BRITISH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Claudia Fechete - History of Art, II

The English Art

 (2600 BC - 1700 AD) 

            An art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific
common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a
restricted period. But there is no fixed rule that determines what
constitutes an art movement. The artists associated with one
movement may adhere to strict guiding principles and those who
belong to another may have little in common. Art Movements are,
usually, simply a historical convenience for grouping together artists
of a certain period or style so that they may be understood within a
specific context. These movements are named by art critics or
historians and their titles are often sarcastic nicknames from a bad
review. The first five art movements in English art are: Prehistoric art,
Ancient art, Medieval art, Renaissance and Baroque.
            People arrived in the British Isles during the Palaeolithic Age, in
Prehistory. Massive stone monuments were built at various places.
Many of them consist of huge, long stones placed vertically in the
ground and arranged in circles. Stonehenge, an enormous stone
circle in Southern England, was probably built at the same time as the
Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. Stonehenge dates from the Neolithic
period, around 2600 BC. The monument's past gave rise to some tales
and theories. According to folklore, Stonehenge was created by Merlin,
the wizard of King's Arthur legend, who magically transported the
massive stones from Ireland, where giants had assembled them. 
Stonehenge was used to measure the movements of the sun,
moon and stars, and also for religious practices. Modern debate over
the monument's meaning has two main camps: those who see it as a
holy site, and others who believe it represents a scientific observatory.
Both camps base their theories on the site's celestial influence, with
alignments to the sun and moon taken as evidence of rituals linked to
the changing seasons. Stonehenge was designated a UNESCO World
Heritage site in 1986.

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            The Celts arrived in England after 700 BC. They were a metal
civilization. With bronze and gold, they created mirrors, ornaments,
small statues and jewellery. Celt comes from the Greek word, Keltoi
and means barbarians. It is properly pronounced Kelt. No one called
these people living in Britain during the Iron Age Celts until the 18th
century. They were simply known as Britons. They arrived in Britain
as separate tribes that migrated there and were loosely tied by a
similar language, religion, and cultural expression. Typically, Celtic art
is abstract, ornamental, often involving complex symbolism. It avoids
straight lines and only occasionally uses symmetry. Desborough
Mirror it is one of the best surviving examples of Celtic mirrors. It is
a bronze mirror, made from three pieces - a cast handle, the main
mirror plate, and a tubular binding strip around the edge. The pattern
is very complex, parts of the decoration are engraved. In the past,
mirrors have been interpreted as the possessions of high-status
women, although very little evidence has been provided to support this
assumption.
            In 43 AD, Roman Emperor Claudius conquered Britain, which
became part of the Roman Empire and was called Britannia. Romans
brought their laws, their religion, their language, and their art. The
Romans never successfully conquered the whole island, building
Hadrian's Wall as a boundary with Caledonia, which covered roughly
the territory of modern Scotland. Hadrian's Wall is symbolic of
Roman Britannia. Construction started in 122 AD and was completed
in six years. Construction started in the east and proceeded
westwards, with soldiers from all three of the occupying Roman
legions participating in the work. The Wall measures 120 km and it
was built in order to separate the “barbarians” from the
Romans. Although Hadrian's Wall was declared a World Heritage Site
in 1987, it remains unguarded, enabling visitors to climb and stand on
the wall, although this is not encouraged, as it could damage the
historic structure.
            The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast period, of
over 1000 years. Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into
major periods and styles, often with some difficulty. A generally
accepted scheme includes Romanesque art and Gothic
art. Romanesque art developed in the period between about 1000 AD
in conjunction with the rise of monasticism in Western Europe. The
style developed initially in France but spread to England to become
the first medieval style found all over Europe, albeit with regional
differences. The Normans, from northern France, conquered Britain
in 1066 and brought with them their traditions of building in stone.

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They built churches, cathedrals and castles using the Romanesque
style. The Romanesque style is an architectural style of medieval
Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. Combining features of
ancient Roman and Byzantine buildings and other local traditions,
Romanesque architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls
and round arches. Durham Cathedral, a Romanesque cathedral
built around 1100, is one of the purest examples of Norman
architecture. It is a symbol of Norman ecclesiastical and secular
power.
            The Winchester Bible is a Romanesque illuminated
manuscript produced in Winchester in 1160. It is the largest surviving
English Bible. The illuminations reflect the work of at least six
different hands. These unnamed artists were given modern names in
the 1940s by Walter Oakeshott, the first art historian to have studied
the Winchester Bible systematically. The given names are: Genesis
Master, Master of the Apocrypha Drawings, Master of the Leaping
Figures, Master of the Morgan Leaf, Master of the Gothic Majesty, and
Amalekite Master. The bible has been re-bound and now exists as four
volumes. Thieves and collectors have removed some of the pages over
time. What remains today is an incomplete object of stunning beauty,
now displayed in Winchester Cathedral.
            Gothic architecture is a style that flourished in Europe during
the High and Late Middle Ages. It evolved from Romanesque
architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. Its
features included the use of the rib vault and the flying buttress, which
allowed the weight of the roof to be counterbalanced by buttresses
outside the building, allowing for greater heights and more space for
windows. The most distinctive feature of the Gothic Style is the
pointed arch. A pointed arch is not as strong as the rounded arch of
Romanesque architecture but is more elegant. The pointed arch was
something new in Europe. Westminster Abbey is the most known
Gothic abbey-church and the traditional place of coronation and burial
site for British monarchs since the coronation of William the
Conqueror in 1066.
            The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement
in England dating from the late 15th to the early 17th century. It is
associated with the European Renaissance that is usually regarded as
beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. The English Renaissance is
different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. The dominant
art forms of the English Renaissance were literature and music. Visual
arts in the English Renaissance were less significant. The great
paintings produced in England were created by imported artists. The

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Church remained the dominant patron of the arts until the arrival of
Hans Holbein at the court of Henry VIII. In the 17th century, Rubens
and Van Dyck worked in the courts of James I and Charles I. England
was very slow to produce visual arts in Renaissance styles, and the
artists of the Tudor court were mainly imported foreigners until after
the end of the Renaissance. 
           One of the most famous renaissance paintings is The Portrait
of Henry VIII by Hans Holbein the Younger. The artist, originally
from Germany, had been appointed the English King’s Painter. The
painting has been described as a work of propaganda. The king stands
on an elegant rug with an elaborate tapestry in the background. The
king wears lots of fabric. This display of wealth is designed to show the
king’s power. This formal clothing might cost as much as a ship. Henry
VIII recognized the power of the image Holbein created, and
encouraged other artists to copy the painting and distributed the
various versions around the realm, giving them as gifts to friends and
ambassadors. Major noblemen would commission their own copies of
the painting to show their loyalty to the king.
         English Baroque is a term sometimes used to refer to the
developments in English architecture that were parallel to the
evolution of Baroque architecture in continental Europe. The Baroque
style is a highly ornate and often extravagant style of architecture, art
and music. It was encouraged by the Catholic Church to counter the
simplicity and austerity of Protestant architecture. The Baroque style
used contrast, movement and deep colour. One of the most significant
images for English baroque is probably The Portrait of James I
which Rubens painted on the ceiling of the Banqueting House in
London. Rubens presented a complex allegory that defined the virtues
and powers of James I. James I is shown ascending to heaven, an
image used in Catholic countries for the Virgin Mary and saints but
adopted here to express the king’s power. This painting served to
reinforce the Stuarts’ belief that their power was divine. With this
piece, the continental Baroque style briefly became a part of English
painting. 
             The Baroque painting “Charles I and his family” by
Anthony Van Dyck, Flemish artist, shows the king Charles I with his
wife, Queen Henrietta Maria and two of their children: Prince Charles,
who later became King Charles II, and Princess Mary. The artist shows
the king and his family in natural poses. Although the king and queen
are idealised, they appear vibrant and very much alive. In the
painting’s background, we see a silhouetted view of popular London

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buildings: Parliament House, Westminster Hall and, probably, the
Clock Tower.
            English art has seen many different phases and trends through
the centuries. These phases were determined by international
invasions, religion or resources available to artists. As the conditions
and context of England changed, so did the creativity it inspired. 

Bibliography

Arnold Dana, Corbett David,

A Companion to British Art 1600 to the Present, Blackwell Publishing,
London, 2013.

Bindman, David,
The Thames and Hudson Encyclopaedia of British Art, Thames and
Huston Publishing, London, 1985.

Clemen Gina, Stango Laura,

British History Seen Through Art, Black Cat Publishing, Canterbury,
2001.

Gombrich, Ernst,
The Story of Art, Oxford University Press, 1950.

Mason, Antony,
Art of the Western World, from Prehistory to the 21st Century, Book
House Publishing, 2007.

Toman, Rolf,
Romanesque: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting, h. f. ullmann
Publishing, Postdam, Germany, 2015.