Chapter 3

Data Presentation
Quantitative Techniques
REM250

Dr. Nurul Afiqah Ahmad

Prepared by Dr. Junainah Mohamad

 Course Outcomes

• Comprehend the nature and purpose of statistical

data.

• Calculate and interpret the data by using

quantitative techniques.

• Prepare statistical analysis report for various

purposes.
 Definition Data
Any observation collected in respect of any
characteristic or event is called data
 Information

 Raw data carry/convey little meaning, when it is

considered alone

 The data is minimized, processed/analyzed and

then presented systematically. So that it is converted
into information

 Is is important to note that data, that is not

converted into information is of little value for
evaluation and planning and can not be used by
those who are involved in decision making
 1.0 Introduction

• Data presentation:
• An essential step before further statistical analysis is to
be carried out
• Data are summarized and displayed visually
• Able to observe important features of the data
• Provide insights into the type of model and analysis that
can be used
• Common data presentations:
• Frequently table, bar chart, pie chart, histogram, frequency
curve, line graph, pictograph, stem-and-leaf plot, box plot
and ogive
 2.0 Organizing and Graphing
Qualitative Data
• Frequency Distribution
• Simple way to presenting qualitative data
• Table consist columns (category of data) and rows

Car Model Number of Cars

Proton Waja 66
Proton Wira 50
Proton Saga 39
Proton Gen-2 25
Total 180
 Pie Chart
• Used to present categorical data

• Consist of one or more circles that are divided into

sectors

• The sectors (segment) represents a proportional

composition of the frequency or percentages of each
groups (total of 100%)
 Pie Chart

• Guidelines for constructing pie chart:-

• Choose a small number of categories – to many
categories may the pie chart difficult to interpret
• Sectors (segmentation) of the circle match the
percentage of each of the categories
• Construct the pie chart in ascending or descending
order – helps in the interpretation of the data
 Exercise 1

NZ Holdings’ current assets in RM (million) for the

year 2014 are given in the Table 3.2.

Current asset RM (million)

Stocks 1,520
Cash 720
Others 860

Construct a pie chart for the above information above.

 Bar Chart
• Used to present categorical data

• Bar chart usually used to convey and highlight

information

• Two types of bar chart;

• Horizontal bar chart
• Vertical bar chart
• Cluster bar chart
• Stacked bar chart
 Bar Chart
• Guidelines for constructing pie chart:-
• Label the vertical axis with the number of objects
• Label the horizontal axis with the label of categories
• Construct the rectangle over each categories
• Leave space between each categories on the horizontal
axis to distinguish between the categories and to clarify
the presentation
 Bar Chart
• Vertical Bar chart • Cluster Bar Chart
 Bar Chart
• Stacked Bar chart
 Contingency Table
• Also known as a cross-classification table

• Often desirable to examine the categorical responses in

terms of two qualitative variables simultaneously

• Example:- a car manufacture might be interested to know

whether colour preference for a car is independent of
gender
Red Green White Black Blue Total
Men 30 10 26 33 1 100
Women 45 8 12 10 25 100
Total 75 18 38 43 26 100
 3.0 Organizing and
Graphing Quantitative Data
• Normally summarized in tabular form

• Frequency table us used to simplify the data

• Quantitative data can be classified into ungroup and

grouped data

• Representing quantitative data:

• Stem-and-leaf plots
• Histogram
• Cumulative frequency distribution
• Ogive
 Stem-and-leaf plots
• Graphical methods for describing quantitative data

• Widely used in exploratory data analysis when the data set

is small

• This plot separates data entries into leading digits and

trailing digits

• It allows us to use the information contained in a frequency

distribution to show the range of data values, their
concentration, the shape of distribution, whether there are
specific values or scores not represented and whether there
are stray or extreme value or scores
 Stem-and-leaf plots

• Shows the data in organized way so it can be

analyzed easily

• Organizes data so it is easier to find the median,

mode and range
 Stem-and-leaf plots

• Guidelines:
• Split each score or value into two set of digits. The first
(or leading) set of digits is the stem, and the second (or
trailing) set of digits is the leaf
• List of the possible stem digits from the lowest to the
highest
• For each score in the mass of data, write down the leaf
numbers on the line labeled by the appropriate stem
number
 Stem-and-leaf plots
• Here are the scores for a freshman basketball team
Points earned in games during basketball season
27 16 34 29 48 12 33
20 18 42 51 27 32 41
Points Earned
Stems Leaves
1 268
2 07 79
3 234
4 128
5 1
Key: 1 / 2 = 12
• Here is the same data organized into stem-and-leaf plot
 Stem-and-leaf plots
• Here are the scores for a freshman basketball team
Points earned in games during basketball season
27 16 34 29 48 12 33
20 18 42 51 27 32 41

Points Earned
Stems Leaves
1 268
2 07 79
3 234
4 128
5 1
Key: 1 / 2 =12
 Let’s try one together......

Here are one student’s math test scores. Make a stem-

and-leaf plot for this data
Test Scores
75 86 83 91 94
88 84 99 79 86
 Test Scores
75 86 83 91 94
88 84 99 79 86

Test Scores
Stems Leaves
7 59
8 34668
9 149
Key: 7 / 5 =75
 Frequency distribution for ungrouped
and grouped data

• Data can be classified as ungrouped and grouped

data

• Ungrouped data are that data are not organized, or

if arranged, could only be from highest to lowest or
lowest to highest

• Grouped data are data that are organized and

arranged into different classes or categories
 Frequency distribution for ungrouped
and grouped data

• Frequency Distribution Table:

• Is a table shows the data arranged into different
classes (or categories) and the number of cases (or
frequencies) which fall into each class
• A frequency distribution is a summary table where data
are grouped into a number of classes
• The objective is to obtain the number of responses
associated with the different values of the variable
• The frequency distribution is the number of times the
observation has occurred
• Thus, a frequency distribution gives a listing of different
observation
 Frequency Distribution for
Ungrouped Data
• Sample of a frequency distribution table for ungrouped data
Frequency Distribution for the Ages
of 50 Students Enrolled in Statistics
Age Frequency
12 2
13 13
14 27
15 4
16 3
17 1
N = 50
 Frequency Distribution for
Grouped Data
• The frequency table with class intervals

• Advantages:-
• Often desirable because it can reduce complexity
• Helps to smoothen out irregularities in the distribution

• Disadvantages:-
• Some of information maybe lost (when it grouped into
several class intervals
• Guidelines for Frequency Tables
• Be sure that the classes are mutually exclusive (should
not overlap and clearly defined)
• Include all classes, even if the frequency is zero
• Try to use the same width for all classes
• Select convenient numbers for class limits
• Use between 5 to 15 classes (should neither few classes
nor too many classes)
• The sum of the class frequencies must equal the
number of original data values
 Frequency Distribution for
Grouped Data
• Sample of a frequency distribution table for grouped data
Frequency Distribution for Quiz
Scores of 50 Students in Geometry
Scores Frequency
0-2 1
3-5 2
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 -14 19
N = 50
 Histogram
• Histogram: graph that displays the data by using contiguous
vertical bars (unless the frequency if a class is 0) of various
heights to represent the frequency of the classes

• The pictorial nature of the histogram enables us to see

patterns that are difficult to see in a table of numbers
 Histogram
• To construct a histogram:
• Draw and label the x and y axes
• Represent the frequency on the y-axis ad the class boundaries on
the x-axis
• Using the frequencies as heights, draw vertical bars for each
class

• Example refer to Statistics for UITM pages 67-68

 Frequency Polygon
• Frequency polygon: graph that uses lines that connect points
plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes;
frequencies are represented by the heights of the points

• To construct a frequency polygon:

• Find the midpoints of each class
• Draw the x and y axes. Label the x-axis with the midpoint of each
class then use a suitable scale for the frequencies on the y-axis
• Using midpoints for the x values and the frequencies as the y
values, plot the points
• Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to
the x-axis at the beginning and the end of the graph (where the
next midpoint would be located)
Frequency Polygon
 Cumulative Frequency
Distribution
• Cumulative Frequency Distribution:
• Two types :- “less than” and “more than”
• The less than cumulative frequency is more frequently
used
• Cumulative frequency is determine by adding
frequencies
 Cumulative Frequency
Distribution
Class Class Frequency Cumulative Relative Cumulative
number frequency frequency relative
frequency

1 27-29 2 2 0.04 0.04

2 29-31 9 11 0.18 0.22

3 31-33 13 24 0.26 0.48

4 33-35 14 38 0.28 0.76

5 35-37 8 46 0.16 0.92

6 37-39 4 50 0.08 1.00

TOTAL 50
 Ogive
• Ogive: or commonly known as the cumulative frequency curve
is a graph or line chart of a cumulative frequency distribution.

• Two types of ogive : :”less than” or “more than”

• “Less than” is an increasing function. It rises to the right

• The “more than” ogive falls to the right.

• An ogive is drawn based on the data from cumulative frequency

table or the data from cumulative relative frequency

• Ogives for relative frequencies are used when two cumulative

distributions with different total frequencies are to be compared
Ogive