NEB40303 /

BKB40303
RENEWABLE
ENERGY
Chapter 2
Solar Energy

NURUL HANIS AZHAN (NUHA)

 ▪ Topic 2.1
Introduction – Solar Power &
Energy

Chapter 2 ▪ Topic 2.2

Solar Energy
Solar Photovoltaics

▪ Topic 2.3
Solar Energy Systems
 Course Learning Outcomes
(CLOs)

Upon completion of the chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the fundamental and main characteristics of various renewable

energy sources. [CLO2] [C4]
 170 million gigawatts (GW) – million
thousands time greater than electrical
▪ Sun
Sun – Earth power used on Earth

Relationships Diameter: 1, 392,000 km (109 times earth)

Mass: 2 ×1030 kg (333,000 times earth)
Density: 1.41 g/ 𝑐𝑚3
Gravity: 274 m/ 𝑠 2 (28 g)
Surface temperature: 5800 K
Distance 1.5 × 108 km
Distance travelled in

▪ Earth
8.31 min at a speed

Diameter: 12,756 km
of light

Mass: 5.97 × 1024 kg (333,000 times earth)

Density: 5.52 kg/𝑐𝑚3
Gravity: 9.81 m/ 𝑠 2 (1 g)
Surface temperature: 300 K
 ▪ Phenomenon by which energy escapes
from the Sun at the speed of light in the
form of a wave.

▪ Solar radiation is electromagnetic

Solar radiation ranging from about 0.25 to 4.5

µm in wavelength, including the near
Radiation ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and near
infrared (IR) radiation.

Recall!
Solar radiation is the radiant
energy emitted from the sun.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 ▪ The infrared, with a wavelength larger than the
one of red, is not visible, but we feel its warmth.

▪ The ultraviolet (UV) has a wavelength smaller

than the one of purple.

▪ This part of the solar radiation, which is not

Visible visible either, can be harmful for humans.
Light
(400 – 780 nm)
Recall!
Interacting with Light
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere,
some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected
by:

▪ Air molecules
▪ Water vapor
▪ Clouds
▪ Dust
▪ Pollutants
▪ Forest fires
▪ Volcanoes
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of waves, and are
classified in three ways:

Wavelength (λ)
distance from wave crest (through) to crest (through)

Frequency (f)
number of waves passing a point in a given amount of time

Energy
 𝒄
Frequency, v = [Hz]
𝝀

Relationships where c is a speed of light;

between c = 3.00×108 (m/s)
Wavelength,
Frequency,
and Energy Energy, E = hv [J] or [eV]

where h is a Plank constant;

h = 6.63 × 10-34 (J·s)
 ▪ Electronvolts (eV) is the amount of
energy gained (or lost) by the charge of
a single electron moving across an

Unit of electric potential difference of one volt.

electronvolts 1 (eV) = 1.602 × 10-19 (J)

(eV)
1 (eV) = 1 e × 1 V
= 1.602 × 10-19 (C) × 1 (J / C)
= 1.602 × 10-19 (J)
 Light with a wavelength of 525 nm is
green. Calculate the energy in joules
and eV for a green light photon.

Try this!
 Light with a wavelength of 525 nm is
green. Calculate the energy in joules
and eV for a green light photon.
1) Find the frequency.
v=c/λ
𝟑.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 (𝒎/𝒔)

Try this!
= 𝟏 (𝒎) = 5.71×1014 (s-1)
𝟓𝟐𝟓 𝒏𝒎 ×
𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟗 (𝒏𝒎)

2) Find the energy in Joules.

E = h ×υ
= 6.626×10-34 (J∙s) × 5.71×1014 (s-1)
= 3.78 ×10-19 (J)

3) Find the energy in eV.

1 (eV) = 1.602 ×10-19 (J),
E ≈ 2.4 (eV)
 Light with a wavelength of 525 nm is
green. Calculate the energy in joules
and eV for a green light photon.
1) Find the frequency.
v=c/λ
𝟑.𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 (𝒎/𝒔)

Try this!
= 𝟏 (𝒎) = 5.71×1014 (s-1)
𝟓𝟐𝟓 𝒏𝒎 ×
𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟗 (𝒏𝒎)

2) Find the energy in Joules.

E = h ×υ
= 6.626×10-34 (J∙s) × 5.71×1014 (s-1)
= 3.78 ×10-19 (J)

3) Find the energy in eV.

1 (eV) = 1.602 ×10-19 (J),
E ≈ 2.4 (eV)
 Solar Irradiance (Solar Power)

Typical peak value is

Solar irradiance is The solar Constant 1000 W/ 𝒎𝟐
the sun’s radiant is the average value on a terrestrial surface facing
power, of solar irradiance the sun on a clear day around
represented in outside the earth’s solar noon at sea level. And
units of atmosphere, used as a rating condition for
W/ 𝒎𝟐 or kW/ 𝒎𝟐 about 1366 W/𝒎𝟐 PV modules and arrays.
 Solar Irradiance (W/𝒎𝟐 )
Solar
Irradiance Sunrise Noon Sunset
Time of the Day

Solar power varies over the

day, peaking at solar noon.
 ▪ Also referred to as solar insolation
or peak sun hours.

▪ Solar irradiation (energy) is equal to

Solar
Irradiation ▪ Peak sun hours (PSH) is the average
(Solar
Energy)
Solar irradiation is the sun’s
radiant energy incident on a
surface of unit area,
expressed in units of kWh/𝒎𝟐 .
the average solar irradiance (power)
multiplied by time.
daily amount of solar energy
received on a surface. PSH are
equivalent to:
o The number of hours that the solar
irradiance would be at a peak level of 1
kW/𝑚2 .
o Also the equivalent number of hours per
day that a PV array will operate at peak
rated output levels at rated temperature.
Solar Irradiance (W/𝒎𝟐 ) Solar Power and Solar Energy

Similar to electrical power and

energy, solar power and solar
energy are also related by time.

The amount of solar energy

received on a surface over a
given period of time is equal
to the average solar power
over the period multiplied by
the time.

Sunrise Noon Sunset Graphically, solar irradiation

(energy) is the area under
Time of the Day the solar (power) curve.
 Peak Sun Hours Peak Sun Hours = # equivalent
hours @ 1 kW/𝑚2 irradiance
Solar Irradiance (W/𝒎𝟐 )

Sunrise Noon Sunset

Time of the Day
Worlwide, the solar energy resource averages
around 5 PSH (5 kWh/𝑚2 /day) on optimally
oriented fixed surfaces facing the sun.
 ▪ The solar power incident on a surface averages of
400 W/𝑚2 for 12 hours. How much solar energy is
received?
400 W/𝒎𝟐 × 12 hours
= 4800 Wh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 kWh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 PSH

▪ The amount of solar energy collected on a surface

over 8 hours is 4 kWh/ 𝑚2 . What is the average
Let’s solar power received over this period?
4 kWh/ 𝒎𝟐 / 8 hours
Calculate! = 0.5 kW/ 𝒎𝟐 = 500 W/ 𝒎𝟐

▪ A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak sun

and average operating temperatures. How much
energy is produced from this system per day if the
solar energy received on the array averages 4.5
peak sun hours?
6 kW × 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day
 ▪ The solar power incident on a surface averages of
400 W/𝑚2 for 12 hours. How much solar energy is
received?
400 W/𝒎𝟐 × 12 hours
= 4800 Wh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 kWh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 PSH

▪ The amount of solar energy collected on a surface

over 8 hours is 4 kWh/ 𝑚2 . What is the average
Let’s solar power received over this period?
4 kWh/ 𝒎𝟐 / 8 hours
Calculate! = 0.5 kW/ 𝒎𝟐 = 500 W/ 𝒎𝟐

▪ A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak sun

and average operating temperatures. How much
energy is produced from this system per day if the
solar energy received on the array averages 4.5
peak sun hours?
6 kW × 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day
 ▪ The solar power incident on a surface averages of
400 W/𝑚2 for 12 hours. How much solar energy is
received?
400 W/𝒎𝟐 × 12 hours
= 4800 Wh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 kWh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 PSH

▪ The amount of solar energy collected on a surface

over 8 hours is 4 kWh/ 𝑚2 . What is the average
Let’s solar power received over this period?
4 kWh/ 𝒎𝟐 / 8 hours
Calculate! = 0.5 kW/ 𝒎𝟐 = 500 W/ 𝒎𝟐

▪ A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak sun

and average operating temperatures. How much
energy is produced from this system per day if the
solar energy received on the array averages 4.5
peak sun hours?
6 kW × 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day
 ▪ The solar power incident on a surface averages of
400 W/𝑚2 for 12 hours. How much solar energy is
received?
400 W/𝒎𝟐 × 12 hours
= 4800 Wh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 kWh/𝒎𝟐 = 4.8 PSH

▪ The amount of solar energy collected on a surface

over 8 hours is 4 kWh/ 𝑚2 . What is the average
Let’s solar power received over this period?
4 kWh/ 𝒎𝟐 / 8 hours
Calculate! = 0.5 kW/ 𝒎𝟐 = 500 W/ 𝒎𝟐

▪ A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak sun

and average operating temperatures. How much
energy is produced from this system per day if the
solar energy received on the array averages 4.5
peak sun hours?
6 kW × 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day
 Solar Power
and
Solar Energy

1 2 3
Average solar Solar power Amount of the
power multiplied defines the accumulated solar
by time in hours instantaneous energy defines the
equals solar output of a PV amount of energy
energy. system. produced and the
equivalent number
of hours that a PV
system will
operate at its peak
output level.
 Atmospheric Effect
Direct beam (normal)
Approximately 30% of radiation is the
solar radiation is component of total
absorbed or reflected global solar radiation
by the atmosphere by incident on a surface
the atmosphere before normal to the sun’s rays,
reaching the earth’s that travels in parallel
surface. lines directly from the
sun.

Diffuse radiation is the The total solar

component of the total radiation is comprised
global solar radiation of the direct, diffuse,
incident on surface that and reflected
is scattered or reflected. components.
Shorter wavelengths
(UV and blue light) is
diffused in the air— Longer wavelengths
making the sky blue. are less diffused— Energy that is not reflected back into space
making sunsets and is radiated back into space in wavelengths
sunrises red. longer than visible light (mostly in the
thermal infrared portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
 The amount of
energy coming into
the Earth from the
Sun is equal to the
energy reflected
and radiated back
into space.
Air Mass ▪ The radiation attenuation depends on the latter in
the following way:

The longer the way through the atmosphere

the stronger its radiation attenuation.

The path length of the solar radiation from the top of

the atmosphere to a given place on the Earth’s
surface, in turn, will be a function of the geographic
altitude of the place and of the solar zenith angle , i.e.
the angle between the Earth surface normal and the
line to the Sun.
 ❑ If is 0°, i.e. if the Sun is at the zenith, the light
beam has to travel the smallest possible
Air Mass distance inside the Earth’s atmosphere until
it reaches the surface.

❑ The light has to travel through the minimum

mass of atmosphere if the Sun is in the
zenith. This mass of atmosphere receives
the value 1, if a place at sea level is
considered.

❑ This value is called Relative Air Mass, or

simply Air Mass (AM).

❑ In a first approximation it is calculated

according to:

AM = 1/ (cos θ)
where θ is the angle from the vertical (zenith angle).
 AM0
The spectrum outside the atmosphere is referred to as
zero atmospheres.

AM1
The spectrum travels through the atmosphere to sea
level with the sun directly overhead.

Air Mass AM1.5

Represent the overall yearly average for
mid-latitudes region.
AM1.5 has been selected for
standardization purposes, based on an
analysis of solar irradiance data.

AM2
Range for estimating the overall average
performance of solar cells installed at high
latitudes such as in northern Europe and also
use to estimate wintertime performance in
temperate latitudes.
 AM0
The spectrum outside
the atmosphere is
referred to as zero
atmospheres.

AM1
The spectrum
travels through the
atmosphere to sea
level with the sun
directly overhead.

AM2
Range for estimating the overall
average performance of solar cells
installed at high latitudes such as in AM1.5
northern Europe and also use to Represent the overall yearly average
estimate wintertime performance in for mid-latitudes region.
temperate latitudes. AM1.5 has been selected for
standardization purposes, based on an
analysis of solar irradiance data.
▪ The intensity of the direct component of sunlight throughout
each day can be determined as a function of air mass from the
experimentally determined equation of

𝑨𝑴𝟎.𝟔𝟕𝟖
𝑰𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟕
where ID is the intensity on a plane perpendicular to
the sun's rays in units of kW/m2 and AM is the air Solar
mass.
Irradiance
▪ The value of 1.353 kW/m2is the solar constant and
the number 0.7 arises from the fact that about 70%
of the radiation incident on the atmosphere is
and Air
transmitted to the Earth. Mass
▪ The extra power term of 0.678 is an empirical fit to
the observed data and takes into account the non-
uniformities in the atmospheric layers.

Intensity of direct light at AM1.5 is approximately of 970 W/m2

Radiation Spectrum for
Solar Energy

The intensity of AM1.5 radiation is

approximated by reducing the AM0
spectrum by 28%, where 18% is
absorbed and 10% is scattered.
Solar Radiation Measurements
Pyranometer measured total global solar irradiance
(solar power)

▪ Measurements over time are integrated to calculate the solar

irradiation (solar energy) received.

Irradiance measurements are used in the fields to translate

the actual output of PV array and systems to a reference
condition and verify performance with expectations.
 ▪ Every location on Earth receives
sunlight at least part of the year.

Factors ▪ The amount of solar radiation that

effecting reaches any spot on the Earth’s
the Solar surface varies according to:

Irradiation ▪ Geographic location

(Solar ▪ Time of day
Energy) ▪ Season
▪ Local landscape
▪ Local weather
➢ Less of the rainfall may correlate with less
of the cloud and good longer period of the
sun shining over the surface.
 Solar Declination

Solar declination is the angle Solar declination varies

between the earth’s equatorial
from -23.5° to +23.5°
plane and the sun’s rays.
 Solar Declination and
Geographical Location
❑ Different in heat distribution creates three different
climate zones; tropical, temperate, and polar.
❑ Temperate & polar zones receive very different
amounts of solar energy at different times of the year
because Earth’s axis is tilted.

❑ As Earth resolves around the

Sun, solar energy strikes
different regions at angles that
vary from summer to winter.

❑ During winter, the sun is much

lower in the sky, days are
shorter, and solar energy is
less intense.
Geographical Location
World Solar Energy Map
 Chapter 2.1
Introduction – Solar & Energy

✓The solar radiation received on earth is affected by the earth’s

movements and atmospheric conditions.

✓Solar irradiance (power) is expressed in unite of W/ 𝒎 𝟐

or kW/
𝒎𝟐 , and measured with a pyranometer.
▪ Typical values are around 1000 W/ 𝑚2 on a surface at sea level facing the sun
around solar noon; used the rating condition for PV modules and arrays.

✓Solar irradiation (energy) is solar power integrated over time,

expressed in units of kWh/ 𝒎𝟐 /day.
▪ Solar energy resource date are used in sizing and estimating the performance
of PV systems, and varies location and with collector orientation.
 Chapter 2
Solar Energy

2.1
Introduction
– Solar Power &
Energy
 ▪ Topic 2.1
Introduction – Solar Power &
Energy

Chapter 2 ▪ Topic 2.2

Solar Energy
Solar Photovoltaics

▪ Topic 2.3
Solar Energy Systems