Reference and the articles:

The article system of Standard English is considered to be one of the most difficult aspects of the
grammar to acquire, especially by learners whose language does not have articles. The
English article system also poses problems for speakers whose language does have articles, but
Whose article system differs from that of English, such as Arabic.
The primary aim of articles in English is to mark the definite vs. indefinite contrast, and their use is
also determined by such factors as whether nouns are countable or non-countable. Also, in discussing the
use of the articles, it is essential to distinguish between specific and generic reference.
In this summary, I have tried to show the learner the relation between " specific" reference and " definite"
and "indefinite" articles; also the relation between "generic" reference and " definite" and "indefinite"
articles.
1- What is the meaning of " specific" and " generic" reference:
A necessary and sufficient condition of the use of the definite article is for the hearer to be able to identify
some set of elements in discourse, and to locate a referent in it, and if sufficient information is given in the
context, this condition is met.
A. Specific Reference: the reference is specific if we have in mind specific identity of that noun; for
example:
A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage.
In this sentence we are talking about specific lion, specific tigers and specific cage; i.e. the speaker is
thinking about specific identities. We have used indefinite articles because the listener is not familiar with
these identities.
B. Generic Reference: the reference is generic if we are thinking of the class of a noun without special
reference; i.e. we were referring to all species of that noun. For example:
Tigers are dangerous animals.
In this sentence, we are talking about all tigers in the world, not specific group.

2- The relation between reference and articles:

Specific Reference Generic Reference
Definite Article ( the) Indefinite Articles (a/ Definite Article ( the) Indefinite Articles (a/
an/ zero article) an/ zero article)
We use "the" with all 1- ( a/ an) only with "The": is only used with 1- ( a/ an) only with
types of nouns singular countable singular countable singular countable
( countable plural or nouns. nouns if the reference is nouns
singular/ noncountable) e.g. I read a book. generic, otherwise it is 2- (zero article) with
if the speaker and the 2- (zero article) with not acceptable. plural countable and
hearer know what plural countable and e.g. noncountable nouns.
exactly we are talking noncountable nouns. The pen (all pens in the We use indefinite

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 about. e.g. I have good books.
e.g. We use indefinite
I read the book you articles in specific
gave me. reference if the speaker
I used all the sugar refers to specific
you lent me. identity but the listener
is not familiar with it;
i.e. introduced for the
first time to the listener
or the reader.
world) is mightier than articles in generic
the sword. reference if we are
Note: talking in general.
A lion eats meat. e.g. Nowadays, as a
The lion eats meat. result of technology,
( no difference in books are available
meaning) everywhere.
- Nowadays, as a result
of technology, you can
get a book anytime.

3- Nationality words and Ajectives as a head:

There are two types of nouns that can act as noun- phrase head with generic reference. In this situation,
what is said about the use of " the" with plural nouns in generic reference is not applied here.
A- Plural personal :
The French = all the French nation.
The rich= all rich people.
( the use of "the" here is essential)
But if you would like to use the nationality adjective for specific reference, we use it with zero article for
plural and the indefinite articles a/ an or with " the". Also there is a lexical variation in a number of
nationality words as between Englishman/men in specific reference and the English ( generic) ( Study table
page 70/ important):
Examples:
I saw a Chinese in our class; the Chinese seems clever. ( singular/ specific reference)
The Greeks are musical. (Generic reference/ plural)
I saw nice Greeks in that restaurant. (Specific/ plural)
The Greeks that I know are musical. (Specific/ Plural)
4- Postmodification by an " of" phrase:
Postmodification by an of- phrase usually requires the definite article " the" with a head noun which thus
has limted generic reference:
-He likes the chocolate of Switzerland. ( generic reference)
Other prepositional phrases are not the same as of phrase, they could be used in specific or generic reference
according to the cotext:
-He likes glass from Venice. ( generic)
-He likes the glass from Venice you brought for me. (Specific)
( see page 72 for more examples)
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5- Common Nouns with zero articles: ( Read page 73/ 74 carefully)

6- Unique Reference: (Proper nouns)

Proper nouns are unique reference and do not share such characteristic of common nouns as article contrast,
therefore they do not take " the" (but there are some exceptions), but when the name has restrictive
modification to give " partitive" reference to the name ( usually when you have "of" phrase postmodifier);
the proper name takes "the".

Proper names without " the" Proper names with " the"
1- personal names: (with or without titles): 1- Exceptions for personal names:
Shakespear, Adam, Dr. Ali, Mrs Johnson ….etc. The Emperor, the Duke, The Lord (God).

2- calendar items: Names of festivals (Christmas/
Easter…etc), names of the months/and days of the
week (August/ Monday…. Etc)
3- Geographical names: names of continents( Africa,
Asia… etc), names of countries, counties, states,
cities.. (Los Angeles, irbid, Amman, Mexico… etc),
names oflakes( Silver Lake… etc) names of
mountains (Mount Everest … etc)
2- Plural names: The Netherlands, The united states
of America, …. Etc.
3- Geographical names:
a. rivers: the Danube, the Nile …etc.,
b. Seas and oceans: the Dead sea, the Pacific ocean
…etc.
c. Canals: the Panama canal … etc.
d. Series of mountains: The Himalayas, the Alps …
etc.

4- Newspapers: the New York Times … etc.

5- Some public institutions including:

Hotels, restaurants, theaters, cinemas, clubs,
museums, libraries. ( see page 80 for further
examples)

Number system in English:

The English number system consists of " singular" which denotes one and "Plural" which denotes more than
one. Common non count nouns and Proper names are invariables, i.e. they are singular and take singular
verb. Common Nouns are variables, they could be singular with singular verb or plural with plural verb.
(read table page 81)

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1- Irregular plurals:
The vast majority of English nouns have the plural form with the –s suffix. Spelling sometimes makes
exception, e.g. spy/ spies, echo/ echoes, hero/ heroes, but kilo/ kilos.
On the other hand there are some other irregular plurals in which the plural is unpredictable. Here is a list for
some of them:
1- analysis/ analyses, basis/bases, crisis/ crises.
2- foot/feet, tooth/teeth, goose/ geese.
3- man/ men, woman/ women.
4- mouse/ mice, louse/lice.
5- child/children, ox/ oxen.