SAMPLING AND DATA

COLLECTION METHODS
REM 250
(Quantitative Techniques)

Dr. Nurul Afiqah Ahmad

Prepared by Dr. Junainah Mohamad

COURSE OUTCOMES
• Comprehend the nature and purpose of statistical data.
• Calculate and interpret the data by using quantitative
techniques.
• Prepare statistical analysis report for various purposes.

• LESSON OUTCOME
• To Identify the basic of sampling techniques
WHAT IS SAMPLING?
• Sampling - A scientific procedure of selecting a sample
from a population.
• Used to generalise or to make conclusion about the
population - (so that the smaple must be collected in such
way that willl accurately present its population.
• Sampling techniques - sceintefic methods of selecting
representative samples from population.
• It is depends on the characteristics of the population of
interest.
• Includes factors such as homogenity/heterogenity/
availability of sampling frame/ research budgets' and the
importance of the research.
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Non-probability sampling techniques

Convenience Sampling Judgemental Sampling

Snowball Sampling Quota Sampling

Probability sampling techniques

Simple random Systematic Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling Stratified Sampling

• In general, researchers prefer to use probability sampling techniques

to ensure that their findings are valid as well as to allow them to make
inferences on the population.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Convenience Sampling
• The procedure where the researcher selects the respondents at his
own convenience.

• Often, the respondents are selected because they are happen to be at

the right place and at the right time where researcher is conducting
his/her survey.

• Use subjects that are easily accessible

Examples:
- Using family members or students in a classroom
- Shopping complexes
- Public places
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
CONT'
• Judgemental Sampling
• The procedure of selecting respondents for research is solely based
on the judgement of the reseacher.

• The respondents are selected when he feels possesses certain

characteristics that represent the population interest.

• Based on the researcher beliefs and observation.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
CONT'
• Snowball Sampling
• The procedure of selecting the subsequent respondents based on the
information provided by the earlier respondents and the process
continues untill enough respondents are obtained.

• Identify the first respondent who has the characterisics which suit
with the study.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
CONT'
• Quota Sampling
• The procedure of selecting respondents who has certain
characteristic determined by the study.

• It is quite similar to convenience sampling but differs in term of the

flexibility to choose the respondents he wants provided abide by the
stated specification.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Simple Random Sampling
• Used when the population is homogenous and the sampling frame is
available. The sample is selected from the population in such a way
that each item has the same chance of being selected as a
respondents.

• Every unit in the population has an equal chances to be selected as a

respondents.

• Eg : Random numbers, drawing names from bowl.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES CONT'
• Systematic Sampling
• Used when the population is homogenous. Researcher divides the
population size (N) by the intended sample size (n) to obtain range k
(k = (N/n)).

• Select a random starting point and then select every kth subject in the
population

• Simple to use so it is used often

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES CONT'
• Stratified Sampling
• Divide the population into at least two different groups with
common characteristic(s), then draw SOME subjects from each
group (group is called strata or stratum).

• Results in a more representative sample

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES CONT'
• Cluster Sampling
• Divide the population into groups
(called clusters), randomly select
some of the groups, and then
collect data from ALL members of
the selected groups

• Used when the population of

interest is scattered widely across
certain geographical area and
smapling frame available.

• Used extensively by government

and private research
organizations
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES CONT'

• Multi-stage Sampling
• Designed to reduced time and cost when working with samples
from very large populations. For eg : A researcher needs sample of
2,000 residents from Malaysia population. Since Malaysia have 14
stateswhich have many disctricts, mukims and villages. This is
where multi-stage sampling is needed.

• Choose 4 states randomly, then choose five districts out of the

selected states and finally select 100 individuals at random of each
districts (Let say 20 districts had been choosen). Researcher will
get 2,000 residents from this techniques.
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESS

Non-probability sampling

Techniques Strength Weakness

Convenience Less expensive, less time Selection bias, no assurance
Sampling consuming, convenient of representatives, not
suitable for descriptive or
causal research
Judgemental Less expensive, less time Does not allow generalization,
Sampling consuming, convenient subjective

Quota Sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance

for certain characteristic of representative

Snowball Can estimate rare Time consuming

Sampling characteristics
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESS

Probability sampling

Techniques Strength Weakness

Simple Random Easy applied. Result Difficult to obtain sampling frame,
Sampling can projected on expensive, sometimes no
population. assurance of representatives
Systematic Easier to implement Can decrease representatives if
Sampling than simple random certain patterns exist in smapling
sampling frame
Quota Sampling Includes all important Difficult to select relevant
subpopulations, stratification variable, not feasible
precision is improved to stratify on many variables,
expensive
Snowball Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
Sampling effective and work is interpret results.
reduced
 LESSON OUTCOMES

• To determine the methods of data collection

• Able to identify the suitable method of data
collection
DATA COLLECTION

• In research, normally researcher use data in many

different ways.

• Data can be used to describe situations.

• Data can be collected in a variety of ways, BUT if

the sample data is not collected in an appropriate
way, the data may be so completely useless that no
amount of statistical torturing can salvage them.
 COMMON METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION

• Face-to-face interview (personal interview)

• Telephone interview
• Direct questionnaire (distribution and collection)
• Mail/postal questionnaire
• Direct observation
• Other methods (e-mail, video recording)
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Face-to-face interview Telephone interview

 Also known as personal  An interview asks questions
interview from a prepared questionnaire

 Normally yield high response  Normally in a short duration

rate
 Limited - only to repondents
 Allows the interviewer to who can be reach by phone
clarify terms that the
respondents do not  Less expensive
understand, which result
higher response rate

 People usually responds

spontaneously

 Expensive method of data

collection
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Direct Questionnaire Mailed Questionnaire

 Research will greet respondents  Send via postal services

and explain breifly his
intention before giving  Researcher requested the
questionnaires ro the respondents to return the
respondents questionnnaire within a
required period of time
 Researcher will wait the
respondents to complete the  Cheaper approach/ wider
questionnaire research coverage/ no
interviewer influence / more
time to think

 Lower response rate/ very

simple question can be asked/
might be biased
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Direct Observation Other Methods

 Commonly used method of  New techniques of gathering

collecting statistical data. information are available.

 Used in work, studies and  Information can be collected

organisations. trough IT, electronic e-mail,
internet survey, social media
 In social sciences study - habits messengers
of people or communities -
Property (Consumers'
Behaviour).

 Observer needs to be highly

skilled and unbiased.
 OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
• Observational Studies
– The researcher merely observes what is
happening or what has happened in the past
and tries to draw conclusions based on these
observations
– No interaction with subjects, usually
– No modifications on subjects
– Occur in natural settings, usually
– Can be expensive and time consuming
– Example:
• Surveys---telephone, mailed questionnaire, personal
interview
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
• Experimental Studies
– The researcher manipulates one of the variables
and tries to determine how the manipulation
influences other variables
– Interaction with subject occurs, usually
– Modifications on subject occurs
– May occur in unnatural settings (labs or
classrooms)
– Example:
• Clinical trials of new medications ,treatments, etc.
 Telephone Mailed Questionnaire Personal
Interviews
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METHODS OF DATA

Less costly than Cover a wider Provides in-depth

personal interviews More on Surveys
geographic area than responses
telephone
Subjects are more Less expensive than Interviewers must
candid than if face to telephone be trained
face
COLLECTION

Challenge---some Subjects remain Most costly of

subjects do not have anonymous three
phone, will not answer
when called, or hang up
(refusal to participate)
Tone of voice of Challenge –low Interviewer may
interviewer may number of subjects’ be biased in
influence subjects’ respond, inappropriate his/her selection
responses answers to questions, of subjects
subjects have difficulty
reading/understanding
the questions
USES OF DATA
COLLECTION
 USES OF STATISTICAL DATA

• To describe data
• To Compare two or more data sets
• To Determine if a relationship exists between
variables
• Test hypothesis (educated guess)
• To estimates about population characteristics
• Predict past or future behavior of data
• Use of statistics can be impressive to employers
 MISUSES OF STATISTICAL
DATA
• Samples
– Voluntary-response sample (or self-selected sample)
• One in which the subjects themselves decide whether to be
included---creates built-in bias
– Telephone call-in polls (radio)
– Mail-in polls
– Internet polls
– Small Samples
• Too few subjects used
– Convenience
• Not representative since subjects can be easily accessed
 MISUSES OF STATISTICAL
DATA
• Survey Questions
– Loaded Questions---unintentional wording to
elicit a desired response
– Order of Questions
– Nonresponse (Refusal)—subject refuses to
answer questions
– Self-Interest ---Sponsor of the survey could enjoy
monetary gains from the results
 MISUSES OF STATISTICAL
DATA
• Missing Data (Partial Pictures)
– Detached Statistics ---no comparison is made
– Percentages -
• Precise Numbers
– People believe this implies accuracy
• Implied Connections
– Correlation and Causality –when we find a statistical
association between two variables, we cannot conclude
that one of the variables is the cause of (or directly
affects) the other variable