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Workplace internet leisure and employees’ productivity: The mediating role of

employee satisfaction

Article  in  Internet Research · February 2019

DOI: 10.1108/IntR-05-2017-0191

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Mediating role
Workplace internet leisure and of employee
employees’ productivity satisfaction

The mediating role of employee satisfaction

Jihad Mohammad and Farzana Quoquab 725
Azman Hashim International Business School,
Received 11 May 2017
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia Revised 5 December 2017
Siti Halimah 9 April 2018
1 June 2018
Putra Business School, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia, and 26 August 2018
Accepted 28 August 2018
Ramayah Thurasamy
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia

Abstract
Purpose – There is an on-going debate about the role of workplace internet leisure (WIL) and whether it is a
vice or virtue. Considering this, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of WIL on workplace
outcome variables such as employee satisfaction (ES) and employee productivity in the Malaysian context.
Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire that yielded
282 responses. Partial least square technique using SmartPLS-3 was used to test the study hypotheses.
Findings – Findings reveal that workplace WIL, workplace WIL policy and workplace autonomy orientation
(WAO) affect employees’ satisfaction. Additionally, the mediating role of ES was found to be significant.
Practical implications – The findings of this study are valuable for both managers and policy makers.
These results can benefit the managers of conventional banks in Malaysia to decide how to enhance
employees’ satisfaction and productivity by focusing on the key drivers such as WIL, workplace internet
leisure policy (WILP) and WAO.
Originality/value – This is a pioneering study which suggests that moderate use of WIL can have a positive
and significant effect on workplace outcome variables. Moreover, this study theorised ES as a mediating
variable; this helps to explain how organisations can transform workplace resources in term of internet
leisure, WILP and WAO into high productivity by elevating employees’ satisfaction.
Keywords Employee productivity, Employee satisfaction, Job demand-resource model,
Workplace autonomy orientation, Workplace internet leisure, Workplace internet leisure policies
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Contemporary organisations must use the internet to meet the needs and challenges of
the workplace, to respond rapidly to ever-changing consumers’ requests, and to compete
effectively and efficiently in the global environment. The internet has helped organisations
by transforming the workplace into a universal network and by achieving a competitive
advantage over those who are not using it (Baturay and Toker, 2015; Chong et al., 2018; Hsu
and Yen, 2016). The internet has assisted organisations and their employees by increasing
productivity, enhancing performance, improving communication, strengthening the image
and reaching customers in every corner of the world (Koay, 2018). As a result, the use of
the internet in the workplace has become a crucial matter for employees, supervisors
and managers (Cao et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the use of the internet in the workplace
provides workers novel ways to engage in non-work-related activities, which can have
adverse effect on the workplace (Lara et al., 2006; Qiaolei, 2014).
The abuse of the company’s internet resources by employees has received researchers’ Internet Research
attention (Caniëls et al., 2015; Huma et al., 2017; Messarra et al., 2011). Findings indicate Vol. 29 No. 4, 2019
pp. 725-748
that these types of activities can result in wasting a company’s time, distracting employees © Emerald Publishing Limited
1066-2243
from achieving their objectives, and consequently decreasing the organisation’s overall DOI 10.1108/IntR-05-2017-0191
INTR productivity (Lara et al., 2006; Lim and Teo, 2005; Lim and Chen, 2009). The terminology
29,4 “workplace internet leisure (WIL)” was coined by scholars to describe this type of behaviour
and was defined as employees’ voluntary actions in using companies’ internet access
during office hours for non-work-related goals (Lim, 2002; Lim and Teo, 2005). Other terms
used to describe this phenomenon include non-work-related computing, cyberloafing and
cyberslacking (Kim and Byrne, 2011; Vitak et al., 2011). In this study, “cyberloafing” and
726 “WIL” are used interchangeably. Sending and receiving non-work-related e-mails, playing
video games, browsing websites (non-work related) and looking at Facebook, Twitter
and other social media sites are some of the examples of WIL activities (Baturay and Toker,
2015; Blanchard and Henle, 2008).
WebSense.com conducted two studies in 2005 and 2006 related to cyberloafing among
American employees and found that more than 60 per cent were engaged in cyberloafing
activities, spending 24 per cent of their working hours on them. In the same manner,
StaffMonitoring.com (2015) found that around 60 per cent of workers’ time on the internet
was spent making online purchases during office hours and the bulk of these purchase were
non-work related. In a different study, Fox (2007) argued that some employees spent more
than 5 h per day surfing the internet at work. Moreover, the International Data Corporation
(Snapshot Spy, 2008) found that more than 40 per cent of internet access in the workplace
is spent on non-work-related activities, and more than 60 per cent of online purchases
are made during working hours. Amble (2004) found a similar result among employees in
the UK, who spent more than 40 per cent of their time on cyberloafing activities. According
to Armstrong et al. (2000), Debt Cubed (2006), Lim (2002) and Jia et al. (2013), cyberloafing
is a waste of valuable work time and can result in great loss of business. However, some
other researchers have contended that cyberloafing activities can have a positive effect
on the workplace environment. For example, it can reduce workplace stress, anxiety and
burnout (Anandarajan and Simmers, 2005; Oravec, 2004; Stanton, 2002); stimulate
collaboration and knowledge sharing among employees (Ferreira and Plessis, 2009);
facilitate mental recovery and generate fresh ideas (Ivarsson and Larsson, 2011); increase
employees’ satisfaction and ultimately increase their productivity (Coker, 2011; Quoquab
et al., 2015; Stanton, 2002); help to achieve balance between work and personal life, with the
extra advantage of better time management and a technique of official learning
(Anandarajan and Simmers, 2003; Konig and Guardia, 2014); restoring workers’
concentration (Coker, 2013); and facilitating employees’ connection, and communication
(Cheung et al., 2011; Lara et al., 2006; Richards, 2012).
This inconsistency in the literature about the effect of cyberloafing on workplace
outcomes calls for more research to be conducted; a need this study attempts to address.
This study argues that the moderate use of the internet for non-work-related activities
(less than 20 per cent of employees’ work time) can have a positive effect on employees’
satisfaction and ultimately increase their productivity. This argument is in agreement with
Oravec (2002) and Anandarajan et al.’s (2006) views: i.e., permitting employees a reasonable
amount of time for online recreation during working hours can have substantial advantages
for employees and organisations alike. Accordingly, the first objective of this study is
to examine the direct and indirect effect of WIL on employees’ satisfaction and their
productivity in the context of the Malaysian banking industry.
According to Vaithilingam et al. (2006), the banking sector in Malaysia is an integral part
of the economy and plays a key role in the nation’s socio-economic development. Therefore,
the Malaysian Government has emphasised this sector in order to achieve its vision
for 2020. The banking sector in Malaysia accounted for 4.7 per cent of GDP in 2016, boasting
assets worth 198.8 per cent of GDP and a workforce equivalent to 3 per cent of the total
employed workers in the country in 2016 (Quarterly Bulletin, 2016). At the end of 2016,
the Malaysian banking system consisted of 27 commercials, 11 investments, 18 Islamic
and 5 international Islamic banks (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2017). As the main industrial Mediating role
player in Malaysia, the banking sector provides funds and capital that helps the country’s of employee
development. The growth in this sector is expected to increase significantly and satisfaction
the contribution to nominal GDP is expected to reach 10−12 per cent in 2020
(Bank Negara Malaysia, 2016).
Due to the importance of this sector to the economy of Malaysia, human capital in
this sector must be trained and retained, and this can be achieved only if they are 727
satisfied with the working environment (Mohammad et al., 2011). The banking sector is
one of the frontrunner sectors that have embraced technology, and it has become the
backbone of the banking operation. With the use of technology, the sector innovates its
delivery channels, including online and mobile banking systems. However, access
to the internet for employees in the banking sector in Malaysia varies depending on bank
policy. Some banks facilitate free internet access, while others allow access with some
monitoring and prohibition of certain websites, like social media websites. There are also
banks that allow internet access with some content filtering, like e-mail links to other
websites. Meanwhile, some banks provide internet access only to certain positions,
such as those at executive and managerial levels, while others have a designated place to
access the internet. Some banks have embedded certain terms and conditions with regards
to WIL in contracts. Overall, research in Malaysia found that 23.8 per cent of employees
use the internet for non-work-related activities several times a day and 36.5 per cent of
employees do so at least once a day (Koay et al., 2017). Also, the majority of employees
consider this behaviour acceptable in the workplace (Ahmad and Jamaluddin, 2009).
With the prevalence of WIL, organisations have started to introduce a workplace
internet leisure policy (WILP) to control such behaviour. However, with the introduction of
WILP, employees started to perceive that their actions were being monitored and
they were not being trusted (Messarra et al., 2011). As such, employees perceived that
there is no workplace autonomy orientation (WAO) in their organisation. Therefore,
the second objective of this study is to examine the direct and indirect effect of WILP
and WAO on employees’ satisfaction and their productivity in the banking sector
in Malaysia.
To accomplish the objectives of this study, a theoretical framework was developed based
on the job demand-resource model ( JD-R) and self-determination theory (SDT). The rest
of the paper is five-fold. In the next section, theoretical framework and hypotheses
development are discussed. The following section discusses the methodology adopted
in this study, followed by analysis and findings. Lastly, the discussion and conclusion
are presented.

2. Theoretical framework and hypotheses development

2.1 Job demands-resources model
The JD-R (Demerouti et al., 2001) has gained popularity among researchers. This model
assumes that employee well-being results from a balance between positive (resources)
and negative (demands) job characteristics (Demerouti and Bakker, 2011; Demerouti et al.,
2001). Therefore, the scope of the JD-R model is broader than other models, because
it incorporates all job demands and resources. Demerouti et al. (2001, p. 501) defined job
demands as “those physical, social, or organisational aspects of the job that require
sustained physical or mental effort and are therefore associated with certain physiological
and psychological costs”. Examples of job demands are work overload, interpersonal
conflict, job insecurity, risks and hazards, physical demands, role conflict, role ambiguity,
etc. Meanwhile, job resources are defined as “those physical, social, or organisational
aspects of the job that may do any of the following: (a) be functional in achieving work goals;
(b) reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs;
INTR (c) stimulate personal growth and development” (Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 501). Examples of
29,4 job resources are feedback, job control, social support, knowledge, autonomy, supportive
environment, etc.
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) presented a revised version of the JD-R model. This model
included work engagement and considered it as a mediator between job resources
and turnover intention. Huhtala and Parzefall (2007) employed the revised model of JD-R as
728 a conceptual framework for explaining employees’ innovative behaviour. They argued that
work-related resources influence employee innovativeness through work engagement.
Nevertheless, the current study has examined how the relationships between job
characteristics, psychological states and outcomes develop within employees. The JD-R
model is an open, heuristic model rather than a specific model that includes well-defined sets
of particular demands, resources, mental states and outcomes (Schaufeli and Taris, 2014).
It provides an insightful description of how demands, resources, psychological states and
outcomes are linked.
Based on the JD-R model, this study argues that WIL, WILP and WAO are vital
resources that enhance employees’ satisfaction (psychological states) and ultimately
increase their productivity (outcome). Particularly, the use of internet for leisure can be
perceived as a crucial resource that employees utilise at work to release their stress
and anxiety, take a break, and to obtain and share essential information. In the same
manner, this study argues that WILPs are another vital resource that can organise and
monitor the use of internet at work. Specifically, when any organisation implements clear
policies and instructions to use the internet for non-work-related activities, if the
implementation of these policies is fair and consistent among all employees
and departments, they will be perceived by employees positively (resource). More clearly,
the presence of polices to organise the workplace can help employees to understand their
duties, responsibilities and rights, which can reduce uncertainty and ambiguity at work,
and eventually enhance their satisfaction. Similarly, this study contended that employees’
autonomy at work is another important resource that can have a positive effect
on employees’ motivation, satisfaction and happiness. It refers to the degree of freedom
employees have over important decisions in the workplace (Parker and Wall, 1998).

2.2 Workplace internet leisure

Compared to other traditional non-work-related behaviours in the office, for example,
taking a long break for tea or lunch, WIL does not need staff to be physically absent from
the workplace and, thus, it is not as noticeable as other non-work-related activities
(Huma et al., 2017; Wagner et al., 2012). This clarifies why WIL became the main form
of non-work-related behaviour in the workplace (Ivarsson and Larsson, 2011). Johnson and
Indvik (2003) and Anandarajan and Simmers (2005) defined WIL or cyberloafing as using
company time and resources to engage in non-work internet activities, such as online
shopping, stock trading and vacation planning. Additionally, Griffiths (2010) categorised
these types of activities as internet abuse by the employees. In the same manner, Mills et al.
(2001) used the terms cyberslacking, cyberloafing or cyberbudging to describe WIL as
a recreational activity involving wasting time on the internet while the employers assumed
that employees are doing office work. Similarly, Lim (2002) called WIL cyberloafing
and suggested that it is a form of deviant behaviour at the workplace. He elaborated further
that WIL occurred when the employees, in exchange for the decent work they performed,
received unjust treatment by the employer. More clearly, when the psychological contract
is violated by the employers, employees retaliate by abusing the facility provided
by the employer.
Contrastingly, Muhl (2003) argued that while the internet has helped employees in
performing work-related tasks, WIL provides employees with a brief escape from the office
tasks and, therefore, both employers and employees perceive that WIL is appropriate. Mediating role
Moreover, Coker (2011) described WIL as an unobstructed break, the aim of which of employee
is to allow the focus of the employees to be restored afterwards. Furthermore, Richards satisfaction
(2012) suggested that internet access application could be beneficial in two ways: first, as a
tool to be used by an employee for formal purposes; and second, the information accessed is
for the development of the employee’s knowledge and capability. Similarly, Anandarajan
and Simmers (2005) described that WIL is a way of accomplishing personal tasks in a world 729
in which employees’ personal and working life have no boundaries. In the same manner,
Lim and Teo (2005) found that American adults spend 5.9 h per week at home on work
activities, and 3.7 h on personal activities at the workplace. Therefore, employees perceived
that it is justified to spend time on WIL during working hours to balance the time taken
at home to do office tasks.

2.3 Workplace internet leisure policy

WILP is a form of social contract that is mutually agreed by employers and employees
to guide the organisation on the subject. Lichtenstein and Swatman (1997) contended that it
is important to setup terms for acceptable usage of WILP for the protection of both
employers and employees from internet risks. Young and Case (2004) and Qiaolei (2014) also
found that employers consider WIL as an addiction and therefore, appropriate WILP was
found effective compared to other kinds of punishment, such as dismissing employees from
work. With WILP, employees who are addicted to WIL are given a chance to seek treatment
instead of facing job termination. Therefore, an appropriate and fair policy can result
in employee satisfaction (ES) and decrease job turnover. This is in line with Lim and Teo’s
(2005) claim that policy that prohibits internet access can be perceived as distrust and can
increase resentment among employees.
Appropriate policy should include a policy on acceptable internet usage that provides
general guidelines for the use of the company website, but without actually controlling
employees. These policies must be clear, transparent and comprehensive. Some of the
guidelines suggested by Siau et al. (2002) are as follows: stating the values of the company
and the code of conduct guiding the behaviour of its employees; directing the attention
of employees to the importance of using the company’s internet for achieving the goals of
the business; emphasising the prohibition of all types of unethical activities that contradict
the company code of conduct; enforcing these polices in a consistent and uniform manner;
involving employees in the development of these policies to ensure they understand
and agree with policies; and making it clear that the company has the right to monitor all
forms of internet and e-mail use. Additionally, the literature suggests that it is a good policy
to obtain employees’ signed consent that they understand and agree to abide by the policy
regarding the use of the internet (Towns and Girard, 1998). In the same manner, Henle et al.
(2009) argued that signed consent can help to increase employees’ awareness
and understanding of the use of the company’s internet. Similarly, Hovorka-Mead et al.
(2002) demonstrate that employees perceive the policies of monitoring as fair when they
are given advance notice. Guided by Griffiths (2010), this study defined WILP as an
action taken by the employer to influence and guide the employee in WIL and to promote
prudent WIL behaviour.

2.4 Workplace autonomy orientation

According to Messarra et al. (2011), policy may be obsolete, and employers can resort to
other ways of managing WIL behaviour, such as providing training and education
on internet usage or providing WIL at designated places away from the employees’ work
stations. This flexibility, called autonomy orientation, is practiced and implemented by
employers in the workplace, as mentioned in SDT. Autonomous orientation represents
INTR individual’s tendency towards volitional engagement in behaviour (Deci et al., 2017). It is
29,4 a vital variable in SDT for predicting workplace attitude and behaviour. This theory
proposes that when employees can be identified with the value and importance of their
organisation they will show a higher level of work motivation. For example, Fernet et al.
(2010) found that autonomous orientation in the workplace led to less burnout. Also, Richer
et al. (2002) argued that employees’ autonomous orientation for their job was related to more
730 job satisfaction and less emotional exhaustion.
Meanwhile, Hackman and Oldham (1974) argued that autonomy is a freedom given to
employees in carrying out their tasks and determining which method to use. They further
explained that autonomy causes a critical psychological state where employees feel
personally responsible for their work outcomes. According to Deci et al. (1989), supporting
autonomy can be classified as informational, while pressuring employees to think, feel or
behave in certain ways is classified as controlling. They further explained that information
can promote self-determination while control can reduce self-determination. Baard et al.
(2004) defined autonomy orientation as people’s tendency to be self-regulating and to orient
towards the interest value of the environment and the contextual support for self-initiation.
Inspired by Baard et al. (2004), this study defined WAO as self-regulating and self-initiation
practice of employees set by the workplace environment which is supported by the
employer and well received by the employees.

2.5 Employee productivity (EP)

Workforce productivity is a crucial factor that can enhance, strengthen and sustain
a company’s overall business performance. Factors such as workforce absenteeism can have
a negative effect on workplace productivity. However, even when employees are present
at work, they may experience decreased productivity and below average work quality
(referred to presenteeism). Bernolak (1997, p. 204) defined productivity as “how much and
how well we produce from resources used”. If one produces more or better goods from
the same resources, it increases productivity. Likewise, Ferreira and Plessis (2009) defined
EP as time used actively by employees to execute and produce expected outcomes.
Moreover, Coker (2011) defined EP as the level of employees’ performance in relation to
attendance, work quality, capacity of performance and personal factors. Beaton et al. (2009)
argued that EP can be measured by absenteeism and presenteeism. In contrast, Haynes
(2007) stated that there is no universally accepted means to measure productivity.
Nevertheless, he suggested that a self-assessed approach originated by Leaman and
Bordass (2000) is the most commonly adopted one, where perceived productivity
is as important as actual productivity. Following Haynes’ (2007) view, this study defines EP
as employees’ self-assessment of attitude and behaviour that influence their work
performance and effectiveness.

2.6 Employee satisfaction (ES)

According to Becker (2004), job satisfaction is a key factor that contributes to employees’
mental and physical well-being. It has a major effect on work-related activities such
as productivity, absenteeism, citizenship behaviour, turnover and employee relations
(Cao et al., 2016; Mohammad et al., 2011). Therefore, understanding job satisfaction is crucial
for business organisation. Colquitt et al. (2017) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable
emotional state that results from ones’ appraisal for his/her job. It represents how employees
feel and think about their job. Likewise, Sageer et al. (2012) referred to ES as a measure
of employees’ happiness in their job and working environment, where their desires and
needs at work are fulfilled. They suggested that employees’ level of satisfaction depends
on employer variables and personal variables. The employer variables are comprised
of employer development, compensation and benefit policies, promotion and career
development, working environment and conditions, relationship with supervisor, leadership Mediating role
style and other factors. Meanwhile, the personal factors of satisfaction depend on of employee
personality, expectations, age, education and gender. Therefore, for an employer to retain satisfaction
talent and have a lower turnover rate, employees’ loyalty and satisfaction need to be
maintained as a pre-condition for productivity. Supported by Colquitt et al. (2017), this
research defined ES as the extent of happiness that employees perceive when their needs
are fulfilled. 731
2.7 Relationship between workplace internet leisure and employee satisfaction
SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2008) and the JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001) provide support for
the positive relationship between WIL and employees’ satisfaction. Particularly, SDT argues
that reinforcing workplace conditions where employees feel supported in their autonomy
can enhance their satisfaction, and ultimately improve their loyalty and productivity.
This study suggests, in accordance with SDT, that a degree of freedom at work can exert
a positive effect on employees’ motivation, and we propose that monitoring access to the
internet may have a harmful effect on employee motivation, and ultimately decrease
satisfaction levels. In the same manner, the JD-R model considers moderate use of the
internet for recreation purposes as a job resource. These resources have the potential
to assist employees by reducing their job demands, which can result in boosting their
satisfaction and ultimately increasing their productivity.
Besides the theoretical justification, empirical studies that support the relationship
between WIL and employees’ satisfaction also exist. For example, Coker (2011) found that
WIL can enhance ES. More clearly, WIL can be considered as a short break that helps
restore focus, and without it employees can lose concentration due to fatigue or boredom
(Coker, 2011). Similarly, Zijlstra et al. (1999) argued that the little unobtrusive breaks during
the workday that can be obtained through WIL may have a positive effect on ES
and ultimately increase productivity. Additionally, Attar and Sweis (2010) revealed that
IT access, IT level of use and communication are the major factors for employees’
satisfaction in the workplace. Studies conducted by Anandarajan and Simmers (2005)
and Oravec (2004) found that WIL can help to decrease stress, balance work and life,
and increase employees’ knowledge.
Besides the theoretical support and empirical evidence, this study argues that breaks
can have a positive effect on concentration. For example, after three hours of driving,
having a short break can reduce the possibility of having accident. Giving students
a break in a 6-h class can help them to understand and learn better. In the same manner,
this study assumes that moderate use of WIL (less than 20 per cent of employee’s time) –
including reading online news, checking online sport results, reading non-work blogs,
shopping, sending and receiving personal emails, watching YouTube, engaging in social
media sites such as Facebook, searching for information about hobbies, and browsing
websites for products and services of interest – can exert a positive and significant
effect on an employee’s satisfaction. Based on this assumption, the following hypothesis
is developed:
H1. WIL has a positive effect on employees’ satisfaction.

2.8 Relationship between workplace internet leisure policy and employee satisfaction
The relationship between WILP and ES can be explained by the procedural justice theory
(Lind and Tyler, 1988) and the JD-R model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2014). Specifically,
the theory of procedural justice is concerned with the impact of the fairness of
decision-making procedures on the attitudes and behaviours of the individuals involved in
and affected by those decisions (Lind and Tyler, 1988). Leventhal (1980) found that fair
INTR procedures should be consistent, accurate, correctable, representative and ethical.
29,4 Muchinsky (2000) indicated that consistent rules require that procedures be applied
consistently across people and over time, accurate rules require that procedures ensure
accuracy in information collection and decision making, correctable rules deal with the
existence of opportunities to change unfair decisions, ethical rules require that procedures
conform to personal or prevailing standards of morality and representative rules require
732 organisational procedures that ensure that the opinions of various groups affected by
a decision have been taken into account. Past studies found that procedural justice
is associated with positive outcomes such as satisfaction, commitment and good citizenship
behaviour (Colquitt et al., 2001; Lind and Tyler, 1988). Consequently, this study argued that
an organisation that applies WILP in a consistent manner across all departments and people
within the organisation, sets clear and transparent instructions regarding the use of
the internet, engages employees in setting these policies, modifies these polices in
accordance with internal and external changes, and follows ethical procedures in collecting
information can exert a positive effect on employees’ attitudes and behaviour in terms of
their satisfaction and productivity. Likewise, the DJ-R model conceives of fair policies
and procedures that aim to organise workplaces as resources that not only can mitigate the
demands of work, but also enhance employees’ satisfaction and eventually increase
their productivity.
Based on the above-mentioned theoretical support and empirical evidence, this study
assumes that the use of a fair WILP is likely to increase employees’ satisfaction and eventually
improve their productivity. Based on this assumption, the following hypothesis is postulated:
H2. Appropriate WILP has a positive effect on ES.

2.9 Relationship between workplace autonomy orientation and employee satisfaction

The relationship between WAO and ES can be justified by SDT (Deci and Ryan, 1985)
and the JD-R model (Bakker et al., 2004). SDT suggests that employees’ performance can be
affected by the amount of freedom they have to carry out the activities of their job.
It assumes that individuals have a psychological need to feel that their behaviours are
self-chosen and self-endorsed (Deci et al., 2017). According to this theory, factors initiating
the intentional behaviour can be categorised into informational, such as supporting
autonomy and competence, or controlling, such as pressuring employees to think, feel
and behave in specific ways. More particularly, employees who have employers with
informational support are likely to have positive attitudes and behaviour, while controlling
employers tended to have employees with negative perceptions (Deci and Ryan, 1985).
Therefore, this theory proposes that a degree of autonomy in the workplace should have
a positive effect on employees’ attitudes and behaviour. This is in line with Deci et al.’s (2017)
argument that when employees experience support for autonomy they feel more connected
to the organisation, feel more satisfied and work more efficiently. Similarly, the JD-R model
considers employees’ autonomy as a job resource that can positively influence his/her
satisfaction and finally increase his/her productivity.
In addition to theoretical support, empirical evidence that supports the relationship
between workplace autonomy and employees’ performance also available. For example,
Baard et al. (2004) found that greater autonomy in the workplace leads to greater job
satisfaction. Moreover, Deci et al. (1989) found that giving employees autonomy to
accomplish the objective of their department led to greater satisfaction and loyalty. Based
on the above-mentioned theoretical support and empirical evidence, this study assumes that
autonomy in the workplace can boost employees’ satisfaction. Thus, the following
hypothesis is developed:
H3. WAO has a positive effect on ES.
2.10 Relationship between employee satisfaction and employee productivity Mediating role
According to Sageer et al. (2012), a company needs to strengthen its work environments to of employee
increase ES, which can improve performance and productivity. Halkos and Bousinakis satisfaction
(2010) argued that ES is a major factor that influences productivity. Similarly, Chen et al.
(2004) found that ES has a direct, significant effect on EP.
The relationship between ES and EP can be understood by using social exchange theory
(Blau, 1964). This theory advocates that building a relationship between two parties 733
depends on sequences of mutual exchange that yield a model of reciprocal obligation in each
party (Blau, 1964). According to this theory, individuals are inclined to reciprocate to those
who help, guide, support and benefit them. Individuals who believe that their satisfaction
in the workplace was due to the official efforts from the organisation will feel morally
obligated to respond by demonstrating positive attitudes and behaviour in terms of more
commitment, loyalty, effort, etc. that can help the organisation to move ahead.
Based on the above discussion, this study assumes that as employees’ satisfaction increases,
they will be more productive. Built on this assumption, the following is hypothesised:
H4. ES has a positive effect on EP.

2.11 Mediating effects of employee satisfaction

The mediating role of satisfaction can be supported by the JD-R model. According to this
model, WIL, WILP and WAO are essential resources leading to high satisfaction, thus
yielding positive outcomes such as high productivity. Besides theoretical support, empirical
evidence also exists. For example, Halkos and Bousinakis (2010) revealed that WIL boosts
positive moods, reduces stress, increases ES and ultimately leads to enhanced EP. Moreover,
Gotvassli and Haugset (2010) found that WIL positively affects job satisfaction
and increases job performance. Also, Ramirez and Nembhard (2004) claimed that WAO is
a crucial factor that can enhance ES and increase productivity. Richards (2012) found that
allowing employees to access the internet leads to a positive flow of knowledge, where the
focus has shifted from a centralised to decentralised model, and the goal is increasing
organisational learning and productivity.
Based on the theoretical support, empirical evidence and logical argument, it is assumed
that job satisfaction can mediate the relationship between WIL, WILP, WAO and EP. Based
on this assumption, the following hypotheses are developed:
H5. ES mediates the relationship between WIL and EP.
H6. ES mediates the relationship between WILP and EP.
H7. ES mediates the relationship between WAO and EP.

3. Research method
3.1 Data collection and procedures
Data were collected from the banking sector in Malaysia, comprised of commercial,
investment and financial banks. Banks in Kuala Lumpur have been selected since it
is the business centre, where most banks’ headquarters are located and equipped with good
infrastructure, including internet access, as compared to other locations (Alam, 2009).
The unit of analysis was an individual employee who is working in these banks and has
access to the internet at his/her workplace. Initially, researchers contacted the human
resource managers of these organisations to get their consent to conduct the survey. Out of
the 30 banks the researchers contacted, 5 agreed to participate in the survey: Maybank,
RHB Bank, Bank Simpanan Nasional, HSBC and Malaysia Development Bank. Following
the approval from human resource managers and based on their recommendations,
INTR 100 questionnaires were handed over to the representatives in each bank for a total of
29,4 500 questionnaires; these were distributed using non-probability judgmental sampling.
As the main concern of this study is to contribute to theory, the use of non-probability
sampling was justified (Calder et al., 1981). The sample size was decided based on the
guideline suggested by Hair et al. (2010), i.e., to have five times as many observations as
the number of variables to be analysed. Applying this rule, the minimum number of samples
734 required is 150 (30 × 5). A total of 282 questionnaires were returned and found usable for
further analysis, representing a response rate of 56.4 per cent. To ensure that there was
no common method variance in the survey, this study performed Harman’s single factor
test, which revealed that none of the generated factors explained more than 50 per cent
of the variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
Table I revealed that most respondents are female (58.2 per cent). Most of the participants
(33.7 per cent) are between 36 and 45 years old. In total, 37.6 per cent of respondents had
experience at the present company of more than ten years, and 36.9 per cent of participants

Total items (n ¼ 282) Percentage (%)

Gender
Male 118 41.8
Female 164 58.2
Age (year)
Below 25 28 9.9
26−35 88 31.2
36−45 95 33.7
46−55 66 23.4
56 or above 5 1.8
Education
Secondary school certificate 59 20.9
Diploma/technical school certificate 39 13.8
Bachelor’s degree 153 54.3
Master’s degree 31 11.0
Profession
Managerial 63 22.3
Executive 135 47.9
Administrative 34 12.1
Technical 5 1.8
Clerical 45 16.0
Service at the present company
Less than half a year 4 1.4
Half a year to one year 15 5.3
One to two years 20 7.1
Two to five years 61 21.6
Five to ten years 76 27.0
More than ten years 106 37.6
Total years of experience
Less than 1 2 0.7
1−2 24 8.5
Table I. 2−5 23 8.2
Demographic 5−10 60 21.3
characteristics 10−20 104 36.9
of respondents More than 20 69 24.5
have total experience of between 10 and 20 years. Last, but not least, the majority of the Mediating role
respondents were at the executive level (47.9 per cent), followed by the managerial level of employee
(22.3 per cent). satisfaction
3.2 Measurement
The items used to measure the study variables were adapted from extant literature and
modified to suit the research context (see Table AI). All major scales are based on a five-point 735
Likert scale, ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree”. Five items were
adapted from Ferreira and Plessis (2009) to measure WIL, and four items were borrowed from
Messarra et al. (2011) to measure WILP. A total of 9 items to measure WOA were borrowed
from Hackman and Oldham (1974), and 12 items to measure ES and EP were borrowed from
Lim and Chen (2009). The full set of questions is provided in Table AI. The items with negative
wording are denoted by an asterisk and were reverse coded during the analysis process.

4. Analysis and findings

4.1 Descriptive analysis of the study variables
Means, standard deviation and inter-correlation for the variables of this study are reported
in Table II. The results of this study indicate that there is a positive and significant
correlation between all variables of this study that range between 0.219 and 0.610.
The values of these correlation coefficients are considered to be good indicators to move
forward to the next stage of analysis.

4.2 Assessment of model using PLS-SEM

The proposed conceptual framework, including the measurement model and structural
model, were assessed using Partial Least Squares (PLS-SEM). The SmartPLS 3.2.5
(Ringle et al., 2015) was used to perform the PLS-SEM analysis. As advised by Anderson
and Gerbing (1988), the measurement model was tested at an early stage followed
by an evaluation of the structural model. The measurement model represents the
relationship between the construct and its items, and can be assessed based on the validity
and reliability of the latent variables in the model, whereas, the structural model represents
the relationships between the latent variables and can be assessed based on the significance
and strength of these relationships (Hair et al., 2017; Mohammad et al., 2016).
4.2.1 Measurement model assessment. In order to assess the reflective measurement
model, the indicators and constructs’ reliability, followed by convergent and discriminate
validity, should be assessed (Chua et al., 2016). To confirm the reliability of indicators,
the loading of each item on its relevant latent variable should be higher than 0.50
(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). To ascertain the construct reliability, the composite
reliability (CR) for each construct should be higher than 0.70 (Hair et al., 2017). Table III
revealed that the loadings of all items (except WIL2 and WILP3 which were removed from
further analysis) and the CR of all constructs surpassed the threshold values of 0.50 and 0.70

Constructs Mean SD EP ES WAO WIL WILP

EP 20.75 5.965 1
ES 21.68 5.097 0.401** 1
Table II.
WAO 32.49 6.648 0.219** 0.610** 1 Mean, standard
WIL 17.42 2.716 0.439** 0.601** 0.511** 1 deviation, and
WILP 14.76 2.337 0.238** 0.363** 0.281** 0.403** 1 inter-correlation
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed) among variables
INTR Constructs Items Loadings AVE CRs
29,4
EP EP1 0.930 0.856 0.973
EP2 0.919
EP3 0.923
EP4 0.938
EP5 0.942
736 EP6 0.900
ES ES1 0.912 0.801 0.960
ES2 0.930
ES3 0.945
ES4 0.719
ES5 0.929
ES6 0.914
WAO WAO1 0.850 0.709 0.956
WAO2 0.866
WAO3 0.893
WAO4 0.848
WAO5 0.897
WAO6 0.702
WAO7 0.825
WAO8 0.885
WAO9 0.793
WIL WIL1 0.877 0.661 0.882
WIL3 0.864
WIL4 0.918
WIL5 0.533
WILP WILP1 0.669 0.512 0.751
Table III. WILP2 0.536
Measurement WILP4 0.894
model assessment Note: WIL2 and WILP3 were deleted due to low loading

respectively, which confirmed the reliability of the model at the item and construct levels.
The convergent validity of the measurement is ascertained by examining the average
variance extracted (AVE) and the CR (Lee and Yang, 2015; Quoquab et al., 2017). The CRs
were all higher than 0.7 and the AVEs were higher than 0.5, as suggested in the literature
(see Table III). The discriminant validity of the measures (the degree to which items
differentiate among constructs or measure distinct concepts) was examined by following the
Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion of comparing the correlations between constructs, and
the square root of the AVE for that construct (see Table IV ). All the values on the diagonals
were greater than the corresponding row and column values, indicating the measures were
discriminant. There has been recent criticism that the Fornell-Larcker (1981) criterion does
not reliably detect the lack of discriminant validity in common research situations, and,

EP ES WAO WIL WILP

EP 0.925
ES 0.425 0.895
WAO 0.231 0.634 0.842
Table IV. WIL 0.531 0.688 0.508 0.813
Fornell−Larcker WILP 0.341 0.475 0.274 0.508 0.715
criterion Note: Values in the diagonal (italic) are the square root of the AVE, while the off-diagonals are correlations
consequently, Henseler et al. (2015) suggested an alternative approach based on the Mediating role
multitrait-multimethod matrix, to assess discriminant validity: the heterotrait-monotrait of employee
ratio of correlations (HTMT). The authors of the current study used the criterion of satisfaction
HTMT0.85 value of 0.85 (Kline, 2011), and, as shown in Table V, all the HTMT values were
well below 0.85, indicating that discriminant validity has been ascertained.
4.2.2 Structural model assessment. To assess the structural model, Hair et al. (2017) and
Zhu et al. (2018) suggested looking at the coefficient of determination (R2), path coefficient 737
( β) and the corresponding t-values via a bootstrapping procedure with a resample of 5,000.
They also suggested that, in addition to these basic measures, researchers should report the
predictive relevance (Q2) and the effect sizes ( f 2).
First, this study looked at the effects of the independent variable on the mediator
(see Table VI); the R2 was 0.601, indicating that the independent variable WIL ( β ¼ 0.413,
p o 0.01, f2 ¼ 0.255), WILP ( β ¼ 0.162, p o 0.01, f 2 ¼ 0.049) and WAO ( β ¼ 0.379,
p o 0.01, f2 ¼ 0.268) together explained the 60.1 per cent variance in ES. While ES
( β ¼ 0.425, po 0.01, f 2 ¼ 0.220), with an R 2 of 0.180, indicated ES can explain 18 per cent
of the variance in EP. Thus H1−H4 were supported (Table VI and Figure 1).
Next, the mediation effect of ES was examined. As illustrated in Table VI, the
WIL → ES → EP ( β ¼ 0.175, po 0.01, BC0.95 LL ¼ 0.084 and UL ¼ 0.267), WILP → ES → EP
( β ¼ 0.069, po 0.05, BC0.95 LL ¼ 0.028 and UL ¼ 0.133) and WAO → ES → EP ( β ¼ 0.161,
po 0.01, BC0.95 LL ¼ 0.100 and UL ¼ 0.220) were all significant. Also, as suggested by
Preacher and Hayes (2008), the indirect effects did not straddle a 0 in between, indicating there is
mediation. Thus, it can be concluded that the mediation effect is statistically significant,
indicating that H5−H7 were also supported (Table VI and Figure 1).
Furthermore, the predictive relevance of the model was tested by using the blindfolding
procedure. Blindfolding is a sample reuse technique that omits every dth data point in the
endogenous construct’s indicators and estimates the parameters with the remaining data
points (Henseler et al., 2009). If the Q2 value is larger than 0, the model has predictive
relevance for endogenous constructs that are measured reflectively (Fornell and Cha, 1994).
In this study, all the Q2 values were more than 0, with the Q2 ¼ 0.475 for ES,
and Q2 ¼ 0.152 for EP suggesting that the model has sufficient predictive relevance.

EP ES WAO WIL WILP

EP
ES 0.423
WAO 0.233 0.662
WIL 0.638 0.762 0.541 Table V.
WILP 0.432 0.642 0.374 0.749 HTMT criterion

Hypotheses Relationships Std β SE t-value Decision BC 95% LL BC 95% UL

H1 WIL → ES 0.413 0.060 6.883** Supported 0.295 0.527

H2 WILP → ES 0.162 0.056 2.892* Supported 0.052 0.271
H3 WAO → ES 0.379 0.073 5.191** Supported 0.235 0.522
H4 ES → EP 0.425 0.068 6.24** Supported 0.291 0.558
H5 WIL → ES → EP 0.175 0.045 3.88** Supported 0.084 0.267
H6 WILP → ES → EP 0.069 0.029 2.37* Supported 0.028 0.133
H7 WAO → ES → EP 0.161 0.034 4.73** Supported 0.100 0.220 Table VI.
Notes: *p o0; **p o 0.01 Hypotheses testing
INTR ES1 ES2 ES3 ES4 ES5 ES6
29,4 0.930 0.945
WIL3 0.912 0.719 0.929 0.914
0.864

WIL4 0.918
WIL 0.413
WIL5 0.533 (p < 0.01) 0.601
738 0.877 EP1
WIL1 0.162 0.930
ES 0.425 EP2
(p < 0.01)
(p < 0.01)
WILP1 0.379 0.919
0.669 EP3
(p < 0.01)
0.536 0.923
WILP2 WILP
0.180 0.938 EP4
0.894
WILP4 0.942
WAO EP5
EP 0.900
EP6

0.893 0.848 0.897 0.793

0.850 0.866 0.702 0.825 0.885
Figure 1.
Structural model
WAO1 WAO2 WAO3 WAO4 WAO5 WAO6 WAO7 WAO8 WAO9

5. Discussion
The main objectives of this study are to examine the relationship between WIL, WILP,
workplace autonomy orientation, employees’ satisfaction and employees’ productivity in
the banking sector in Malaysia; we also seek also to investigate the mediating effect
of employees’ satisfaction between WIL, WILP, WAO and employees’ productivity.
To achieve these objectives, a theoretical model was developed and tested empirically based
on SDT, the JD-R model, social exchange theory and procedural justice theory. Overall, the
findings of this research reveal that all hypotheses are supported by the data and are in line
with the expected direction.
In detail, the current study found that employees’ satisfaction exerts a positive and
significant effect on employees’ productivity. This result is in agreement with social
exchange theory. According to this theory, if individuals believe that their organisation
exerts significant effort to increase their happiness and satisfaction level at work, they will
feel morally obliged to reciprocate by showing positive attitudes and behaviour that can
enhance and advance the productivity of their organisation. Moreover, the output of this
study is in line with past studies. For example, Bartel et al. (2003) found that satisfied
employees are more productive in the banking sector in the USA and less likely to leave
their current employer. This is a good indicator that satisfied employees are more motivated
to improve and enhance their productivity. This argument is congruent with Chen et al.’s
(2004) finding that satisfied employees are motivated to learn new things through various
training programs organised by their organisation, which ultimately can improve
their productivity.
The result of this research confirms the positive relationship between WIL and ES.
This result is in agreement with SDT and the JD-R model that argue a degree of freedom
at work not only acts as a job resource and powerful motivator, but also has a significant
effect on ES and performance. This result is also consistent with past studies that found
a positive relationship between WIL and ES. For example, Oravec (2002) revealed that
allowing employees a reasonable amount of online recreation can have a significant effect on
their satisfaction and performance. Again, Lim and Chen (2009) found that WIL, especially
with browsing activity, does have a positive impact on employees’ psychological aspect Mediating role
as well as on their work. The result is also consistent with the experiment conducted by of employee
Kuem and Siponen (2014) that confirmed the positive effect of short (less than 20 minutes) satisfaction
periods of time spent on WIP activities, as a means of mental recovery, on individuals’
satisfaction and creative performance. A possible explanation for this result is that the
reasonable use of technology, in terms of the internet for recreation purposes, is likely to
help employees to reduce their stress, fatigue and anxiety levels, while it also boosts their 739
mood, charges them with positive energy, and, ultimately, enhances their satisfaction.
The output of the partial least square test found a positive and significant relationship
between WILP and employees’ satisfaction. This result is consistent with the procedural
justice theory and the JD-R model. Particularly, if employees perceive an organisation’s
policies regarding the use of internet for personal use are applied in a consistent manner
across all individuals at the workplace, in a way that is ethical, accurate and free from bias,
they will consider it as powerful resources that organises the workplace; as a result, their
sense of fairness will be enhanced, triggering positive attitudes and behaviours.
Furthermore, the result of this research is in line with past studies that found when
employees perceive their organisation is implementing fair processes, procedures
and policies, they reciprocate by displaying positive attitudes and behaviours like
satisfaction, commitment and citizenship behaviour (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff et al., 2000).
The output of our analysis ascertains the positive relationship between WAO and
employees’ satisfaction. This result is consistent with the SDT that claims a degree of
autonomy at the workplace is likely to have a positive effect on employees’ motivation, and
ultimately enhance their satisfaction (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Moreover, the result
is congruent with past studies that found autonomy at the workplace can increase
employees’ satisfaction, enhance their loyalty and boost their performance (Baard et al., 2004;
Breaugh, 1985; Deci et al., 1989).
The findings of this study show that employees’ satisfaction mediates the relationships
between WIL, WILP, WAO and employees’ productivity. These results are consistent with
the JD-R model that suggests that employees’ psychological state mediates the relationship
between workplace resources (WIL, WILP and WAO) and outcome (productivity).
Particularly, employees’ satisfaction is enhanced with the presence of resources that can
reduce their burden mentally and physically, and eventually this satisfaction is transformed
into high productivity. This result also echoes Messarra et al.’s (2011) opinion that
employees feel more satisfied about their jobs and more productive when they have
autonomy in accessing the internet for non-work-related matters. A possible explanation for
this result is that employees who enjoy WIL at their workplace are more likely to be happy
and satisfied, which may increase their productivity. Moreover, this study argues that WILP
is a permission form of management, where their employees engage in non-work-related
activities for moderate amounts of time to boost their moods, increase their satisfaction, and
enhance their productivity.

6. Theoretical and managerial implications

From a theoretical point of view, this research contributes significantly to the existing
body of knowledge. First, this research has challenged the prevalent propositions that
WIP is undesirable workplace behaviour and can decrease the productivity of employees.
Particularly, this research has demonstrated through theoretical and statistical evidence
that moderate use of WIP can exert a positive effect on employees’ satisfaction
and eventually increase their productivity. Therefore, WIP should not be seen as negative
behaviour in the workplace, but rather as a form of unofficial break. Second,
this is a comparatively new study that has hypothesised ES as a mediating variable
between WIL, WILP, WAO and EP. This helps to explain how an organisation can
INTR translate WIL, WILP and WAO into high productivity by elevating employees’
29,4 satisfaction. Third, based on the JD-R model, this study has integrated aspects of the
psychological contract in terms of WIL and WAO, and aspects of the social contract in
terms of WILP; we used these together to predict their combined effect on employees’
satisfaction and their productivity. Past studies have tested these variables
independently. Consequently, combining WIL, WILP and WAO in one study has
740 reflected a better and more comprehensive picture of the antecedents of workplace
outcomes. Fourth, most past studies related to WIL were conducted in the Western
context and found inconsistent results. As confirmed in this study, the outcomes of the
investigation in a non-Western context can be different from those in developed countries.
For example, in this study, WIL, WILP and WAO exert positive and significant effects on
ES which contrasts with the findings reported in the developed country context. Fifth, this
study has successfully combined theories developed in the Western context (i.e. SDT, the
JD-R model, social exchange theory and procedural justice theory) to support and explain
the conceptual framework that was developed in the non-Western context of Malaysia.
In doing so, this study provides a new avenue for future studies to further explain and
predict the effect of WIL, WILP and WOA on other attitudinal and behavioural variables
in the workplace.
From a practical perspective, this research has tested the theorised relationships in a
new research context and found a positive relationship among the independent variables
and the dependent variables. This result has several implications for the management of
banks. First, employers are advised to continuously provide and improve internet
resources and facilitate internet access for their employees. This can enhance and advance
their knowledge, speeding up the process of accomplishing different tasks, and strengthen
the collaboration and communication processes among employees. Moreover, the decision
makers within these organisations are advised to perceive WIL as a positive behaviour
(job resource) rather than as a counterproductive behaviour (job demand). Accordingly,
they should allocate moderate time (less than 20 per cent of working hours) for their
employees to browse the company’s web for non-work-related matters, such as sending
and receiving e-mail, watching YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, playing games, etc. This can
help employees to reduce their stress and fatigue levels and replenish their cognitive
resources. Ultimately, this is expected to increase their satisfaction and productivity.
Additionally, policy makers within these banks are advised to perceive WILP as
a mechanism to monitor the workplace leisure behaviour rather than a way to impose
penalties upon employees. Finally, it should be noted that leadership style is gradually
changing from a centralised to a decentralised style, where freedom is given on
how individuals perform their tasks and on how individuals are evaluated on achieving
the agreed key performance indicators. Therefore, WAO should be more prevalent
in these organisations, since it is a sign of trust by the employer and, in turn, can
improve ES.

7. Conclusion and future directions

This study claims that human capital is considered to be one of the most important aspects
in a company’s survival. Hence, the well-being and level of happiness of the employees
should be taken seriously. WIL and WAO are psychological contracts, while workplace
internet policy is a social contract that runs parallel to them in shaping the level
of happiness and well-being for an employee.
Although this study has its merit, it also has some limitations. In particular, this study has
relied on samples drawn from the employees of the banking industry. Therefore, the result
from the current study cannot be generalised to the employees of other industries. Future
studies may replicate this study by incorporating different industries such as healthcare,
education and insurance to enhance the generalisability of the results. Besides, this study is Mediating role
cross-sectional in nature, which raises questions about causality. Therefore, only conclusions of employee
and discussions of the general relationships between the variables of interest could be drawn. satisfaction
Future studies can employ a longitudinal study to generate a clear picture about the
cause-effect relationship between the variables of interest. This study has opened the avenue
for future studies to examine the antecedents and consequences of WIL behaviour. For
example, future studies can examine the effect of WIL on a company’s capital knowledge, 741
including innovation and technology. Moreover, future studies can examine the effect of
national culture, based on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, on WIL. This study contributes
significantly to the body of knowledge on WIL, and the authors hope that future efforts will
sustain and gain more widespread knowledge about this area of research.

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Appendix Mediating role
of employee
satisfaction
Variables Items Source

Workplace (1) Workplace internet leisure encourages people to share knowledge Ferreira and
internet leisure and expertise Plessis (2009) 747
(2) Workplace internet leisure is addictive (it negatively influences the
way I normally function)a
(3) Workplace internet leisure contributes to knowledge that can be used
for financial gain or any other purpose that might be advantageous to
a company (intellectual capital)
(4) Workplace internet leisure encourages innovation through
collaboration
(5) Workplace internet leisure should not be allowed in the officea
Workplace (1) Workplace internet leisure policies that prohibit the internet for Messarra et al.
internet leisure personal use are not acceptablea (2011)
policy
(2) Workplace internet leisure policy should allow limited personal access
to the internet
(3) Workplace internet leisure policy should monitor website access
(4) Workplace internet leisure policies that allow free internet access
are acceptable
Workplace (1) I have considerable opportunity to exercise independent thought and Hackman and
autonomy freedom in how I do the work Oldham (1974)
orientation
(2) I have a chance to use my personal initiative or judgment in carrying
out the work
(3) The job gives me almost complete responsibility for deciding how and
when the work is to be done
(4) My supervisor trusts me and treats me fairly
(5) The job provides me the chance to completely finish the piece of
work I begin
(6) I feel I should personally take the credit or blame for the results of my
work on this job
(7) I receive good support and guidance from my supervisor
(8) I have opportunities to be creative and imaginative in my work
(9) Workplace internet leisure gives me opportunities to learn new things
Employee (1) Workplace internet leisure makes my work more interesting Lim and Chen
Satisfaction (2009)
(2) Workplace internet leisure helps me deal with practical issues at work
(3) Workplace internet leisure helps me deal with problem at work
(4) Workplace internet leisure helps me to deal with personal
issues at work
(5) Workplace internet leisure makes me a better worker
(6) Workplace internet make me a more interesting person at work
Employee (1) Workplace internet leisure makes it difficult for me to fulfil my work Lim and Chen
Productivity obligationsa (2009)
(2) Workplace internet leisure makes me spend less time doing worka
(3) Workplace internet leisure makes me takes longer time to switch back
to work after browsinga
(4) Workplace internet leisure makes me extend work deadlinea
(5) Workplace internet leisure makes me leave office completing less
worka
(6) Workplace internet leisure takes up time which I would rather Table AI.
spend on worka The measurement
a
Note: Negatively worded items instrument
INTR About the authors
29,4 Jihad Mohammad is Senior Lecturer at International Business School, UTM, Malaysia. He has received
his Doctorate degree from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. He has presented papers at various
international and national conferences and published articles in peer-reviewed international journals.
He has versatile career exposure. His area of research interest includes organisational citizenship
behaviour, psychological ownership, psychological capital, leadership, innovation, pro-environmental
behaviour, consumer behaviour and Islamic work ethics. Jihad Mohammad is the corresponding author
748 and can be contacted at: jihad@ibs.utm.my
Farzana Quoquab is Senior Lecturer at International Business School, UTM. She has received her
Doctorate degree from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. She has presented papers at various
international and national conferences and published articles in peer-reviewed international journals
such as IIUM Journal of Case Studies in Management, World Review of Business Research, Asian Case
Research Journal, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, International Journal of Business
Governance and Ethics, Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, Asian Academy of Management
Journal and Journal of Islamic Marketing. Since 2008, she has produced 53 international conference
proceedings and 8 book chapters. She is one of the editorial board members of Case Studies in Business
and Management and Journal of Economic and Administrative Science.
Siti Halimah received PhD Degree from Putra Business School, Universit Putra Malaysia
and MBA Degree from International Business School, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. She has
participated in conferences and published paper in internationally reputed journals. Her area of
research focus is consumer behaviour.
Ramayah Thurasamy is Professor at the School of Management in USM. He teaches mainly courses
in Research Methodology and Business Statistics and has also conducted training courses for the local
government (Research Methods for candidates departing overseas for higher degree, Jabatan
Perkhidmatan Awam). Apart from teaching, he is Avid Researcher, especially in the areas
of technology management and adoption in business and education. His publications have appeared
in Computers in Human Behaviour, Resources Conservation and Recycling, Journal of Educational
Technology & Society, Direct Marketing: An International Journal, Information Development and
Journal of Project Management ( JoPM).

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