Kazmarski Mus149 Assingment5

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Record: 1
Title: Music, technology and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: The
effectiveness of the touch screen interface.
Authors: Hillier, Ashleigh1 (AUTHOR) ashleigh_hillier@uml.edu
Greher, Gena2 (AUTHOR)
Queenan, Alexa1 (AUTHOR)
Marshall, Savannah2 (AUTHOR)
Kopec, Justin1 (AUTHOR)
Source: Music Education Research. Sep2016, Vol. 18 Issue 3, p269-282. 14p.
Document Type: Article
Subject Terms: *IPADS
*EDUCATIONAL technology
*AUTISM spectrum disorders in children
*EDUCATION of students with disabilities
*EFFECTIVE teaching
*MUSIC education
Author-Supplied Keywords: autism spectrum disorder
iPad
music
students with disabilities
technology
touch screen
Abstract: The use of technology in music education is gaining momentum,
although very little work has focused on students with disabilities. Our
SoundScape programme addressed this gap through implementing a
technology-based music programme for adolescents and young adults
with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Programme participants met on
a weekly basis for 9 weeks and engaged in a range of music-related
activities mostly utilising touch screen technology and iPads. We were
particularly interested in how those with ASD responded to the iPad
interface and its impact on social interactions among participants. We
also investigated whether participating in the programme reduced stress
and anxiety among participants. Questionnaire data completed by
programme participants at the beginning and end of the programme, as
well as qualitative analysis of focus groups conducted with parents,
provided evaluation of the efficacy of our programme model. Findings
from the questionnaires indicated that more than half of the participants
reported feeling less stressed and anxious at the end of the programme
compared to their responses at the beginning, said they benefited
socially from the programme, and had made friends. This was
supported in the analysis of the focus group transcriptions which
highlighted the advantages of the iPads compared to a more traditional
desktop platform, the utility of the iPad technology for promoting social
skills, the significance of the university setting, and the participants' use
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of music to regulate mood. Future research evaluating the use of

technology in music education for students with disabilities seems
warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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Author Affiliations: 1Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell,
MA, USA
2Department of Music, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA,
USA
ISSN: 1461-3808
DOI: 10.1080/14613808.2015.1077802
Accession Number: 118260624
Database: Academic Search Premier
Music, technology and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: The effectiveness of
the touch screen interface.
The use of technology in music education is gaining momentum, although very little work has focused on
students with disabilities. Our SoundScape programme addressed this gap through implementing a
technology-based music programme for adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD).
Programme participants met on a weekly basis for 9 weeks and engaged in a range of music-related activities
mostly utilising touch screen technology and iPads. We were particularly interested in how those with ASD
responded to the iPad interface and its impact on social interactions among participants. We also investigated
whether participating in the programme reduced stress and anxiety among participants. Questionnaire data
completed by programme participants at the beginning and end of the programme, as well as qualitative
analysis of focus groups conducted with parents, provided evaluation of the efficacy of our programme model.
Findings from the questionnaires indicated that more than half of the participants reported feeling less stressed
and anxious at the end of the programme compared to their responses at the beginning, said they benefited
socially from the programme, and had made friends. This was supported in the analysis of the focus group
transcriptions which highlighted the advantages of the iPads compared to a more traditional desktop platform,
the utility of the iPad technology for promoting social skills, the significance of the university setting, and the
participants' use of music to regulate mood. Future research evaluating the use of technology in music
education for students with disabilities seems warranted.
Keywords: iPad; technology; autism spectrum disorder; music; touch screen; students with disabilities
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterised by significant impairments in social interaction and
communication skills, repetitive behaviours, and highly restricted activities and interests (American Psychiatric
Association [ 2]). Current data suggest ASD affects one in every 68 children (CDC [ 9]). Social skills are a core
challenge for individuals with ASD who may have difficulty making eye contact, understanding social cues,
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social reciprocity (Glennon [16]), reading others' emotional expressions, and expressing their own emotional
states (Baron-Cohen [ 4]). Anxiety and depression are also common among those with ASD (Hofvander et al.
[22]; Cederlund, Hagberg, and Gillberg [ 8]; Joshi et al. [23]). For this population, stress may be related to
difficulties in social impairment, communication and need for consistency, repetition and routine. Developing
and implementing appropriate supports and interventions is critical for individuals with ASD, particularly as they
transition to adulthood (Friedman, Warfield, and Parish [15]).
Autism spectrum disorders and music

In recent years there has been increasing interest in playing, listening to, interpreting, and experiencing music
among those with ASD. Previous work has shown those with ASD to be particularly interested in music both
with regard to playing and listening. A review of behavioural and neuroimaging studies investigating music and
ASD reported that children with ASD were particularly responsive to music compared with speech and
environmental noise, a pattern not shown among typically developing children (Molnar-Szakacs and Heaton
[30]). Those with ASD have demonstrated enhanced musical abilities including pitch discrimination and
memory for musical stimuli (Heaton, Hermelin and Pring [20]), superior absolute pitch (Mottron, Peretz, and
Ménard [31]), and superior short- and long-term pitch memory (Stanutz, Wapnick, and Burack [36]).
The utility of music for alleviating some of the core symptoms seen in ASD is an exciting prospect which now
has empirical support. Allen, Hill, and Heaton ([ 1]) found music offered various benefits for individuals with
ASD, including positive mood change, decreased feelings of depression, feeling therapeutically healed, and
feeling connected to others in a social environment. Music programmes for those with ASD have shown
improved play (Kern and Aldridge [25]), higher self-esteem (Shore [35]), enhanced verbal communication
(Shore [35]), decreased levels of anxiety and stress, positive mood regulation (Trevarthen [37]), and increased
eye contact (Wimpory, Chadwick, and Nash [40]). While work in this area has been increasing, most has
focused on traditional music therapy type interventions, with less emphasis on more innovative, technology-
based approaches.
Music technology
The number of music and multimedia apps (iOS and Android) now available is rapidly increasing and allow for
a diverse range of creative music educational experiences. Many apps are intuitive and user-friendly. The
technology now available allows the music teacher to utilise multimodal approaches to learning and interacting
with materials for students at a variety of skill levels. For music teachers in particular who work with special
needs populations, the multiplicity of apps that appeal to a variety of learning styles allows teachers to take a
more multisensory approach and reach more students than with traditional instruments (Nelson [32]; Criswell
[10]). As Nelson reports, there are a number of apps that are designed specifically for special needs
populations allowing teachers to tailor instruction to the diversity of physical and cognitive challenges in one's
class (Nelson [32]).
While the research on the effectiveness of mobile devices, such as iPads, in educational settings is just
beginning to build momentum, there is some evidence supporting their utility in the classroom. Flewitt, Messer,
and Kucirkova ([14]) lent iPads to three different classes over a period of two months, including a special
education class, and observed a number of important outcomes. Firstly, practitioners themselves became more
confident in their ability to use the iPad and more supportive of its usefulness, in part because of the children's
enthusiasm to interact with the device. Children displayed skills beyond the expectations of the teachers, were
highly motivated by the technology, remained focused for longer periods of time than typical, and 'relished the
responsive nature of the iPad activities and the immediacy of the results they produced' (11).
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The iPad also seems to promote social interactions, collaboration and more learner centred approaches to
education (Pegrum, Howitt, and Striepe [33]; Flewitt, Kucirkova, and Messer [13]). Students are able to share
their work, take turns, and collaborate with one another more easily (Flewitt, Messer, and Kucirkova [13]).
IPads are portable and lightweight, they can be laid flat on a desk or propped up, have multiple viewing angles
and can handle multiple users simultaneously, making it particularly advantageous for supporting collaboration
over a traditional desktop set up (Falloon and Khoo [11]). Fisher, Lucas, and Galstyan ([12]) compared iPads
with laptops for teaching business calculus and found that the accessibility of the iPads facilitated collaboration
more effectively. Laptops tended to be used more privately, and the screen and keyboard actually served as
physical barriers to collaboration.
An emphasis on visual stimuli inherent with the iPad, such as pictures and icons, can enable those with
communication challenges, such as shy students, students for whom English is a second language, and
students with disabilities to communicate and collaborate more effectively with others, as well as build their
confidence (Flewitt, Messer, and Kurcikova [14]). Although very little work has focused on students with
disabilities, Miller, Krockover, and Doughty ([28]) compared learning science material using their traditional
notebooks with using the iPad interface among students with moderate to severe intellectual disability.
Students remained on task for longer using the iPad, preferred the iPad over the traditional notebook, and
were more engaged with the material.
In addition, the sensory nature of the iPad's touch screen interface allows students to demonstrate their
understanding through gestural means, which is particularly effective for students with limited language ability
(Flewitt, Kucirkova, and Messer [13]). The touch interface has been seen to be particularly effective with
students with cognitive and physical impairments (Flewitt, Kucirkova, and Messer [13]), and is more flexible,
less expensive, and less stigmatising than many other assistive technology devices available for people with
disabilities. Not needing a separate mouse and keyboard makes the iPad more convenient to use and easier
for students with motor skill difficulties (Kucirkova [26]). Students with special needs may have fewer
opportunities to demonstrate their skills and develop a sense of identity as a competent and successful student
(Flewitt, Messer and Kurcikova [14]). The 'universal design' nature of the iPad technology helps to 'level the
playing field' for these students.
Aims of the research

Very little previous work has investigated how the features of the iPad may affect student learning when in
pairs or small groups (Falloon and Khoo [11]), and even less has been done focused on students with
disabilities for whom this technology could be particularly advantageous. Given this gap in the literature, we
aimed to investigate how those with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) responded to the iPad interface and its
impact on social interactions among participants. Given the difficulties those on the autism spectrum typically
experience with social situations and forming friendships, this was an important target area of our SoundScape
music programme. We were also interested in whether participating in our programme reduced stress and
anxiety among participants, as these are core symptoms for those with ASD and have significant impact on
many other areas of functioning. Those on the autism spectrum might particularly benefit from such an
intervention given their often intuitive understanding of hardware and software, and attraction to computers and
technology (Goldsmith and LeBlanc [17]). Furthermore, those with ASD sometimes display skill and interest in
music beyond that of their typically developing peers. Therefore, connecting music and technology in a
programme for those with ASD could provide a unique opportunity to further consider the use of iPad
technology with special needs populations.
Method
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Participants – programme participants: adolescents and young adults on the Autism spectrum
Twenty-three young adults with ASDs participated in the 9-week 'SoundScape' music programme in two
separate groups. Group 1 had 13 participants and group 2 had 10 participants. Participants were aged
between 13 and 29 years with an average of 18. Nineteen participants were male and 4 were female which
reflects the male: female ratio seen in the autism spectrum population. To be eligible for the music programme,
participants were required to be between the ages of 13 and 30 years old, considered to be 'high-functioning'
on the autism spectrum, and to provide proof of a prior diagnostic and statistical manual of Mental Disorders-
based diagnosis of an ASD by an appropriate professional (e.g. paediatrician, psychologist, speech-language
pathologist, and psychiatrist). High functioning was operationally defined, as: ( 1) participants did not have
significant communication impairments; ( 2) participants did not exhibit behavioural challenges such as
physical or verbal aggression; and ( 3) participants were able to follow instructions with three and four steps
accurately. It was not necessary for participants to have any prior musical training or experience, and this
varied among the participants. However, the majority of participants did not play a musical instrument and had
not received any formal music training. Group members were recruited via brochures describing the
programme sent to targeted referral sources, such as organisations providing services to those with ASD and
their families.
Participants – parents of programme participants

Thirteen parents participated in focus groups during week eight of the 9-week music programme. In group 1,
seven parents (two fathers and five mothers) and one uncle participated, and in group 2 five parents
participated (three fathers and two mothers). Focus groups took around 45 minutes and were audiotaped,
transcribed, and later coded and analysed using NVivo software.
Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. All aspects of the study were performed in
accordance with the Institutional Review Board of the university.
Procedure
Programme model
The SoundScape music programme consisted of nine weekly sessions of 90 minutes each. During the nine
sessions participants engaged in a range of hands-on music making activities. The main activities in the
curriculum involved participants using iPads to create musical compositions. Most activities, including those
involving composing, were designed for small group work in order to promote social interactions and
opportunities. Table 1 presents a brief curriculum outline. Appendix 1 provides a list of apps which were utilised
during the programme and Appendix 2 outlines an App Scavenger Hunt we implemented during week 4.
Table 1. Curriculum outline.
Week 1: Music Participants shared a favourite piece of music with the group members. Compared the pieces, what
listening and instruments were used and how they were used differently in different pieces, mood created in the
sharing music, what made each song unique, etc.
Week 2: Music Groups of 3 or 4 participants selected a range of household items to create music. Discussed the
improvisation versatility of music and the subjectiveness of how we define music
activity
Week 3: iPad Groups of 3 or 4 each had a different set of 4–5 apps to explore. At the end of the session each group
exploration reported on which apps they enjoyed exploring and why
Week 4: App Groups of 3 or 4 hunted for apps which had a specific purpose (e.g. create a beat that would sound
Scavenger good being rapped over), or portrayed a certain theme (e.g. being at a rock concert; in a different
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Hunt country)
Week 5: An all female quartet group sang for participants and parents. The quartet offered individuals the
Barbershop opportunity to hear/and view various forms of music that result from singing
quartet
Week 6: Groups of 3 or 4 collaborated to compose a soundtrack for several movie clips using music iPad apps.
Creating a Each group was given a silent part of a movie clip and had to create soundtrack for the clip. At the end
background for of session, the group shared and discussed the creation of their soundtracks
a movie clip
Week 7: Using iPad apps, groups of 3 or 4 produced music for the class to famous art pieces (e.g. The Scream
Creating a painting by Edvard Munch). Music creations were associated with how the art made group members feel
background for (e.g. happy, sad, confused, and calm). Participants shared why they chose the specific music/iPad apps
art at the end of class
Week 8: iPad 10 music graduate students paired with groups of 3 and 4 to compose music using a plethora of iPad
app use with apps and graduate students' musical knowledge. Groups then performed their creations for the rest of
music students the class
Week 9: Family members, friends, group members, and programme staff came together to listen to the music
Sharing compositions participants had created during the programme. Recognised and celebrated
recordings with accomplishments made throughout the programme
friends and
family.
As an interdisciplinary programme, sessions were designed and run by graduate music education students and
graduate and under-graduate students majoring in psychology at our university. Music education students took
chief responsibility for designing the overall curriculum and lesson plan for each session under the guidance of
the music professor (initials of second author). Psychology students worked alongside the music education
students to facilitate social interactions between group members, to ensure successful collaboration within the
groups, and to handle any minor behavioural issues. The psychology professor (initials of first author) was
present for each session to provide further guidance and intervention as needed. Each session was followed
by a debriefing meeting between the professors and the students where solutions to any problems were
generated, and ideas for the next sessions were adapted and finalised. The staff:participant ratio was close to
1:1; group 1 had 13 participants and 9 programme staff and group 2 had 10 participants and 9 programme
staff.
Measures
Programme participants were asked to complete a questionnaire at the beginning and end of the SoundScape
programme. Questionnaires were completed in a quiet room at the university. The questionnaire was designed
as a Likert scale and asked about their feelings of stress and anxiety. The post version also asked to what
extent they had enjoyed the programme, found it interesting, benefited socially, and whether they had made
friends. As participants chose whether or not to complete the questionnaire, some opted not to complete it at
the beginning of the programme, but did at the end, and vice versa. This resulted in 16 participants who had
completed the measure at both the pre- and post-time points.
We also utilised parent focus groups to assess the efficacy of the music programme. Gaining the parents'
perspectives was considered important due to concerns in the field regarding the accuracy of self-report
measures among those with ASD, and difficulties they may experience reflecting on their own social skills,
feelings and/or reactions to situations (Berthoz and Hill [ 7]). Parents were asked eight questions relating to the
impact of the iPad technology, effects of participation on stress and anxiety, impact on social factors, the role of
music in their child's life more generally, and general positive and negative aspects of the programme (see
Appendix 3 for focus group questions). Questions relating to stress, anxiety, and social factors were included
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as these are core features associated with ASDs, and are well established in the literature as fundamentally
impacting the lives of those with ASD. Thus any effect of the programme in these areas would be of significant
benefit to this population. In addition, previous work has shown the social benefits of working with iPads with
typically developing populations. Questions related to the technology and role of music in their children's lives
were based upon the literature suggesting attraction to both music and technology among those with ASD, and
previous work indicating the benefits of interacting with music among those with ASD. Verbatim transcriptions
of the focus groups were initially reviewed in their entirety by two coders to identify categories ('nodes') within
the data. Subsequently, coders independently coded the entire transcription for each focus group using NVivo
software. Inter-rater reliability for coding to nodes was achieved with Cohen's κ of 0.70 which is considered
'substantial' agreement (Landis and Koch [27]). Following satisfaction with coding reliability the two coders
identified four main themes that developed out of the nodes and were particularly prominent in the focus group
transcriptions.
Results
Participant questionnaires
Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire at the beginning and end of the programme to assess
feelings of stress and anxiety before and after the programme, as well as to what extent they had enjoyed the
programme, found it interesting, benefited socially, and whether they had made friends. Ten out of 16 (63%)
participants reported lower levels of stress and 9 (56%) reported lower levels of anxiety at the end of the
programme compared to the beginning. Ratings for enjoyment, interest, and social benefits of the programme
were also positive. Table 2 summarises these findings.
Table 2. Summary of responses from participant questionnaire.
Question Post-programme outcome (n

= 16)
How stressed do you feel on an average day? 10 reported lower ratings of
stress
How anxious do you feel on an average day? 9 reported lower ratings of
anxiety
How enjoyable did you find the programme? (1 = not at all enjoyable; 10 = very enjoyable) Average rating: 7.4
How interesting did you find the programme? 1 = not at all interesting; 10 = very Average rating: 7.2
interesting
How much have you benefited socially from the music programme? 1 = no benefit; 10 = Average rating 6.2
great benefit
Have you made friends in the music programme? 10 yes; 6 no
Parent focus group analysis
Two coders reviewed the transcriptions from the two parent focus groups and identified eight coding categories
('nodes'):
Mood regulation: Mentions coming to the programme and/or engaging with music changes their mood in a
positive way. May mention listening to music specifically to regulate their mood.
Something to look forward to: Mentions wanting to come, gave them something to look forward to.
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Social: Programme improves social interaction inside and/or outside of SoundScape. Developing
friendships. More interested in others. Collaboration with others.
Anxiety: Mentions coming to the programme reduces anxiety.
Self-esteem and confidence: Mentions their child is more confident, higher self-esteem.
Technology: Mentions use of technology from SoundScape programme as being a positive aspect,
increasing collaboration by using iPad, technology increased social interactions, or programme has led to
more use or interest in technology.
Music: Mentions increased interest and/or enjoyment in music.
Programme model: Students helping, university setting, structure provided in the sessions, creativity.
From these coding categories, four main themes were identified as particularly prominent in the focus group
transcriptions: ( 1) comparison between the iPad technology and a more traditional desktop platform, ( 2) the
utility of the iPad technology for promoting social skills, ( 3) the significance of the university setting, and ( 4)
using music to regulate mood. Initially, a 'word frequency query' in NVivo identified the terms 'technology',
'iPad', 'computer', 'apps' (related to theme 1), 'social', 'getting along', 'friends' (related to theme 2), 'mood',
'relaxed', 'anxiety', 'happier' (related to theme 3), 'name of university', 'students', 'college' (related to theme 4)
as particularly prominent in the transcriptions. To further consider the context, the coders also identified which
nodes had the greatest percentage of coverage during the focus groups and the largest number of references
coded to them. These were the 'social', 'technology', 'programme model', and 'mood regulation' and 'anxiety'
combined. The main themes were then solidified through careful re-review of the comments coded to these
nodes and the specific points parents were raising. For example, in the 'technology' node parents most
frequently and for a longer duration discussed the comparison between the iPad and desktop technology
(theme 1). In the 'social' node parents spent the most time discussing how the iPads encouraged social
interaction and collaboration (theme 2). In the 'programme model' node parents mentioned aspects related to
the university setting most frequently (theme 3). Finally, in the 'mood regulation' and 'anxiety' nodes the main
points parents raised were related to how their son/daughter used music to regulate their mood (theme 4).
Theme 1: Comparison between the iPad technology and a more traditional desktop platform
This theme is tied to one of the focus group questions asking parents how their child responded to the
technology in the programme. In response parents spontaneously talked about the social benefits of the iPads
such as the need to collaborate, share, and the interactive nature of the iPads. Some parents mentioned how
the iPads were more beneficial for social skills than the desktops used in previous years of the programme. For
example:
So, I love the fact that they have to collaborate and I love that it's not a desktop, where one person is in control,
but because the iPad is interactive, that it actually forces collaboration. It not only allows it, but forces it. [My
son] is so rigid. Everything he does, he does as a single person. I love the idea that there is some
collaboration ... .
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The component I've noticed is with the iPads, you can have a group simultaneously do stuff. I know like last
year, you had the group, but it was like maybe one guy had the inspiration and the other guy piloted the mouse
or whatever. In this one, they're both in there doing that and there may be issues or they disagree but that's an
opportunity to learn to work things out. So I find that, you know your change of platform, for a lack of a better
word, I see that as a big advantage this year.
The ability to have multiple users simultaneously interact with the device through its touch interface, was seen
as important. How easy it is to share the tablet and pass it around between group members was also
mentioned, something which cannot be done with a desktop PC:
The neat thing about the iPad is the entire screen you can touch. Not only that, it handles multiple touches, so
two of them can be using it at the same time. That's pretty cool. Some of the apps, you can either have
keyboards, or there's one where you can tap on it, there was colored bubbles, change the sounds and stuff.
Two of them could work on that. Even if one was using it at a time, it's easier to switch and give it to someone,
than change seats and go back. Either way it's easier to share.
Theme 2: The utility of the iPad technology for promoting social skills
We asked parents about their son/daughter's social experiences in the programme and whether or not they
had made friends. While many parents were unclear whether their child had made new friends, they did
discuss the social benefits of our programme model. In particular, parents again tied the social benefits of the
programme to the use of the iPad technology.
Like everybody has said, there's the social, there's also the collaboration part, thanks to the iPad. It's just a
different way for him, you know, to enjoy and participate in making music ...
So, on the one hand that's working on collaboration stuff too, but I think the more immediacy of just the simple
fact that both of you can input at the same time on a collaborative piece, I think is new. I think it's important.
[My son] talked about that a lot on the ride home last week, how they were both working together on a
composition, he and Sam.
Theme 3: Significance of the university setting.
While more individuals with ASD are attending university (VanBergeijk, Klin, and Volkmar [38]), many do not
see higher education as an option for them, despite having the academic ability to succeed. Providing this
programme within a university setting came out as an important theme during the focus groups. The on-
campus location was important to the parents because it gave their child a concrete, experiential
understanding of what university might be like. Participants experienced positive interactions with university
students and professors, helping them to feel more comfortable in a university setting:
... she also likes the idea of being at [name of university]. Although she did get an Associate's degree online,
she really wants to be in a college setting to get a Bachelor's degree. Whether she can handle that or not, we
have to kind of assess as a family, you know. But she likes the fact that she comes to [name of university] and
is taking a music class at [name of university], very similar to that environment.
It was also seen as an advantage that university students facilitated the sessions. Students are more similar in
age to the group participants and while still seen as an authority figure, the participants seemed to view them
as a collaborative partner as well. The students were seen as more approachable and more informal than the
professors:
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I think it's great support, so many students and they are so professional. I cannot imagine this can be
organized anywhere else ...
Theme 4: Using music to regulate mood.
We asked parents whether participating in SoundScape had impacted their child's stress or anxiety, and also
what role music plays in their son/daughter's lives. A pattern emerged in the responses to these questions
indicating the use of music to help regulate mood. It is well established that music is used to improve mood
(Trevarthen [37]; Hillier et al. [21]), and can reduce anxiety (Miluk-Kolasa et al. [29]; Khalfa et al. [24]). Some
parents specifically mentioned that their child used music to regulate their mood, to calm down, and to
'destress':
He uses that as a destressor at home. When he gets upset or conflict is going on with the siblings, he just goes
in, we're very fortunate that we have a baby grand in our house. He just goes in and he plays it. I think he uses
music. He's very attracted to music. He uses it as a destressor.
Many parents mentioned how their son/daughter seemed happier and more relaxed after engaging with music:
He made a comment, it was weeks ago, I think he was like, something about how music, it helps type of thing.
I thought well, that's a nice connection because he has a hard time falling asleep, so sometimes we say,
"Relax," but he doesn't quite get that. He said something about how he could feel the difference.
Discussion
With the use of computers in the music classroom increasing more empirical research evaluating the efficacy
of this approach is needed. In particular, more focus is warranted on students with special needs, for whom
computers and touch screen technology, may be especially beneficial (Greher et al. [19]; Hillier et al. [21];
Nelson [32]). Individuals with ASDs often show an inherent interest in both music and technology, suggesting
this may be a particularly advantageous combination in the classroom. In addition, social skills and social
understanding are a core challenge for those with ASD and touch screen technology has been shown to foster
social interactions between users (e.g. Pegrum, Howitt, and Striepe [33]; Falloon and Khoo [11]). The findings
from our music technology programme, 'SoundScape' addressed this gap and provided support for the use of
iPad technology with this population.
On questionnaires completed pre and post the programme intervention, participants responded positively to
our model indicating an acceptance of a technology-based approach in a music education classroom for
students with ASD. Maintaining motivation and student effort is critical for classroom success, and can be
particularly challenging for students with special needs who frequently experience failure in academic settings.
Previous research has also shown students' acceptance of iPads in the classroom and this has led to greater
enthusiasm, motivation, and on-task behaviours (Miller, Knockover, and Doughty [28]; Flewitt, Messer and
Kucirkova [13]). In addition, the majority of participants reported reduced stress (63%) and anxiety (56%) at the
end of our programme compared to the beginning, suggesting the programme positively impacted a
particularly debilitating aspect of ASD.
Focus groups conducted with participants' parents identified a number of core themes which build on our
existing knowledge regarding the potency of the iPad interface. Given that technology is increasingly prominent
in education (Pegrum, Howitt, and Striepe [33]; Pegrum, Oakley, and Faulkner [34]; Flewitt, Kucirkova, and
Messer [13]), including music classrooms (Criswell [10]; Williams [39]; Greher in press), parents' comments
provided support for implementing this technology with students on the autism spectrum specifically. Those
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with ASD are often particularly attracted to technology and computers, perhaps due to their predictability and
rule-based functioning (Hillier et al. [21]). Cognitive strengths seen among those with ASD include a piecemeal
processing style and great attention to detail (Baron-Cohen [ 5]; Baron-Cohen et al. [ 6]). Those with ASD
frequently excel in science, math, and engineering programmes (Baron-Cohen et al. [ 3]). Given how their
minds may work differently to generate novel and unique ideas, technology seems to be particularly accessible
as a way to learn new concepts and to generate new ideas. Compared to more traditional desktop computers,
parents praised the potential of the iPad for increasing sharing and collaboration between group members.
Previous work has also demonstrated the educational benefits of the iPad's versatility during group work as
compared to laptops (Fisher, Lucas, and Galstvan [12]). The wide range of intuitive music apps allow
participants who may not be trained in an instrument to have access to music and the opportunity to be
creative with music in a new way.
Parents spent considerable time during the focus groups discussing how the iPads appeared to promote social
skills. Members of each group could manipulate the apps and touch screen simultaneously making it much
easier to immediately demonstrate and share ideas with one another. The relatively gentle learning curve of
many of the apps we used likely reduced the levels of frustration that often accompany group learning
situations. This supports previous work validating the benefits of the iPad for promoting social interaction and
collaboration (Falloon and Khoo [11]; Pegrum, Howitt, and Striepe [33]; Flewitt, Kucirkova, and Messer [13]).
Also, working together on a project provides students with a common interest and topic of conversation. Given
the amount of time spent sharing the interface during tasks, other topics related to music would also come up
such as bands, school shows, concerts, and other music-related events. This allowed back and forth
conversations to continue during and in between the various activities presented during the programme
sessions.
A third major theme which emerged from the parent focus group transcriptions was the significance of the
university setting. The music education graduate students worked to keep the sessions informal, acting more
like team members than official teachers. Students were able to explore apps and musical styles that were
personally meaningful to them. The more exploratory nature of our instructional approach, vs. a more skills-
based direct instruction approach participants may have experienced in their previous attempts at music
lessons, may have been one of the contributing factors in their enjoyment level with this programme. Becoming
more familiar with a university campus was also seen as significant and potentially influential to participants'
post-high school choices.
Lastly, parents frequently commented on their child's use of music to regulate mood. This has been supported
by previous research (e.g. Miluk-Kolasa et al. [29]; Trevarthen [37]; Khalfa et al. [24]; Hillier et al. [21]). For
individuals with ASD this may be particularly pertinent. Those with ASD experience significant stress and
anxiety (Hofvander et al. [22]; Cederlund, Hagberg, and Gillberg [ 8]; Joshi et al. [23]) and engaging with music
can be an outlet for these negative emotions. Anecdotally from the informal observations of programme staff, it
was possible to identify what kind of mood participants were in based upon the apps they chose to work with
that day. If they needed to relax more they chose one of the more calming apps, if they needed more
stimulation they chose a more complex app with multiple interaction possibilities. It also appeared that the apps
participants were attracted to, reflected how they preferred to learn. For example, some apps had very strong
visual components, some allowed for more flexibility in how students interacted with it, while others were very
prescribed.
Our outcomes point to a number of suggestions for policy-makers which might improve the current approach to
music education for all learners, and students with special needs in particular. Our programme presents a
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strong case for utilising technology as part of a school-based music curriculum as a way to reach the non-
traditional learner. Teachers are often overwhelmed particularly when supporting children with special needs
who may have different learning styles. Arming our future music educators with this type of hands-on
experience better prepares them for the challenges they will face in the classroom, and provides them with a
'tool belt' of strategies to harness their students' learning of music and technology.
In addition, allowing teachers the opportunity to work more closely alongside professionals from other
disciplines, such as speech and occupational therapy, could also be of great benefit. The interdisciplinary
nature of the SoundScape programme, crossing the fields of music and psychology, significantly enhanced the
experience and understanding of all the university student facilitators.
More funding for hand-held, mobile technology seems worthwhile based on our findings. Recently there has
been a move to provide schools with more iPads but unfortunately access for music teachers is often at the
bottom of the list. This technology allows us to move beyond just focusing on the academic piece and educate
the whole child enhancing their social development too, as corroborated in both the parent focus group
transcriptions and the participant questionnaires where 10 out 16 participants reported having made friends in
the programme, a key outcome for someone on the autism spectrum. Our findings support the suggestion that
those with ASD engage well with music and art. These fields often improve their focus, increase their learning,
and reduce their anxiety. This learning can subsequently enhance skill development in other areas such as
improving social understanding and 'theory of mind', or understanding other people's thoughts, emotions, and
desires – a critical social-cognitive skill.
There are a number of weaknesses in our study which could be addressed in future work. Firstly, more data
collection focused on the participants themselves would provide deeper insight regarding the impact of the
mobile technology. While our questions focused on anxiety, stress, social skills, and programme enjoyment
these could have been broadened to ask more specifically about the impact of the iPads rather than only
relying on parent input. Also, an observational method where students are videotaped during the programme
sessions would avoid the questionable accuracy of self-report data with this population and provide rich
information regarding their response to the iPads, and social interactions between students. Observational
data could be cross checked with both programme facilitators and parents. In addition, collecting more formal
data with the programme facilitators, such as structured fieldnotes or post-programme interviews, would add to
our understanding of the detailed intricacies of successful implementation of touch screen technology in the
classroom. Although a debriefing discussion took place following each programme session, formal notes were
not kept and some useful practical information may have been lost through this omission.
Future research
Greater exploration of the students' choice of apps seems a particularly fruitful avenue for future research. This
may provide more information on learning styles and preferences, which apps in particular foster the most
successful collaboration, which might be particularly advantageous for understanding the complexities of
music, and which might be most beneficial for social and emotional development among students with special
needs. Given classroom and time constraints this information would allow music teachers to tailor their choice
of apps to different student populations and even individual students, making their implementation in the
classroom as individualised and productive as possible. In sum, further evaluation of the efficacy of mobile
devices in the music education classroom for students with disabilities seems warranted.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Notes on contributors
Ashleigh Hillier, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of
Massachusetts Lowell. She completed her post-doctoral training in the Department of Neurology at The Ohio
State University (OSU), and her graduate work at the University of Lincoln in England. Her main research
interests include neuropsychology, psychophysiology, and ASDs. The focus of her research is the processing
and understanding of affective material among those on the autism spectrum. Her applied research focuses on
programmes for adolescents and young adults on the autism spectrum which in part aim to reduce stress and
anxiety among those with ASD including a physical exercise programme, and the SoundScape music
programme. Dr Hillier is also interested in improving success and retention in higher education among those
on the autism spectrum and runs a college preparation programme, and collaborates on a mentoring
programme for University of Massachusetts Lowell students.
Gena R. Greher is Professor and Coordinator of Music Education at the University of Massachusetts Lowell
and the 2014/15 Nancy Donahue Endowed Professor of the Arts. She teaches a range of undergraduate- and
graduate-level music classes including an interdisciplinary course in Computing + Music and Technology
Applications in Music Education. Her research interests focus on creativity and listening skill development in
children and examining the influence of integrating multimedia technology in urban music classrooms, as well
as in the music teacher education curriculum. Recent projects include: Performamatics, an NSF CPATH grant
linking computer science to the arts; an NSF TUES type 2 grant, Computational Thinking through Computing
and Music; a music technology mentor/partnership with UMass Lowell music education students in local K-12
schools. She has co-authored a book titled Computational Thinking in Sound: Teaching the Art and Science of
Music & Technology and has published in many journals in the field.
Alexa Queenan is currently a research assistant and Master of Arts candidate for Community Social
Psychology at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. She is contributing to various projects related to
individuals with ASDs specifically physical and psychological programme interventions with this population.
Alexa is also examining parental attitudes towards and expectations of their children on the autism spectrum
attending college.
Savannah Marshall is currently a graduate student at the University of Massachusetts Lowell in Music
Teaching and Community Music with bachelor's degrees in Music Education and Psychology. Savannah has
worked closely the UMass Lowell faculty on several research projects including incorporating iPads into the
classroom, working on the SoundScape programme, as well as researching student engagement levels with
the Lawrence Music Clubhouse.
Justin Kopec is currently a Psychophysiology Research Technician in the Interdisciplinary Affective Science
Lab at the Northeastern University where he works on projects to better understand how biological processes
impact the construction of emotions. Justin graduated from University of Massachusetts Lowell with a
Bachelor's degree in Psychology. While at the University, he spent much of his time working with young adults
on the autism spectrum through several programmes designed to foster social connections and alleviate stress
and anxiety. Justin has designed and assisted with projects investigating physiological and emotional
responses to music of those with ASDs and how they may differ from their typically developing peers. Justin is
broadly interested in socioemotional development of children with developmental disabilities and exploring
educational interventions that generate optimal outcomes.
Appendix 1. Some musical apps that were explored

Badlion's Garage Synth
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BeatPad
Beatwave
BeBot
BloomHD
Drum Kit
Dr Seuss Band
Finger Stomp
Garage Band
Go Go Xylo
Groove Maker
HaKeyPad
infinite Kalimba
iDaft
Loopesque
GrooveMaker
MadPad
Mugician
Mandala Hang Drum
Piano Free
RockBand
RockMate
Rhythm Pad
Seline HD & Seline Ultimate
Singing Fingers
SlitDrum
Songify
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Sound drop
SoundyThingie
Thumb Jam
Thumb Piano
Touch Guitar
Trope
Appendix 2. iPad Scavenger Hunt

As a team, please complete the following tasks in order, to the best of your ability. If you have any questions or
get stuck, raise your hand and a teacher will come over to help you. This is a team activity, and everyone
should contribute equally – so share! :)
Create a team name. Write it in any drawing app, making sure each member adds to it. Take a screen shot
(Home + Sleep buttons together at once) and set the picture as the iPad wallpaper.
Define 'Loop' as a musical term –
Explore the apps and find one which best creates a loop. Save your loop and write the app you used here:
Find an app that allows all members of the group to make music at the same time.
What app did you pick?:
Find an app where you can create a beat that would sound good being rapped over. Create the beat, save
it, and type the app name here:
Find an app that makes you feel like you're at a rock concert.
Type the app name here:
Find an app that makes you feel like you're in another country.
Which country are you in?
What app did you use?
Find an app that makes you feel like you're dreaming.
What is your dream about?
What app did you use?

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Appendix 3
How has your son/daughter found the SoundScape programme?
How has your son/daughter responded to the emphasis on technology in the programme?
Has being in SoundScape seemed to have had any effect on their levels of stress and/or anxiety?
Do they seem to be making friends with others in the programme? Do they talk about the others? Have they
communicated with each other outside of SoundScape?
What role does music play in your sons/daughters life?
Has this informal parent group been useful?
What do you see as some of the strengths of the SoundScape programme?
What do you see as areas where SoundScape could be improved, or more effective?
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~~~~~~~~
By Ashleigh Hillier; Gena Greher; Alexa Queenan; Savannah Marshall and Justin Kopec
Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author
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of music to regulate mood. Future research evaluating the use of

Autism spectrum disorders and music

Aims of the research

Participants – parents of programme participants

Table 1. Curriculum outline.

Table 2. Summary of responses from participant questionnaire.

Question Post-programme outcome (n

Anxiety: Mentions coming to the programme reduces anxiety.

Music: Mentions increased interest and/or enjoyment in music.

Theme 3: Significance of the university setting.

Theme 4: Using music to regulate mood.

Appendix 1. Some musical apps that were explored

Mandala Hang Drum

Seline HD & Seline Ultimate

Appendix 2. iPad Scavenger Hunt

Define 'Loop' as a musical term –

What app did you pick?:

Type the app name here:

Which country are you in?

What app did you use?

Find an app that makes you feel like you're dreaming.

What is your dream about?

What app did you use?

How has your son/daughter found the SoundScape programme?

What role does music play in your sons/daughters life?

Has this informal parent group been useful?

What do you see as some of the strengths of the SoundScape programme?

Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author

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