential Energy (𝑉𝐺𝑃𝐸 ) due to mutual attraction of its members
is related to the total kinetic energy (T) due to their random motions by
2 <T> = − < 𝑉𝐺𝑃𝐸 >
⇒

• Kinetic Energy: The Red Shifted Radial Velocities have Gaussian Distribution:

• Velocity Dispersion (σr ) =

• Assumed the galaxies moving Isotropically⇒
• So the average Kinetic Energy of the Galaxies in Cluster is
𝟏 𝟏
𝑲𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎(𝟑𝝈𝒓 𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐

Frequency distribution of radial velocities of galaxies in A194.

Bell-shaped curve is a Gaussian with the mean and standard
deviation of the observed sample.
Image Credits: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1977ApJ...214..351C
 3.2 Mass of Galaxy Clusters from Virial Theorem
• Gravitational Potential Energy:
• Assuming the Mass of all galaxies Cluster as M, Gravitational Potential
Energy
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐺𝑃𝐸 =
𝑟
• Virial Radius or Gravitational Radius(by Schwarzchild):
(‫)𝑞𝑑𝑆 ׬‬2
𝑅𝑔 = 2 2 ;
‫𝑞𝑑 𝑆 ׬‬

where S→ Number of Galaxies passing from a unit area ; q→ Distance

from Cluster Core
𝑅
• Approximate distance between Center and a Typical Galaxy=
2
−𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝟏 −𝑮𝑴𝒎
• 𝑮𝑷𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑹 ⇒ 𝒎(𝟑𝝈𝒓 𝟐 ) ~ 𝑹
( ) 𝟐 ( )
𝟐 𝟐

• The above mass equation can be reduced to:

Image Source: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-
4885/44/10/002

• Mass to Light Ratios is typically founded:

• Mass to Light Ratio of Coma Cluster estimate by Rood et al. (1972)
~300.
 4.1. X-Ray Observations
• Clusters are extreme X-Ray source; Luminosities of X-Rays in the range: 1043-45 ergs/s
• Hot Gas →10-15% , Galaxies mass → 5% of Total Cluster Mass ⇒ Dark Matter→ 80-85%.
• X-originate from Hot gases in clusters and bound by the Gravitational potential well of cluster.
• Hot Gas is bounded and in Hydrostatic Equilibrium, one can find the total mass of cluster enclosed and
thus Dark Matter mass can be estimated.
• Few Advantages of X-Ray observations:
1. The X-rays are isotopically distributed (The time scales of collisions between ions is much smaller
smaller than cooling time). Removing Velocity Anisotropy of Galaxies Velocity
2. Redshift survey of rich clusters of galaxies has typically ≈ 50 velocity measurements per cluster;
Whereas cluster are extreme X

Optical image of the central part of the Coma cluster (23 × 23

arcmin) centered on the galaxy NGC4889; the bright galaxy
on the right is NGC4874. Right panel: X-ray image (ROSAT) of
Coma (164 × 150 arcmin)
Image Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1906036_Clusters_of_Galaxie
s_Setting_the_Stage/figures?lo=1
 4.2 Origin of X-Rays
• Sources of Hot Gas: Ejection from Galaxies; Primordial Gas
• Strong Fe line at 7kev
• Abundance of Iron(from Strength of Line) (and other heavy elements) ~ Solar abundances
• Intracluster gas has similar origin irrespective of Dynamic State of Clusters
• Initial heating during Cluster Formation and further heating due to Accretion Shock
The iron abundance is relative to solar, and the X-ray luminosity is in
erg/s.
Image Source:
https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March02/Sarazin/Sarazin4_3_2.ht
ml

Image Source: T. Takahashi et al. / Astroparticle Physics 43 (2013) 142–154

 4.3 Temperature of Gas
• Both Galaxies and the gas is bounded by the same Gravitational Potential
• Temperature of Gas is measured by:
𝑘𝑏 𝑇𝑔 σ
≈ σ𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑇𝑔 ≈ 7x107 𝐾(1000 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
𝑟
)2
µ𝑚𝑝

• Cooling time of Hot gas: ⇒ Way too longer in most

clusters than the Hubble time
(age of the universe)

➢ The correlation between the X-ray luminosity of clusters observed

with HEAO-1 A-2 and their line-of-sight velocity dispersion,
from Quintana and Melnick (1982) (determined from X-Ray Spectra)
➢ Provided estimation that gas are bound to Cluster
Image Source:
https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March02/Sarazin/Sarazin4_6.html
 4.4 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Free-Free Radiation: High energy electrons in the
plasma Produces continuous radiation in X-Ray
spectrum( due to not uniform acceleration )
• Principle emission mechanism for ion plasma with T>
107 K
• Power Electromagnetic radiation emitted is calculated
2 𝑞 2 𝑎2
by Larmor Formula(p= )
3 𝑐3
• Thermal Bremsstrahlung: The total power emitted by
the gas cloud or the emissivity per unit volume is:

Where ni and ne are the number density of ions and electrons

Gff (Z,𝑇𝑔 , 𝑣) is Gaunt Factor, to correct quantum mechanical effects

• This spectrum cuts-off at h𝑣= 𝑘𝑏 𝑇𝑔 . Thus giving the

total temperature of Gas Cloud in the Cluster.
HEAO-1 A-2 low resolution X-ray spectra of Coma Cluster. The plots give
the number flux of X-ray photons per cm2-sec-keV versus photon energy
in keV
Image Source:
https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March02/Sarazin/Sarazin4_3_2.html
 4.4 Mass Calculation
• Hydrostatic Equilibrium: Pressure Gradient of Gas balances the
Gravitational Forces such that
𝒅𝑷 −𝑮𝑴(<𝐫)𝛒𝒈𝒂𝒔 (𝒓൯
= ; where Pressure of Gas from ideal gas equation
𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝝆𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒌𝒃 𝑻
P(r) = ; µ= Mean Molecular Mass
µ𝒎𝒑

• Mass of Cluster is within radius (r):

𝒌𝒃 𝑻𝑹 𝒅𝒍𝒐𝒈𝛒𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒅𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑻
𝑴(< 𝑹) = ( + )
𝑮𝞵𝒎𝒑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹

• The Temperature and Density profiles can be predicted from

Bremsstrahlung Spectra. X-ray morphology Top left), the
prototypical irregular nXD cluster A1367.
• As gas is isothermal, density distribution of gas is given by β–model, (Top right), the irregular XD cluster A262.
(Bottom left), the regular nXD
:
cluster A2256. (Bottom right), the regular
XD cluster A85 [Image
where Source:https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/M
arch02/Sarazin/Sarazin4_4_2.html]

• XD- Centrally Galaxy Dominated

Galaxies; rc ~250 / h50 kpc
• nXD- Non-Centrally Galaxy
Dominated Galaxies;
rc ~5000 / h50 kpc
 5.0 Bullet Cluster

Most of the mass in the clusters

Optical image from Magellan
and the Hubble Space
Telescope

Hot Gas observation from Chandra X-Ray Observatory

Image Source: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/M.Markevitch et al.; Optical: NASA/STScI; Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe et al.;
Lensing Map: NASA/STScI; ESO WFI; Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe et al.
 6.0 Gravitational Lensing
• Deflection of light by massive object ⇒ Mass Distribution of Lens is
reconstructed using from Deflection Patterns
• Types of Lensing: Strong Lensing; Weak Lensing; Flexion;
Microlensing.
• Advantages over X-Ray Method:
▪ No requirement to assume the mass distribution and its
Dynamic State.
▪ The cluster may not be in Hydrostatic Equilibrium.
Image Source: http://w.astro.berkeley.edu/~jcohn/lens.html
• Strong Lensing: Light passes through a extreme Massive body(e.g.
Galaxy Cluster) and Source is close enough.
• Light from Source can take different paths, forming more than one
image of the Source(Caustics: Folds& Cusps).
• Formation of Einstein Ring: (Depending on the position and the
shape of lens)
4𝐺𝑀 Credits: Wikipedia
Einstein Radius 𝜃𝐸 = ;
𝐷𝑐 2
where M → Mass of Lensing Object
𝐷𝑠 𝐷𝐿
D= 𝐷𝐿𝑆
; 𝐷𝐿 = Angular Diameter Distance to Lens
𝐷𝑆 = Angular Diameter Distance to Source
𝐷𝐿𝑆 = Angular Diameter Distance between Lens
and Source Image Source:http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys240/lectures/grav_lens/grav_lens.html
 6.0 Gravitational Lensing
• Weak Lensing: Source is distorted in both ways: Convergence (Magnified) and Shear(Stretched)
• Sheer Distortion-2% → Circular E-Modes(Like Tangential Lensing Arcs)

The observed ellipticities of half a million distant galaxies within the 2

square degree Hubble Space Telescope COSMOS survey
Image source for both above and below images :https://arxiv.org/pdf/1001.1739.pdf

The lens produces two effects. First, it deflects the light rays,
and second it induces a pure gravitational time delay.
Image Source:
http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Mellier/Mellier2_1.html#Figure%204)
 6.1 Mass of Cluster from Strong Lensing

• Calculation of Mass from Strong Lensing: Assuming a Spherical Matter Distribution for
Lensing Cluster, the surface mass density equals critical density.

where

Masses, mass-to-blue-light ratios, and velocity dispersions for three clusters with
prominent arcs. (Source: http://folk.uio.no/hdahle/JeruLect.pdf)
 6.2 Microlensing and MACHOs
• Lensing is so small that no two images or arc are produced; Instead can
cause the source to look Brighter.
𝑢2 +2
• Brightness Amplification: Max Amplification = ;
𝑢× 𝑢2 +4
𝑏(Impact Parameter)
where 𝑢 =
𝜃𝐸
• Unique Features of Microlensing:
▪ The Shape of Light Curve is always symmetrical.
▪ Shows Achromatic Magnification; as Gravitational Lensing is
independent of wavelength.
▪ A background star cannot be brightened instantly(at least not for
thousands of years); Its too improbable
• MACHOs(Massive Compact Halo Objects):
• The small fraction of Dark Matter as compact object that are Baryonic but
too faint to observe.
• Most of Mass Range: 10−6 Mo<M< 106 Mo
• Neutron Stars, Black Holes, Brown and White Dwarfs.
• These MACHOs contributes a fair fraction in Milky Way and Large
Magellanic Clouds(LHC).
• Einstein Crossing Time: To cross the Einstein Radius of the Lens
MACHO Event 4
Source:
http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys240/lect
ures/microlens/microlens.html
 6.3 Search of MACHOs
• Optical Depth: The probability for line of sight to a background star to pass through Einstein Radius of
Lens.
⇒ • ~ 10−6 all matter MACHO and Radius.
• The MACHO Project: (USA/Australia)
• Ended in 1999, Has observed 11.9 million stars for 5.7 years in the LMC and Milky way and found 13 – 17
events ( Contrast to expected 2-4 Events).
• Time scales, t, ranging from 34 to 230 days and has optical depth of- 1.2 x 10−6
• Interpreted that 20% of Dark Halo is made of 0.15Mo<M< 0.9Mo
• The Eros-2 Project(France): (Analyzed Small and Large Magellanic Clouds)
• 33 million stars over 6.7 years in the LMC and SMC and found only one microlensing event.(Contrast to
expected 2-4 Events)
• Main Results: Dark Matter Fraction(in mass 2x10−7 Mo<M< 1Mo) < 25% of Standard Milky Way Halo;
Derived an upper limit for optical depth for SMC< 10−7 ;
• The OGLE(Poland/USA): Observed LMC and central bulge of the Milky Way and detected only two possible
microlensing events.
• Estimated the optical depth of τ = 0.43 ± 0.33 × 10−7 (Chances of Self Lensing)
• Results: 10% of objects in mass range- 0.01Mo<M< 0.2Mo.
 7.0 References
• http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1970ApJ...159..379R
• https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/
• http://www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/
• http://w.astro.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/rotcurve.html
• https://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s8.html
• http://spiff.rit.edu
• https://www.astro.umd.edu
• http://www.haus-der-astronomie.de
• https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0602197.pdf
• http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1983MNRAS.202..249K&defaultprint=YES&page_ind=0&filetype=.pdf
• https://www.roe.ac.uk/~pnb/teaching/hea_brem.pdf
• http://icc.dur.ac.uk/~tt/Lectures/Galaxies/TeX/lec/node75.html
• https://arxiv.org/ftp/astro-ph/papers/0604/0604278.pdf
• https://arxiv.org/pdf/1001.1739.pdf
• http://folk.uio.no/hdahle/JeruLect.pdf
• https://www3.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/sbritzen/clusters.pdf
• https://sci.esa.int/web/planck/-/47695-the-coma-cluster
• https://chandra.harvard.edu
• https://cds.cern.ch/record/319765/files/9702050.pdf)
• https://arxiv.org/abs/1605.04909