Robb 1

Adam Robb

Dr. Burton

December 12, 2017

WRTC 330

Life is a Railway

Introduction:

Human beings are naturally storytelling creatures. Storytelling is one of the most

important aspects of our lives. After all, during the origins of our species, stories were all we had

to communicate with each other until discursive forms of communication were established, but

even then those who were illiterate and could not write relied on storytelling for their histories to

be passed down. We told tall-tales to keep traditions alive, Religious figures told parables to

connect with their disciples, and still today, stories are used to explain ideas and connect with

listeners. We used visual aspects to communicate our lives through stories too, whether it be

through cave paintings or the movement of vivid face painted characters in Shakespearian

Dramas. Today, we still see storytelling as a prevalent aspect of our lives. We are fascinated by

stories, whether they be in novels, music, art, film, or some other medium, we always gravitate

toward a good story because it speaks to us in either on a personal scale or an encompassing one.

Usually, it connects with us on a deeper level that we feel has tapped into our very being as a

species.

A brilliant example of how stories pull us in can be seen in Hayao Miyazaki’s critically

acclaimed 2002 film, Spirited Away. In this film, one scene stands out, in particular, a scene

where the protagonist, Chihiro, gets on a train to go return a stolen item to lift a curse on her

friend Haku. This scene is particularly noteworthy because it has no dialogue. The scene ties
 Robb 2

together too separate locations of the film in a beautiful manner that makes the film appear to

simply take a breath, which leaves the audience perplexed in an introspective and curious way.

In a time where films can feel formulaic and predictable, some directors are making a conscious

decision to produce something unexpected out of today’s motion picture norms. How do film

directors use scenes with limited or no dialogue to communicate non-verbally and convey

deeper, more philosophical meanings? Discovering the reasoning for these aspects of film can

aid our understanding of rhetorical theory because it will ultimately allow us to realize why

stories are so important to us, what those stories communicate and what they say about our

psyches, desires, fears, and plights of the human species in general. Hayao Miyazaki’s Spirited

Away offers a vibrant example of how these methods of communication are achieved and why.

Description of the artifact:

For a better understanding of the film Spirited Away, it helps to have a background of the

filmmaker Hayao Miyazaki. Born January 5, 1941, in Tokyo, Japan, Miyazaki is regarded as the

“Japanese Walt Disney” (IMDb). He is known for making outstanding films that have captivated

audiences since he began his career. “[Spirited Away] …was named best-animated feature at the

2003 Academy Awards. In his native Japan, it won best picture at the 2002 Japanese Academy

Awards and replaced Titanic as the top-grossing film in Japanese history” (Ray). Miyazaki’s

father owned an airplane business that aided in supplying Japanese pilots in World War II

(Reference for Business). “Miyazaki indicated later in life that he felt guilty that his family had

profited from Japan's efforts in World War II” (Reference for Business). Miyazaki explored

themes of conflict, restoring peace, and other difficulties that plague human existence; therefore,

it is natural of him to explore deeper philosophical avenues in his films.

 Robb 3

Spirited Away is a sort of coming-of-age story about a young Japanese girl named

Chihiro. When Chihiro her parents are driving to move into their new home, her dad thinks he

can save time by taking a shortcut. They take a back road and find themselves lost in the forest.

They explore an old building that resembles some sort of station or waiting room. They walk

through this building and end up in a spirit realm. It can be inferred that this is a spirit realm

because of the Torii displayed before the forest entrance. The Torii is a Japanese archway that

signifies crossing from the profane to the sacred (Japan, Hub). Chihiro begs to go back to the car,

but her parents continue onward through an open field to what appears to be an abandoned city.

They find unattended food and eat while Chihiro looks around. When she comes back she

discovers that they have been turned into pigs. She must find a way to save them and can only do

so by getting a job at the bathhouse that seems to govern the whole region. With the help of her

new friend, Haku, she is able to get into the bathhouse unharmed and is able to convince the

boiler man, Kamaji, to allow her to go see the main boss, Yubaba, to plead for a job. Chihiro

successfully convinces Yubaba for a job; however, Yubaba takes Chiro’s name and changes it to

Sen (for the sake of clarity, the analysis will refer to her as Chihiro whereas she is called Sen by

other characters in the film). Haku later explains to Chihiro that Yubaba does this to control the

servants of the bathhouse and if Chihiro forgets her real name then she will be forever tethered to

this realm and can never leave.

Throughout this analysis, the scene of focus will be referred to as “the train scene”.

Before she takes the train though, Chihiro acquires highly valued train tickets from the boiler

man, Kamaji. Another character, Lin, who helps Chihiro throughout her time at the bathhouse,

asks with wide open eyes to Kamaji, “That’s a train ticket. Where’d you get that? Kamaji replies:

“I’ve had it for forty years” (Spirited Away - English Transcript). Kamaji then tells Chihiro:
 Robb 4

“Now listen, it's the sixth stop, called Swamp Bottom … Make sure you get it right! There used

to be a return train, but these days it's a one-way ride” (Spirited Away - English Transcript).

After dealing with some unfinished business at the bathhouse, regarding the character Noface,

Chihiro sets forth for the train station to Swampbottom to return Zeniba’s (Yubaba’s twin sister)

seal that Haku had stolen to lift the curse on Haku.

The train scene starts off with Chihiro walking through water on the tracks to get to the

station. Due to the heavy rainfall, the landscape has been flooded and almost appears to be an

ocean. At the beginning of the scene, it is daytime and everything is bright and light is reflected

off of the water. As Chihiro walks to the station, Lin says bye to her after dropping her off.

Noface has jumped from the bathhouse into the water to follow Chihiro and join her on the ride

to Swampbottom. When Chihiro sees the station she starts running to it. She then notices that the

train is coming and so is Noface. As the train speeds by, it splashes out waves of water knocking

Noface over. The train stops at the station to pick up Chihiro and her friends. Her friends are a

mouse, a fly, and Noface. The conductor reaches out his hand for the train tickets and counts

everyone coming aboard and points behind Chihiro, she then notices that Noface has caught up

with her and wants to come too. Chihiro allows for Noface to come too using up all her tickets.

The conductor shreds the tickets and as they get on board the door closes. The train begins

moving and our characters look for seats. On the train there are translucent shadow figures in the

form of humans. At this point, the music moves from the background to the foreground of the

scene. Chihiro looks ahead and then to her friends and the moves to find a seat. She sits in

between two of the translucent figures who appear to be male and then beckons Noface to come

sit beside her. The scene moves from right to left the whole time and everything in the scene

revolves around this motion. The next shots of the scene are a couple scenic paintings of the
 Robb 5

landscape. There is a house, a town off in the distance, a railroad crossing where a similar

translucent figure stands with a little girl, and then the train pulls up to the next stop. When the

train arrives, all of the translucent figures grab their bags and exit. Chihiro looks out the window

and sees the figures walking through an arch way that appears to go down into the water. The

sign at the stop reads: “沼 (numa) 原 (hara)”. As the train pulls away, the music changes slightly

as a little girl is seen at the end of the stop looking back at Chihiro. The train leaves the stop and

is seen shrinking in the distance. The next shot is of Chihiro and her friends sitting alone in the

train with their heads tilted down as the translucent figures were earlier in the scene. Neon signs

all in Chinese or Japanese characters start to fly by outside of the train’s windows. They appear

to be signs for restaurants or other signs of attractions to a traveler alongside a road. Some of the

signs also seem similar to neon signs that were used at the beginning of the film. As the signs

subside we see Chihiro holding the mouse and fly in her hands as they sleep. The second to last

shot is of Chihiro looking out the window. Her head is turned to face looking out of the window

showing that the scene is still moving from right to left. It can be seen from out the window that

night is falling and a few lights are starting to appear in the distance. The final shot of the scene

is the train continuing on the tracks through what appears to be a wetland type of landscape. The

sun has set and night has fallen as Chihiro approaches Swampbottom.

Description of the methods of analysis:

This analysis will use methods from both Metaphor and Generative Criticism. Both

methods are found in Sonja Foss’s book: Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Foss

does not explicitly state where Metaphor Criticism originates from, but she does explain how

metaphor “Derived from the Greek words meta, meaning ‘over’ and phereras, meaning ‘to

carry’” (Foss 267) this implies that ancient Greek rhetoricians were using it so presumably,
 Robb 6

Aristotle may have had influence in its use of rhetoric. Foss explains: “…metaphor involves the

process of transferring or carrying over aspects that apply to one object to a second object”

(267). This analysis will use the tenor and vehicle components of Metaphor Criticism as its units

of analysis alongside Generative Criticism. “The tenor is the topic or subject that is being

explained. The vehicle is the mechanism or lens through which the topic is viewed” (Foss 267).

Foss states here that these terms were proposed by I.A. Richards in The Philosophy of Rhetoric.

Using tenor and vehicle to decipher deeper meanings in Miyazaki’s Spirited Away will allow for

a clearer look into some of the visual components of the train scene such as the train itself and

the Chinese characters used throughout the scene.

In addition to Metaphor Criticism, this analysis will also use some aspects of Generative

Criticism. Sonja Foss describes Generative Criticism as a type of criticism where “…you

generate units of analysis or an explanation from your artifact rather than from previously

developed, formal methods of criticism” (387). Foss sites several individuals about their

approaches to Generative Criticism, but there does not appear to be one single person who

started the focus within rhetorical criticism. The analysis of The Train Scene, using Generative

Criticism, will attempt to uncover the meaning of the scene and why it is so effective in

captivating the audience to evoke strong emotions. To help better understand the artifact, Foss

offers intensity and frequency as a means for establishing units of analysis. “Intensity guides you

to look for aspects of the artifact that seem important or significant… [and] frequency [to] look

for patterns in the artifact –things that are repeated” (Foss 389). This will be done by using the

frequency and intensity as well as establishing these aspects of the scene as the units of analysis:

the music, facial features of the characters, characters themselves, lack of dialogue, and the
 Robb 7

colors of the scene. Using these aspects of the scene, this analysis will attempt to establish an

explanatory meaning for these items and why the director chose to portray them the way he did.

Findings of the analysis:

Using the tenor and vehicle means of analyzing in Metaphor criticism we can unpack

several things in The Train Scene. First off, the train itself is a metaphor for life. This can be

inferred from the Chinese characters, 中 道, written on the front and back of the train. 中

(Zhōng) translates to “center”, or “middle” and 道 (Dào) translates to “way”, “path”, “truth”, or

“Tao” referring to Taoism (Da). Put together, 中 道 (Zhōng Dào) translates to “Middle Road” or

“Middle Way” which correlates to philosophical teachings of ancient China. The philosophical

idea of a “Middle Way” is also seen in Buddhism which made its way to China after originating

in modern day Nepal. In Buddhist philosophy, “The Middle Way” or “Middle Path” means to

live one’s life without excess on either side of life. “[The] ‘Middle Path’… avoids two extremes:

one extreme being the search for happiness through the pleasures of the senses… the other being

the search for happiness through self-mortification in different forms of asceticism” (Rahula 45).

Through practicing this Middle Path, one can obtain “…vision and knowledge, which leads to

Calm, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvana” (Rahula 45). Lastly, yabla, a website dedicated to

teaching Mandarin Chinese, offers this explanation: “a heavy load and a long road

fig. to bear heavy responsibilities through a long struggle”. Although Rahula is defining The

Middle Path in terms of Buddhist Doctrine, and yabla’s definition is more literal, they both tap

into the notion of the individual living their life in a struggle to obtain happiness. Due to the

nature of life’s obstacles, we find ourselves falling to either extreme of life, which intensifies our

burdens that we carry throughout our time in this existence. This philosophy of life acts as the

tenor of the metaphor while the train acts as the vehicle.

 Robb 8

The next use of Chinese characters that offer further insight into Miyazaki’s use of

metaphor can be seen on the sign of the station where the figures get off of the train. On the sign

are the characters 沼 (Numa) and 原 (Hara). 沼 (Numa) translates to “swamp” or “marsh” and 原

(Hara) translates to “original” (Da). 沼 原 in a translator translates to English as Zhǎoyuán

meaning “marsh”. Still searching for “hara” and its meaning, a result came up of block print

paintings by the Japanese artist Utagawa Hiroshige who lived from 1797–1858 (Museum of Fine

Arts, Boston). According to Museum of Fine Arts Boston, the painting is called “Hara: The Rest

Stop at Kawashibara and the Fuji Swamp… from the series The Fifty-three Stations of the

Tôkaidô Road”. “The Tōkaidō road was the most important of the Five Routes of the Edo period

[1603–1868] in Japan, connecting Kyoto to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)” (Wikipedia). Upon

further research, Utagawa Hiroshige’s, also known as Ando Hiroshige, paintings depicting the

Tôkaidô Road can be seen on hiroshige.org.uk. Connecting these paintings to the ones shown on

the Wikipedia page, 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō, display some of same images as

hiroshige.org.uk, but not all because there are different editions of the paintings. However, the

Wikipedia page does give separate pages for each of the fifty-three stops, and the painting in

question, “Hara: The Rest Stop at Kawashibara and the Fuji Swamp”, fits the description on the

Yoshiwara-juku addition of the Wikipedia page: 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō. The painting

“…depicted in the classic ukiyoe print by Ando Hiroshige (Hoeido edition) from 1831-1834

which shows a groom leading a horse with women travelers down a narrow path lined with pine

trees with Mount Fuji to the left” (Wikipedia). This written description offers the best portrayal

of “Hara: The Rest Stop at Kawashibara and the Fuji Swamp” in context with the available

history of the stations on Wikipedia. This then signifies that the painting, being fourteenth in the

series, aligns with Yoshiwara-juku as the fourteenth out of the fifty-three stations of The Tôkaidô
 Robb 9

Road. Back to the train scene, this is further proof that Miyazaki’s scene resembles The Tôkaidô

Road, and maybe even this painting itself. Even more so is that the people in the painting move

from right to left as does the motion in the train scene. When the translucent figures get off at the

Numa Hara or 沼 原 station it is most likely the historic Yoshiwara-juku station. Why did

Miyazaki choose this station out of all fifty-three and what could it be a metaphor for?

“Yoshiwara-juku was the fourteenth of the fifty-three stations of the Tōkaidō. It is located

in the present-day city of Fuji, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan” (Wikipedia). In modern times, a

railway now connects the main cities that were along The Tôkaidô Road. “The Tokyo-Nagoya-

Kyoto-Osaka route is followed by the JR Tōkaidō Main Line and Tōkaidō Shinkansen, as well as

the Tōmei and Meishin expressways. A few portions of the original road can still be found,

however, and in modern times at least one person has managed to follow and walk much of it”

(Wikipedia). Although the railway does not exactly parallel the historic Tōkaidō Road, there are

most likely parts of the railway that come pretty close to old sections. While the train still

metaphorically refers more broadly to the idea of life and the philosophy of The Middle Way, in

a literal sense, Miyazaki’s train references The Tôkaidô Road. This is done to offer a historical

perspective because the significance of The Tôkaidô Road and the difficulties people faced while

traveling on it. We can see another example of how this refers to The Tôkaidô Road because of

the neon signs that pass outside of the train window at the end of the scene. Since these appear to

be signs for food or for rest, they most likely refer to places for travelers to stop and rest or eat,

just with a modern twist because of the railway that now occupies the space in Japan.

Furthermore, this road and its fifty-three stations have religious and philosophical implications

too that signify the individual’s life path. “The 53 stations were taken from the 53 Buddhist
 Robb 10

saints that Buddhist acolyte Sudhana visited to receive teachings in his quest for enlightenment”

(Wikipedia). This reinforces the idea of the train is a metaphor for the Middle Way.

According to Wikipedia, the Yoshiwara-juku station was destroyed by a tsunami in 1639

but “…was rebuilt further inland, on what is now the Yodahara section of present-day Fuji. In

1680, the area was again devastated by a large tsunami, and the post town was again relocated

and moved to its current place [‘…in the present-day city of Fuji, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan’]”

(Wikipedia). This would perhaps explain why Miyazaki floods the landscape in his scene. In

addition, this spirit realm that Chihiro is in, it is implied that the spirits that reside here are

deceased. This is inferred when we realize that Chihiro’s friend, Haku, was actually a river spirit

and could not find his way back because the river had been drained and turned into a housing

development. By that logic, all of the spirits that reside here are deceased, so perhaps these

translucent figures getting off at the Yoshiwara-juku were victims of the tsunamis that hit the

area. If this is true, then the tenor being addressed could be death and how spirits search for

peace after dying. Perhaps then the vehicle that Miyazaki uses here to address this tenor is the

translucent spirits searching for peace after death.

Switching to Generative Criticism to keep the focus on the translucent figures of the

scene, one of the reoccurring aspects of the figures is their lack of movement. Using frequency, it

can be observed that there are five different shots in the scene where we see these figures in the

train. When Chihiro walks on board she notices them, but they do not acknowledge her presence.

Are they ignoring her or are they not able to see her? Perhaps they are not able to sense Chihiro

because of their limits as spirits, or maybe they do not see her because of all of their heads are

pointed down. Whichever it is, the stagnate presence they have makes for an eerie feeling that

separates them from Chihiro and her friends. In addition to their lack of movement, they are all
 Robb 11

dressed for cold weather. This is worth noting given the climate and how the other characters

dress. Most everyone else in the film wears some kind of warmer weather clothing, but these

figures are wearing thick coats, hats, and gloves. Perhaps they are cold because they are lost

souls searching for something after dying in the tsunami (if that interpretation is accurate). There

are five of these figures in the train with Chihiro, four men, and one woman, and they all appear

to be older. The first of these figures that we see is the one sitting closest to Chihiro. When she

walks on board his fists are clenched which may be signifying frustration or maybe he’s cold and

is warming his fingertips in the palms of his hands. When they arrive at the Numa Hara stop, the

figures finally move and one is seen grabbing his bag to walk off the train. These features of the

translucent figures make them appear to be dethatched from their surroundings because they are

dressed for cold weather when it’s warm, and they do not notice when Chihiro walks onto the

train. These figures are portrayed as such to show their disconnect with the rest of the world.

Intensity in Generative Criticism requires the critic to look for significant aspects of the artifact,

and these aspects of the translucent figures stand out as crucial components to understanding

why they are there and how they are portrayed by Miyazaki.

Continuing with Generative Criticism, another aspect of the scene is Miyazaki’s use of

color, specifically in the sun setting. When the scene starts it is daytime and the sky is a rich light

blue cluttered with white fluffy clouds. As the scene progresses the sun begins to set and hues of

orange in pink start to spill into the shades of blue; meanwhile, all reflected by the water. After

the train leaves the numa hara station, the sun barely exposes its last rays of light through the

clouds making the sky wash out the remaining blue with darker hues of indigo as the last little

bits of pink and orange linger a little while longer. By the end of the scene, we see that night has

fallen and there are some lights, presumably of towns, off in the distance. Using the method of
 Robb 12

frequency in Generative Criticism we can observe how Miyazaki uses sunsets throughout the

film to signify changes in scenes, and the train scene is a prime example of this. Sunsets often

symbolize something coming to a close or something new emerging. Chihiro possesses the latter

characteristic in this scene, but more on that later. Miyazaki uses the sunset here to signify this

trait in Chihiro.

Shifting now to Metaphor Criticism to elaborate on this trait within Chihiro, we see

Miyazaki’s excellent use of displaying facial features playing an important role in the analysis of

this scene. When she first gets on the train, Chihiro has a face of uncertainty as she looks at the

translucent figures and back to her friends. She appears hesitant to get a seat next to these strange

figures but persists anyway. During the scene, the only other translucent figures that we see,

besides the ones described above, are two girls. One at the railroad crossing and the other at the

numa hara station as the train pulls away. Both of these girls are wearing pink, the little girl at

the railroad crossing is wearing a pink dress, the girl at the station is wearing a pink skirt and

then Chihiro is wearing pink shorts. It would seem that all three of these girls (Chihiro included)

share something in common. Perhaps these two younger girls symbolize Chihiro as a younger

child that grows and matures throughout her journey. The younger girl at the numa hara station

appears to be looking right back at Chihiro as the train leaves the station. What intensifies this

part, even more, is how the music changes. The piano has a repeated melody that continues

throughout the scene, but at the point where the little girl looks back at Chihiro, the lower end of

the piano drops out and just a few light notes bounce back and forth in a different melody than

the rest of the score. Chihiro’s maturing can be further analyzed at the end of the scene where her

face has shifted from uncertain to confident. We can observe how she looks onward to the

upcoming challenges she will face because of her change in facial expression being more
 Robb 13

confident and courageous. In addition to this, she is holding her friends the mouse and the fly

while they sleep. The two were excited to be traveling at the beginning of the scene but tire

themselves out by the end falling asleep in Chihiro’s lap. This could signify a motherly sense in

Chihiro as she matures because of how she takes care of her friends. It is likely that the idea of a

girl maturing into adulthood could be the tenor in this instance while the pink shorts and skirts

are the vehicle. Or the vehicle could be her changing facial expressions, or the color pink and her

facial expressions are both vehicles for the coming-of-age metaphor. This coming-of-age theme

prevails throughout the entire film and one could say that it is what the entire film is about.

Chihiro starts off the film as a scared child and leaves the film in a much more mature manner.

The way she talks even changes, she has a much calmer tone as opposed to the beginning of the

film where she sounded whiny. Given this knowledge of Chihiro in the context of the entire film,

it can be concluded that this train scene is the height of her maturing, she gets on the train unsure

of herself and then comes back ready to save her parents.

Conclusion:

Hayao Miyazaki does a marvelous job of conveying what he sets out to do in this scene.

With his use of metaphors, human expression, colors, and music he taps into human curiosity

and makes the audience question why the scene is illustrated and conducted the way it is. If the

viewer is educated in in some Japanese history and can read the characters in the scene, they will

be better suited to find the hidden metaphors in Miyazaki’s film; however, this is not as easily

achievable for a western audience. Perhaps that is why he mixes in more familiar Chinese

characters into the film to appeal to a wider audience. Miyazaki’s unique perspective gives us

one answer to the question: How do film directors use scenes with limited or no dialogue to

communicate non-verbally and convey deeper, more philosophical meanings? But for every
 Robb 14

different director implying this technique, there is a different way of going about it. Take, for

example, The Revenant directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu. Alejandro uses a lot of non-

dialogue in that film to convey being lost in the wilderness. He also uses this as a metaphor for

man and nature. Both directors use metaphor in these scenes without dialogue. It would appear

that the use of metaphor plays a significant role in these scenes with non-dialogue and we see

that being used by Miyazaki.

Hayao Miyazaki gives us the answer to our question by implementing Metaphors to

convey deeper meanings (such as the historic Tôkaidô Road, the train metaphor, the tsunami, and

coming-of-age), while simultaneously using non-dialogue, music, color, and human expression

to tap into the audience’s innate human wonder of their own existence and where were all

ultimately going on our life’s journey. Through Metaphor Criticism we can observe how

Miyazaki uses metaphors to address deeper meanings to this scene. He uses these metaphors to

set the stage for these expressions of human emotion to occur on, and we can uncover this by

using Generative Criticism. Through Metaphor and Generative Criticism, we can observe these

phenomena at use by Miyazaki and discover the true meanings for all aspects of this thought-

provoking scene. By using the methods that he does, Miyazaki answers our question by implying

that some topics portrayed in film, whether they be mundane or profound, are better off to be

addressed through other means of communication. The written and spoken word and can only

convey so much to the listener. Music and art are the universal languages and we see this being

implemented in Miyazaki’s films. Spirited Away has been shown all over the world with

different translations, subtitles, and dubs; however, this scene does not need any of those because

it connects to the audience on a deeper level. One that taps into the very existence of our species.
 Robb 15

Works Cited

“Ando Hiroshi Ggegyosho Tôkaidô.” Gyosho Tôkaidô,

www.hiroshige.org.uk/hiroshige/Tokaido_Series/Tokaido_Gyosho.htm.

“Biography.” IMDb, IMDb.com, www.imdb.com/name/nm0594503/bio.

Da, Jun. “Modern Chinese Character Frequency List.” Http://Lingua.mtsu.edu, 30 Mar. 2004,

http://lingua.mtsu.edu/chinese-computing/statistics/char/list.php?Which=MO.

Foss, Sonja K. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Waveland Press, 2009.

“Hara: The Rest Stop at Kawashibara and the Fuji Swamp (Hara, Kashiwabara tateba Fuji no numa),

from the series The Fifty-Three Stations of the Tôkaidô Road (Tôkaidô gojûsan tsugi no uchi),

also known as the Gyôsho Tôkaidô.” Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 22 Jan. 2017,

www.mfa.org/collections/object/hara-the-rest-stop-at-kawashibara-and-the-fuji-swamp-hara-

kashiwabara-tateba-fuji-no-numa-from-the-series-the-fifty-three-stations-of-the-

t%C3%B4kaid%C3%B4-road-t%C3%B4kaid%C3%B4-goj%C3%BBsan-tsugi-no-uchi-also-

known-as-the-gy%C3%B4sho-t%C3%B4kaid%C3%B4-200060

“Hayao Miyazaki 1941–.” Reference for Business, www.referenceforbusiness.com/biography/M-

R/Miyazaki-Hayao-1941.html.

Japan, Hub. “The Torii and Its Meaning in the Shinto Religion.” Hub Japan, Hub Japan, 25 Dec. 2016,

https://hubjapan.io/articles/the-torii-and-its-meaning-in-the-shinto-religion.

Miyazaki, Hayao. “Spirited Away - Train Travel Scene [HD].” Vimeo, 12 Dec. 2017,

https://vimeo.com/91985775.

Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. Grove Press, 1974.

 Robb 16

Works Cited Continued

Ray, Michael. “Miyazaki Hayao.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 28 Dec.

2016, www.britannica.com/biography/Miyazaki-Hayao.

Ren Zhong Dao Yuan | Definition | Mandarin Chinese Pinyin English Dictionary | Yabla Chinese,

https://chinese.yabla.com/chinese-english-pinyin-dictionary.php?define=ren+zhong+dao+yuan.

“Spirited Away - English Transcript.” Readable, www.allreadable.com/mv173eeEFN2.

“Tōkaidō (Road).” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 26 Nov. 2017,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tōkaidō_(road).

“53 Stations of the Tōkaidō.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 10 Nov. 2017,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53_Stations_of_the_Tōkaidō.