Economic Geology

Vol. 97, 2002, pp. 325–349

The Magdala Lode System, Stawell, Southeastern Australia: Structural Style and
Relationship to Gold Mineralization across the Western Lachlan Fold Belt
JOHN MCL. MILLER† AND CHRISTOPHER J. L. WILSON
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

Abstract
Gold mineralization in the Magdala deposit at Stawell is hosted within deformed turbidites and the under-
lying mafic volcanic successions. This setting is atypical when compared to the slate-hosted gold deposits else-
where in the Lachlan orogen. The deposit is located at a regional plunge reversal (culmination) and gold lodes
have developed on the western flank of a large, doubly plunging basalt dome (the Magdala antiform) during
northeast-southwest and east-west shortening. The irregular shape of the dome and the contacts between dif-
ferent stratigraphic packages are the key controls on the location of the gold lodes. Early deformation is de-
fined by bedding-parallel mica fabrics (S1) that are folded by a series of upright fold closures (F2). These up-
right folds are syn- to postpeak regional metamorphism and are overprinted by another folding event associated
with a shallow-dipping crenulation cleavage (S3). Gold mineralization postdates all of the ductile deformation
and occurred after the formation of faults associated with large laminated and massive quartz veins that are bar-
ren of gold. In the turbidites the mineralized structures are defined by laminated quartz veins (with arsenopy-
rite and pyrite). Within the volcanic units gold lodes are sulfide rich (mainly pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopy-
rite) reflecting the primary sulfide-rich stratigraphy. Later gold lodes at Stawell developed as a result of the
reactivation of the system during sinistral oblique-slip. Field and geochronological data suggest deformation
initiated in the Stawell region and migrated to the east resulting in dramatically different structural evolution
and/or complexity in the Stawell and Bendigo-Ballarat zones. Despite this, the absolute age of major gold min-
eralization is the same in both zones.

Introduction (~540 mt primary gold). The recent discovery of a repetition

THE VICTORIAN GOLD FIELDS in the Paleozoic Lachlan fold
belt of southeastern Australia (Fig. 1) have produced approx-
imately 2,500 metric tons (mt) of gold from alluvial and pri-
mary deposits since the 1850s, with approximately 40 percent
coming from primary production (Phillips and Hughes, 1998;
Ramsay et al., 1998). A lack of geochronological data on gold
deposits with different structural and mineralogical styles has
been one of the key problems with making correlations be-
tween different gold deposits in Victoria. Recently published
40
Ar/39Ar data sets (Bucher et al., 1996; Foster et al., 1998,
1999; Bierlein et al., 1999, 2001) have provided critical infor-
mation on the timing of deformation and gold mineralization.
For the first time this has allowed the integration of the dif-
ferent gold deposits in western Victoria into a unified frame-
work; however, much of the interpretation of this 40Ar/39Ar
data set is still controversial (e.g., VandenBerg, 1999, 2000;
Foster and Gray, 2000; Gray and Foster, 2000a, 2000b; Taylor
and Cayley, 2000) and this paper provides critical new field-
based structural information that resolves some key issues
with respect to the relative timing of deformation and gold
mineralization in western Victoria.
The majority of previous research done in the Victorian
gold fields has focused on gold deposits within simply folded
turbidites in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone (Fig. 1). This paper
highlights the structural and stratigraphic controls on gold de-
position within the more structurally complex Magdala de-
posit (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989), which is the largest reef
system at Stawell, located in the western Lachlan fold belt
(Fig. 1). Stawell is currently the largest gold producer in Vic-
toria (~100,000 oz/y) and historically is the second largest
gold producer from primary deposits (~90 t) behind Bendigo
† Corresponding author: e-mail, jmm@unimelb.edu.au
of the entire system, offset across a major late fault (the
“South fault”; Fig. 2), represents potential to double the gold
endowment of the Stawell deposit (Dugdale and Frederick-
sen, 2000; Miller et al., 2001).
Geologic setting
The Lachlan fold belt is an approximately 700-km-wide belt
of deformed marine turbidites that overlie a mafic substrate
with variable composition (andesites, tholeiitic basalts, bonin-
nites, ultramafics: Crawford, 1988). The western Lachlan fold
belt is divided into three structural zones, namely, the
Stawell, Bendigo-Ballarat, and Melbourne zones (Gray,
1988), that have deformed at different times and contain tur-
bidite sequences of different ages (Cambro-Ordovician to
Devonian). These zones have a predominantly north- and
northwest-trending structural fabric (Fig. 1). All of the struc-
tural zones are bounded by steep west-dipping reverse faults
that have strong localized foliation development (Gray, 1988),
with some east-dipping faults occurring in the western parts
of the Stawell zone (Cayley and Taylor, 1996, 1997, 2001).
These turbidites are folded into tight to isoclinal upright folds
with greater complexity adjacent to fault zones, which is in-
ferred to represent shortening above a midcrustal décolle-
ment (Fergusson et al., 1986; Gray, 1988; Cox et al., 1991b;
Gray and Willman, 1991; Gray et al., 1991; Wilson et al.,
1992). All three structural zones are intruded by extensive
high-level Devonian granitoids (Chappell et al., 1988).
The Bendigo-Ballarat zone consists of fossiliferous Ordovi-
cian turbidites, with its western margin being marked by the
Avoca fault (Fig. 1). Fault-bounded slivers of Cambrian
metavolcanic rocks are exposed within the Heathcote fault
zone, which also marks the eastern boundary of the Bendigo-
Ballarat zone. The rocks in the Melbourne zone, to the east of

0361-0128/01/3233/3325-25 $6.00 325

326 MILLER AND WILSON

NOTE: Stawell Zone units are HF

AF WF AUSTRALIA
truncated by the Avoca Fault (AF) CF MF MELBOURNE ZONE
NE LLARAT ZONE
O BENDIGO-BA Fosterville
L Z
EL Tarnagulla
S TAW Bendigo
Toolleen
NSW

MW
Grampians

CB

LF

PF
Victoria
Maldon
F
37˚S Fig. 2
Stawell Percydale Castlemaine
Mt Piper
Lachlan Fold Belt

Ararat Great Rand

N Daylesford

Mafeking Ballarat Steels Ck

CC Morning Star
F A1 Mine
DELAMERIAN

MW
Mt Stavely Melbourne
Volcanics

FZ
Walhalla

25 km
144˚E 145˚E 146˚E 147˚E

Cambrian granite Turbidites Late Devonian granite Cover rocks Alluvial lead
(placer deposit)
Cambrian volcanics Early Devonian granite Late Devonian volcanics Section line
CB

AF
LF

MF
CF
PF
M

NE

HF
W

SW
F

CC
F

Cambrian (?) turbidites Ordovician turbidites Ordovician to

Devonian turbidites
DELAMERIAN
STAWELL ZONE BENDIGO/BALLARAT ZONE MELBOURNE ZONE

Morning Star

Great Rand
A1 Mine
Bendigo
Castlemaine

Steels Ck
Mt Piper
Toolleen
Stawell

Percydale

Ballarat

Walhalla
Tarnagulla

354
Devonian

Au Au Au Au
Au Au Au
Au

410 Au Au
Au
Silurian

Sandstone
Au Influxes
Au
Au
Au Au

Au Au Au Au Au Au
434 ?
Ordovician

Au Some biotite
schist detritus
? ?

? ?
490
?
LF PF CF MF WF ?
Moyston- CB CCF Avoca Heathcote Mt Wellington
Woorndoo Fault Fault Fault Fault Zone
Dyke
Vein sericite age Common ages for major
Major thrusting Au
Au
Au orogenic Au events
(Bierlein et al. 1999; in press) U-Pb age on porphyry dyke
(Arne et al., 1998)
Minor thrusting/reactivation Folding (inferred) Sand-rich turbidites
Wonga magmatic Au deposit
Au Sinistral wrenching Au (age constrained by intrusives) Shale-rich turbidites
Au-related vein sericite age
Au related to Au deposits (siltstone/mudstone
Ar/Ar data from Foster et al.,(1998,1999) in Melbourne Zone)
(inferred age) Au Re-Os age (Arne et al., 2001)

FIG. 1. Geologic map, structural profile and time-space evolutionary history for western Victoria (modified from Foster et
al., 1998). Summary age data also from Arne et al. (1998, 2001), Bierlein et al. (1999), and Bierlein et al. (2001)—refer to
key at base of diagram. Alluvial leads are from Phillips and Hughes (1998); ages of sediments from VandenBerg et al. (2000).
The location of Figure 2 is marked with a box. Inset shows location of Victoria and New South Wales and extent of Lachlan
fold belt (black fill). Abbreviations: AF = Avoca fault, CB = Coongee break, CCF = Concongella fault, CF = Campelltown
fault, HF = Heathcote fault, LF = Landsborough fault, MF = Muckleford fault, MWF = Moyston-Woorndoo fault, PF =
Percydale fault, WF = Whitelaw fault.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 326

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THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 327

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North South

Con
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37˚00' A Wildcat Fault Fault Coongee A'
St
Magdala Break

ong
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ault
Fault

k
30 A' W
W

;;;;
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Stawell South Relative position of
Fault W South
A Fig. 3 Wonga Gold Lodes
15
(see Fig. 3) Fault

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West
Magdala
15 Offset of
Stawell Fault

;;;;;;;
;; ; ;;;;;
Stawell Coongee
Coongee Break
Granite B B'

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Break Concongella 500m
Fault

;; @@
Moy

Greenschist Sub-greenschist



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0m
ston

B'
/Wo
orn

Con
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Fau

5 g Mt Ararat Sheepfold Cathcart Copes Hill Coongee

Coo

ella Massive Fault Bolgari

Fault Fault Break
lt

metabasalt Fault Fault C'

nge

C
Fau
Mt A

500m
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Poor
37˚15'
rarat

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exposure Poor 0m
Poor exposure
k

11 exposure

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C'
21

;;;;
;;;;;
25 Ductile high-

;; ;
Mt Ararat VMS copper deposit Greenschist Sub-
D' 24 Ararat strain zone
Moyston greenschist
24 15
D Cu Amphibolite Greenschist
C 10
Amphibolite
Sub-greenschist

;
Ararat D Moyston
D'

;;
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10 500m
Granite Fault
ra t
-Ara e

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well Poor Ararat 0m
Sta ult Zon
142˚45'

a exposure granite

;
F
Early Steep
Faults
20 8
Early steep
high-strain zone

@@


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QQ



Delamerian Fold Belt Lachlan Fold Belt
Glenthompson Sandstone St Arnaud Beds Pelitic to psammitic schists
Devonian
(equivalent to St Arnaud Beds?)
Granite F2 Fold axis
Mt Stavelly volcanics Sandstone rich unit
(part of the St Arnaud beds?) Volcanics/amphibolite 21

FIG. 2. Structural profiles and geologic map of the Stawell region (modified from 1:50000 ARARAT and STAWELL, Ge-
ological Survey of Victoria map sheets, 2000a, b). Location of Figure 3 is marked with a box. Vertical scale equals horizontal
scale for sections.

the Heathcote fault, predominantly consist of younger Sil- from calc-alkaline volcanic rocks to sandstones. These units
urian and Devonian turbidites and mudstones. Units in the all have distinct similarities to the rock types within the adja-
Bendigo-Ballarat zone have been metamorphosed between cent Lachlan fold belt. They are intruded by post-tectonic
lower greenschist and subgreenschist conditions, whereas the granitoids of Cambrian age, although Early Devonian grani-
rocks in the Melbourne zone are predominantly subgreen- toids also occur (Foster et al., 1998; Cayley and Taylor, 2001).
schist in grade (Offler et al., 1998). Unlike the structural The metamorphic grade varies from very low grade in the
zones to the east, turbidites within the Stawell zone do not east (adjacent to the Moyston-Woorndoo fault) to amphibo-
have fossils and have an inferred Cambro-Ordovician age lite facies farther west.
(Wilson et al., 1992; VandenBerg et al., 2000). These rocks Recent 40Ar/39Ar dating (Fig. 1), and structural mapping,
have metamorphic assemblages ranging from subgreenschist suggests that the deformation across the western Lachlan fold
to amphibolite facies (Wilson et al., 1992). Deformed pack- belt was diachronous with an overall eastward migration of
ages of volcanic units, which are intercalated with the tur- deformation which occurred from ~455 to ~380 Ma (Foster
bidites, are confined to the western part of the Stawell zone et al., 1998, 1999). Deformation is argued to have first initi-
within a fault corridor termed the “Stawell-Ararat fault zone” ated in the Stawell zone via folding above a basal décolle-
(Fig. 2). The boundary of the Stawell zone with the adjoining ment. This has been related to the accretion of sediments and
Delamerian fold belt is defined by the east-dipping Moys- the formation of a large accretionary wedge during the clo-
ton-Woorndoo fault (Cayley and Taylor, 1997, 2001). A wide sure of a marginal ocean basin (Gray and Foster, 1997; Foster
variety of rock types occur to the west of this break, ranging et al., 1999; Foster and Gray, 2000). A key implication of this

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 327

328 MILLER AND WILSON
revised framework is that the Stawell zone had already un-
dergone fold lock up and mainly deformed via slip along brit-
tle faults while deformation in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone was
still being accommodated by the upright folding of the tur-
bidite sequences. The majority of the deformation in the
Stawell and Bendigo-Ballarat zones appears to have occurred
between 455 and 440 Ma with reactivation of existing faults at
~426 to 420 Ma (Foster et al., 1998, 1999). In contrast the de-
formation within the Melbourne zone is inferred to have oc-
curred during the final closure of the ocean basin between
390 and 380 Ma (Foster et al., 1999).
One of the complexities in interpreting the 40Ar/39Ar data
set that has generated some debate, apart from the inferred
subduction zone setting (e.g., O’Halloran and Bryan, 1998;
Cayley and Taylor, 1998; Taylor and Cayley, 2000), is that the
40
Ar/39Ar ages are on different structural elements across the
different structural zones (for example, a phyllite developed
adjacent to a fault zone versus cleavage development related
to folding). All of the major faults have been extensively reac-
tivated throughout their structural history resulting in
younger 40Ar/39Ar ages on many fault surfaces. This produces
identical clusters of 40Ar/39Ar ages across the different struc-
tural zones, and some workers have interpreted these ages as
representing a series of distinct orogenic events (e.g., Van-
denBerg, 1999, 2000).
Major mesothermal gold deposits typical of the Bendigo-
Ballarat zone (Fig. 1) occur within simply folded turbidites at
Bendigo and Ballarat. In these deposits, gold with arsenopy-
rite or pyrite is hosted in laminated quartz veins (Cox et al.,
1991a, 1995). Apart from greater structural complexity, the
setting of gold mineralization at Stawell is different from that
of Bendigo or Ballarat, because of the presence of mafic vol-
canics and volcanic-derived sediments. Stawell has
sulfide-rich gold lodes (mainly pyrite, pyrrhotite, and ar-
senopyrite) characterized by fine disseminated gold that is
frequently trapped as inclusions in arsenopyrite or pyrite
rather than occurring as large nuggets. 40Ar/39Ar dating has
constrained a common 441 to 439 Ma 40Ar/39Ar age for vein
sericite associated with major gold deposits in the Stawell and
Bendigo-Ballarat zones, with some older ages of 457 to 455
Ma (Fig. 1; Foster et al., 1998; Bierlein et al., 1999, 2001).
Re-Os dating of gold-stage pyrite and arsenopyrite from the
Bendigo deposit yielded an isochron age of 438 ± 6 Ma (Arne
et al., 2001).
Major gold mineralization in the Melbourne zone is associ-
ated with arsenopyrite and stibnite. These deposits appear to
have been emplaced at a shallower structural level compared
to the deposits to the west (e.g., Ramsay et al., 1998) and are
closely associated with Devonian magmatism (e.g., Bierlein et
al., 2001). 40Ar/39Ar ages on sericites from these deposits give
younger ages in the range of 380 to 370 Ma (Fig. 1). Defor-
mation related to Melbourne zone mineralization affects Sil-
uro-Devonian turbidites (Fig. 1) and Devonian dikes (Tom-
linson et al., 1988) and regions of the Bendigo-Ballarat zone
have small gold deposits of this age (e.g., Toolleen and possi-
bly Fosterville: Fig. 1).
Stawell Zone
The Stawell zone is subdivided into two major structural re-
gions by the steep west-dipping Coongee break (Fig. 2). This
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 328
break marks a major change in metamorphic grade and struc-
tural style. Rocks to the east of the break consist of simply
folded turbidites (St. Arnaud Beds, Fig. 2) that have been
metamorphosed to subgreenschist grade (Offler et al., 1998).
In places the St. Arnaud Beds have folds with a southwesterly
structural vergence associated with east-dipping thrusts (e.g.,
the Concongella break; Fig. 2). In contrast the rocks in the
hanging wall of the Coongee break include intensely de-
formed steeply (~70°) west-dipping schists that contain meta-
morphic biotite and muscovite. The region west of the
Coongee break is generally termed the “Stawell-Ararat fault
zone,” which is characterized by greater structural complexity
including early upright folds and related fabrics that are over-
printed by later crenulation cleavages (Wilson et al., 1992).
Earlier ductile features are overprinted by reverse faults that
dip steeply to the west. The Stawell fault is only one fault
within this zone and is not a major boundary fault.
In the Stawell zone deformed packages of volcanic units,
intercalated with sandstone and pelitic units, are confined be-
tween the Coongee break and the Moyston-Woorndoo fault
(Fig. 2). These volcanic units comprise subaqueous tholeiitic
basalt, tuff, and volcaniclastic rocks that are associated with
chert horizons (Wilson et al., 1992). In the southern exposed
part of the Stawell-Ararat fault zone these volcanic rocks are
exposed as a series of fault-bounded slices that are repeated
in the hanging wall of a series of brittle faults. In the northern
region (around Stawell) these volcanic units also occur in the
hanging wall of major breaks (e.g., the Stawell fault),but un-
like the rest of the Lachlan fold belt where the volcanic sub-
strate is normally exposed as fault-bounded lenses, these units
also occur as large domes in the footwall and hanging wall of
the faults (e.g., the Magdala antiform; Fig. 2). The plunge of
these antiformal domes directly correlates with the plunge of
early upright fold sets related to the dominant schistosity ob-
served across the entire Stawell-Ararat fault zone. At Ararat,
in the southeastern part of the fault corridor, these folds
plunge 10° to 30° to the southeast, whereas the equivalent
early folds at Stawell plunge to the northwest and are located
close to a major reversal in structural plunge (cf. fold axes in
Fig. 2). A traverse along strike from Stawell to Ararat effec-
tively accesses shallower structural levels. Therefore, even
prior to later modification by brittle faults, the volcanic rocks
at Stawell represent the deepest exposed stratigraphic and
structural portion of any particular fault-bounded segment
within the structural pile.
The metamorphic grade across the fault-bounded units of
the Stawell-Ararat fault zone increases from east to west. This
occurs across a series of west-dipping faults, with the largest
being the Mount Ararat fault (Fig. 2). This fault is defined by
strong L-S tectonites with amphibole in mafic units defining
a very strong, steeply dipping mineral lineation. The rocks on
the western side occupy the direct hanging wall of the east-
dipping Moyston-Woorndoo fault and contain garnet-bearing
amphibolites (Roder, 1977; Radojkovic, 1989; Cayley and
Taylor, 2001). The Stawell-Ararat fault zone is disrupted by a
later system of northeast- to northwest-dipping faults with
strikes ranging in orientation from northeast trending (e.g.,
Scotchmans fault zone) to northwest trending (e.g., the South
fault). Although these faults have variable transport directions
(Miller et al., 2001), the net overall transport is approximately
 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 329

north over south. This deformation has further accentuated
the preexisting variation in structural and stratigraphic levels
along strike within the Stawell-Ararat fault zone.
Gold mineralization at Stawell (Magdala lodes) localizes
around the Stawell fault, with the currently mined deposits
occupying its direct footwall. Historical lodes also exist in its
hanging wall and in the hanging wall of the Coongee break.
The other currently active mine at Stawell is the Wonga de-
posit and this is separated from the Magdala deposit by the
South fault (Fig. 3). Quartz-feldspar porphyry dikes intrude
parallel to existing structural weaknesses such as the regional
foliation, the Hampshire fault, the Stawell fault, and the
South fault (Figs. 3, 4). U-Pb ages on zircons from a porphyry
dike at the Magdala mine have provided a well-constrained
Basalt contact
below South Fault
at ~1000RL
Scotchmans
Fault Zone
0 eG
32 in
age of 413 ± 3 Ma (Arne et al., 1998). The porphyry dikes are
significant because they intrude mineralized lodes and clearly
postdate the mineralization at Magdala, but they are trun-
cated and mineralized by the younger Wonga gold deposit
(Wilson et al., 1999). Compared to the Magdala deposit the
Wonga deposit also contains markedly different mineralogy
(arsenopyrite, molybdenite, bismuth, stibnite, antimony, gold
telluride alloys, and silver) and is genetically related to the in-
trusion of the Stawell pluton (Wilson et al., 1999).
The Stawell zone is intruded by early Devonian granitoids
that have ages of 401 ± 4 Ma (U-Pb zircon age on the Ararat
granite; Arne et al., 1998) and 399 ± 4 Ma (40Ar/39Ar age on
feldspar from the Stawell Granite: Bucher et al., 1995). These
plutons postdate the Magdala and Wonga mineralization and
most of the deformation (only the South fault and the Trans-
verse fault postdate the Stawell pluton; Fig. 3). Narrow zones
Browns
900000N of contact metamorphism occur adjacent to the granites with
Prospect assemblages that indicate a depth of intrusion at pressures
N
below 2 kbars (Xu et al., 1994). Miarolitic cavities of quartz
and feldspar in these granitoids also suggest a shallow level of
io
n emplacement (Bird, 1986).
e ct rid) 500m
S Stratigraphic Units at Stawell
(M
The base of the local stratigraphy in the Stawell area is
n
Co reak

io comprised of massive and pillowed tholeiitic basalt flows

e ct rid)
ong
B

S
0 eG (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). These are conformably over-
(S

v
St tchm
co

28 (Min
ee
aw an

v lain by a package of chloritic, carbonaceous, or pelitic schists,

ell s V

mafic tuffs, layered and massive volcanoclastic rocks, syn-

Fa ertic

0 v v 898000N
ult al)

35 v
v genetic pyrrhotitic schists, and cherts (Watchorn and Wilson,
v
v v Hampshire
1989). This sequence has a thickness of 5 to 70 m and has
5 v
32
v
v v Fault been previously termed the “Magdala volcanogenic rocks”
Magdala
v
v (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). For consistency this designa-
Central 0
30 v ault tion has been used throughout this paper (Figs. 3, 4). These
So v se F
Lode uth nsver
Fa
ult
v Tra rocks are overlain by a series of schists termed the “Mine,”
5
27 So
uth
“Wonga,” and “Eastern” schists (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989).
Fa
ult
The Wonga schist unit is located in the hanging wall of the
0
25 Stawell fault (Scotchmans Vertical) and compared to the
659000E

AMG Grid other schists is more psammitic and has a greater abundance
22
5 of thick quartz veins coplanar with the dominant foliation. In
Wonga
0 Mine Grid Northing
896000N
Gold
contrast, the Mine schist is a more pelitic unit that has devel-
30
20
0
Lodes oped a strong flat-lying crenulation cleavage. The Eastern
Basalt contact position at schist is on the east flank of the Magdala dome and contains
~1000RL below South Fault
from diamond drilling program 17
5 interbedded sandstones and shales. The Wonga schist grades
into a package termed the “Hanging Wall sandstones” (i.e.,
Turbidites Antiform they occur in the hanging wall of the Stawell fault). The Mine
schist becomes more psammitic from east to west. Most of
Synform
Mine schist the schists contain thin tuff horizons, which suggests sporadic
volcanic activity, and prior to deformation, the contacts be-
Magdala volcanogenic rocks Stawell Granite tween the Magdala volcanogenic rocks, and the Mine and the
v v
Tholeiitic basalt
Eastern schists were gradational.
v St Arnaud Beds
Structural framework of the Magdala gold mine
FIG. 3. Geologic map at –500 RL of the Magdala and Wonga mines. The The Stawell region has a very complex history with at least
inferred position of the offset basalt below the South fault (at approximately
–1000 RL) is marked as a dashed outline, actual drill core intercepts below seven phases of deformation previously recognized on a local
this fault are marked with circles. Both the mine grid northing and AMG grid scale (e.g., Wilson et al., 1992). The broad geometry is that of
northings (and eastings) are marked. Section line 280 (Fig. 4) and section line a major antiformal structure defined by a series of basalt an-
320 (Fig. 8) are also marked. Early mineralizing faults have black teeth (e.g., tiforms or noses termed the “Federal,” “Magdala,” “Moon-
Stawell fault), later faults that dismember the system, and in some cases fur-
ther mineralize it, are marked with white teeth (e.g., Scotchmans fault zone).
light,” “Extended,” and “Dukes” basalts (Fig. 4), that are sep-
Antiform and synform traces to the east of the Magdala antiform are also arated by folded cusplike synforms defined by Magdala
shown. volcanogenic rocks termed “Waterloos.” The overall geometry

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 329

330 MILLER AND WILSON

Shallow Structural Levels

Davis Open
280 SECTION 280 -145 RL

ult) al
Cut Big Hill

ic
0 RL - Top of Big Hill

wel Ver t
Section

89
l Fa
Surface (Sta mans Surface

74
Sth Cross

00
m
1 1'

N
t ch

Wonga Schist Flat Eastern Schist Carolina 2 2'

ans Sc
Sco

otc

E
hm

m
S cotc hm

00
-100 RL s an

Fla
hman

89
Hangingwall Scotc r Flat sF
Wonga

65
Historical Stopes reefs Lowe
au No1 Nth
lt Z

er

rock enic
on Schist Scotchmans

volc dada
e e -145 RL

Low
od
lL

anog
s
al

Mag
w
ng

-200 RL
4 4'

Federal
gi

Hangingwall Lode
Sth
an

Mine Schist
H

Scotchmans
No.2 Flat

t
at

la
alt
Bals

00
v

No. 1 F
l Bas

89
65
-300 RL
dala

ra
em

Fede

v 270
Mag

89
v

72
3 3'
yst

Section

00
m
v
eS

N
Waterloo

Magdala
od

lat
Moonlight basalt

Scotchmmans Vertical
Mine
al L

No. 2 F
-400 RL
Extended basalt Schist
ntr

v v
v
Ce

v
Magdala "Antiform"
v

ht

E
m
-500 RL

Moonlig

00
91
N

65
Inf
e
of rred
v v

89
So p

72
uth osi v v

00
Fa tion 100 metres

m
5 5'

N
ult 50 m
SW NE

FIG. 4. Geologic profile of the Magdala antiform at the 280 section, and a map of the –145 RL. Section lines for Figures
6 and 7 are marked.

of the Magdala antiform has the appearance of a series of fold Magdala volcanogenic rocks and schist units (Fig. 5a). De-
mullions that have been substantially modified by later defor- pending on the presence of the early bedding-parallel sheet
mation. silicates (S1), these closures in pelitic units have either an
Later faulting on either side of the basalt dome directly re- axial planar crenulation or a cleavage defined solely by the
flects this geometry, with faults on the eastern limb dipping to growth of muscovite, chlorite, and occasionally biotite (Fig.
the northeast (e.g., the Hampshire fault) and faults on the 5b; termed “S2” by Watchorn and Wilson, 1989; Wilson et
western side dipping to the southwest (e.g., Stawell fault, al., 1992). Nearly all of the mica growth occurred during this
Hanging Wall lode). The western flank has a much higher de- folding event which is interpreted to represent peak re-
gree of fabric development (and later brittle deformation and gional metamorphic conditions. This deformation-metamor-
mineralization) whereas the eastern side appears to have phism event clearly predates gold mineralization (Fig. 5c),
resided in a strain shadow. A large synformal closure occurs although the early structures are associated with pyrrhotite
on the eastern side of the basalt dome indicating that the and pyrite. The sulfides are interpreted to have been ini-
overall geometry is asymmetric (section line A-A'; Fig. 2). To tially exhalative in origin, but there is clear evidence of re-
the east of this major asymmetric closure, a second antiformal crystallization during later folding events. Recrystallized
structure appears and is defined by mafic units in the hanging pyrrhotite parallel to fold axial surfaces is common in the
wall of the Coongee break (Browns prospect; Fig. 3). Magdala volcanogenic rocks. The pillows within the tholei-
itic basalt are flattened by this deformation and in some
Early ductile deformation cases folded. This deformation has produced the dominant
Early bedding-parallel fabrics defined by an alignment of northwest-southwest structural trend within the Stawell
sheet silicates and foliation-parallel veining represent the ear- zone. There is a clear correlation between the plunge of the
liest recognizable stage of deformation, previously termed basalt noses and the plunge of mesoscopic folds (termed
“D1” (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989; Wilson et al., 1992). This “F2” by Watchorn and Wilson, 1989; Wilson et al., 1992).
fabric is most prevalent on the western flank of the Magdala Extensive pressure solution and veining occurs during this
antiform and is not associated with any identifiable deformation, with quartz veins developing parallel to crenu-
meso-scale folds. The first major deformation identifiable at lation cleavages, dilational quartz veining perpendicular to
meso- to macro-scale was of ductile form and produced a se- thin chert layers, and also along early shears parallel to the
ries of upright to slightly inclined fold closures within the stratigraphy. Although it now comprises a large proportion

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 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 331

FIG. 5. a. Early upright fold in the mine schist on the –145 RL, refolded by later inclined folds associated with a strong
crenulation cleavage (S3). Note veining parallel to bedding and also the S3 cleavage. b. Photomicrograph of crenulation cleav-
age axial planar to early upright folds; the early fabric is predominantly defined by muscovite. Note that there is only minor
mica growth associated with the axial planar cleavage (S2). Base of photomicrograph approximately 2 mm, plane-polarized
light. c. Photomicrograph of early fold closure defined by veining parallel to S1, arrows point to opaque gold-bearing crystals
of arsenopyrite. These show no evidence of deformation (pressure shadows or brittle deformation) and clearly postdate fold-
ing and related fabric development. Base of photomicrograph approximately 2 mm, plane-polarized light. d. Strong inclined
crenulation cleavage within mine schist (S3) on the –145 RL. Pencil for scale. e. Early, barren, laminated vein that is paral-
lel to the Hanging Wall lode on the –90 RL and has a thickness in excess of 5 m. f. Number 2 Flat merging with steeper dip-
ping shear (marked with arrows) on the –145 RL. At this location the Number 2 Flat is only defined by a narrow shear with
minor veining and does not carry economic grades of gold. Photo is a mirror image of the original. g. Photograph of miner-
alized vein within Hanging Wall lode that overprints earlier nonmineralized veins.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 331

332 MILLER AND WILSON

of the rocks, none of the veining synchronous with this duc-
tile deformation is associated with gold mineralization.
On the western flank of the Magdala antiform the upright
folds are overprinted by a second folding event that has pro-
duced a flat-lying to northwest-dipping differentiated crenu-
lation cleavage (termed “S3” by Watchorn and Wilson, 1989),
which is best developed in the Mine schist (Fig. 5d). Like the
earlier deformation there is evidence for extensive pressure
solution and also veining parallel to the cleavage plane. This
cleavage is also found within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks
and across the entire Stawell-Ararat fault zone (identified in
outcrop and drill core south at Ararat). In the Mine schist
this fabric is also associated with low-angle brittle faults that
have shear veining associated with them (Fig. 6). These are
truncated against the later brittle structures such as Scotch-
mans Flat. The late flat-lying to northwest-dipping crenula-
tion cleavage is associated with broad, open, recumbent folds
that are defined by the earlier foliation. These recumbent
closures have wavelengths on the order of tens of meters and
have locally reoriented the contact between the tholeiitic
basalt and the Magdala volcanogenic rocks (and the Mine
schist-Magdala volcanogenic contact), to a steeply north-
east-dipping attitude rather than the usual southwest-dip-
ping contact.
Brittle deformation in the Magdala mine
Deformation associated with gold mineralization is domi-
nantly brittle and is most intensely localized on the western
flank of the basalt dome (previously termed “D4” by
Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). All of the gold-bearing struc-
tures are termed “lodes”; however, gold associated with pre-
dominantly laminated quartz veins is defined as occurring
within a reef. Strong controls are exerted by the preexisting
basalt dome geometry and also by the location of stratigraphic
boundaries (e.g., contact between the Mine schist and Mag-
dala volcanogenic rocks). There is localized development of
an upright crenulation cleavage which occurs in pelitic units
(Fig. 6) and reorientation of earlier crenulation cleavages
(e.g., the S3 cleavage in the Mine schist). Gold-bearing struc-
tures also occur on the east flank of the Magdala dome within
northeast-dipping fault structures (e.g., the Hampshire fault;
Figs. 2, 3), and although these structures have timing rela-
tionships identical to those of the major lodes on the west
flank of the basalt dome, no resources have been defined to
date.
Structural analysis of the brittle deformation at Stawell is
complicated by the extensive late reactivation of fault surfaces
with localized zones of fault gouge developing along quartz

FIG. 6. Structural profiles from the –145 RL. Section 1-1' depicts Scotchmans vertical and the flats that splay from it and
is located entirely within mine schist. Note the earlier faults-veins parallel to the inclined crenulation cleavage (S3). The hang-
ing-wall lode is also depicted (section 2-2'), and where mineralized, has a top-to-the-east hanging-wall transport. Section lines
are marked in Figure 4. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features are
quartz veins. Stereonets are equal area.

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 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA
reef boundaries. Much of this brittle reactivation is due to
later deformation associated with the transport and dismem-
berment of the Magdala lodes along the Scotchmans fault
zone, the South fault, and the Transverse fault (Figs. 3, 4).
The major hanging-wall transport of the South fault is
top-to-the-southwest and this deformation has reactivated
preexisting fault planes resulting in extensive late striation
development.
Where possible hanging-wall transports (or slip vectors)
have been calculated for the brittle deformation (e.g., Fig. 6).
Arrows marked on the stereonets show the direction of hang-
ing-wall transport. Pressure and tension dihedra (right dihe-
dra) were also calculated (Angelier, 1984). The maximum
principal stress (G1) lies somewhere in the gray quadrants on
the calculated dihedra, whereas the minimum principal stress
(G3) lies in the white quadrants.
Shallow-level brittle deformation
Vertical and Flat lodes: The majority of the early mining fo-
cused on the Scotchmans Vertical (Stawell fault) and the as-
sociated Scotchmans Flats (Fig. 4). Scotchmans Vertical
should not be confused with the Scotchmans fault zone (Ma-
pani and Wilson, 1994), which is a later fault that truncates
and dismembers the earlier generation of brittle faults (Fig.
4). The “vertical” reefs occupy steep northwest-trending,
southwest-dipping shears that have an overall dip of 60° to
the southwest but in places dip up to 80° to the southwest.
The “vertical” reefs have localized along stratigraphic contacts
and have secondary reefs diverging from their footwall side.
These secondary reefs initially splay steeply off the vertical
reefs (Figs. 4, 6) but progressively flatten out and propagate
along the inclined crenulation cleavage within the Mine schist
(these have an average dip of 30° to the northwest). The in-
tersections of the vertical and flat structures correspond with
elongate laminated reef horizons that plunge to the north-
west. There is also a second set of reefs, termed the “Cross
Vertical” and the associated “Sloanes Flat” (cf. Watchorn and
Wilson, 1989). The Cross Vertical is a shallower level contin-
uation of Scotchmans Vertical that is offset by later gently
north-dipping brittle faults (cf. Gane and Moncrieff, 1998;
Dugdale and Fredericksen, 2000).
Extensive veining along the brittle breaks clearly truncates
all earlier fabrics and vein sets (e.g., the S3 crenulation cleav-
age within the Mine schist; cf. Fig. 6). Early generations of
veining parallel to the southwest-dipping brittle shears are
both laminated (Fig. 5e) and massive and are commonly as-
sociated with strong silicification of the adjacent wall rock.
Laminated quartz veins show evidence for extensive pressure
solution with chlorite selvages or remnants of wall rock oc-
curring along vein boundaries. Even though some of these
veins may be up to 5 m wide (Fig. 5e), they are barren of gold.
This early barren set of veins along the major brittle breaks is
overprinted by a later set of laminated veins that are subpar-
allel to earlier veins along the southwest-dipping brittle
shears. These later veins are associated with substantial gold
values (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). Similar overprinting re-
lationships have been documented elsewhere in the mine
(e.g., along the Hangingwall Lode; Fig. 5g). Mineralized veins
occur along warps in faults and flats and at the junction of
flats with steeper vertical structures. Unlike the sulfide-rich
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
333
lodes, which occur within the Magdala volcanogenic units,
the Scotchmans Vertical and the Flat reefs that splay off it are
typical of those found across the Bendigo-Ballarat zone. They
have free gold with laminated quartz and only 5 to 10 percent
sulfides (most commonly arsenopyrite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite,
with occasional galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite). This
may be a function of these lodes occurring within comparable
stratigraphy to the Bendigo-Ballarat zone.
Hanging Wall lodes—Number 1 and Number 2 Flats:
These lodes consist of a series of high-strain zones that struc-
turally underlie Scotchmans Vertical and localize on the west-
ern boundary of the basalt antiform (Fig. 4). This system was
discovered in 1885, after the Flat and Vertical reefs to the
west had been mined out, and large stopes dating from that
time are found in regions where flatter lodes branched from
this system (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). Several lodes occur
within this system and are termed the “Hanging Wall lode”
and the “Central lode.” The Hanging Wall lode has formed on
the stratigraphic boundary between the Mine schist and the
Magdala volcanogenic rocks, whereas the Central lode occurs
within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks between the tholeiitic
basalt unit and the Hanging Wall lode. At depth these two
lodes merge into what is now termed the Central lode system
(Fig. 4). The fault containing the Hanging Wall lode has
hanging-wall transports of top-to-the-northeast and top-to-
the-east. At shallower levels, above the –250 RL, shearing
may be localized along the basalt contact (RL = depth below
the surface datum which is 300 m above sea level, cf. Fig. 4).
At deeper levels (below the –500 RL) shears along the basalt
contact are increasingly common and at depth they contain a
substantial number of economically mineralized lodes.
Unlike the Vertical and Flat reefs, the ore in the Hanging
Wall lode has higher sulfide contents (generally 20–60%).
This is a direct reflection of the interaction of ore-bearing flu-
ids with either sulfide-rich interflow units (up to 80%
pyrrhotite by volume) or iron-rich volcanic rocks. When ore-
bearing structures, such as the Hanging Wall, the Central
lode, or the Flats, intersect the sediments with sulfide-rich in-
terflow units, the sulfides are remobilized and have very high
gold values. In many cases there is no major quartz veining or
visible gold. Apart from fine-grained recrystallized-remobi-
lized pyrrhotite, large clusters of euhedral pyrite, arsenopy-
rite, and pyrrhotite are commonly associated with the high
gold grades.
The Magdala volcanogenic rocks are structurally thickened
over the top of broad basalt “noses,” and brittle deformation
at shallow levels (e.g., the –145 RL) accommodates large
changes in the geometry and thickness of the footwall stratig-
raphy. At shallow levels the Magdala lodes accommodate this
large volume change by the formation of splay faults across
the footwall flexure. These faults and lodes are termed the
Number 1 and 2 Flats (Figs. 4, 5f, 7). The Number 1 Flat cuts
across the top of the Magdala basalt nose, whereas the Num-
ber 2 Flat cuts across the top of the Extended basalt.
In places these flats have dilated to form large (1–2-m-
thick) strongly mineralized quartz-sulfide reefs (Fig. 7).
These contain numerous laminations defined by wall-rock
selvages with native gold occurring on seams of graphite.
High grades of gold also occur where these structures inter-
sect the Hanging Wall lode. Like the veining related to other
333
334 MILLER AND WILSON

FIG. 7. Structural profiles from the –145 RL. Section lines depict the structure of the Number 2 Flat on this level. Note
the flat has both northeast- and east-directed hanging-wall transport vectors. The thick quartz veining parallel to this feature
on section 3-3' is barren of gold. Section lines are marked in Figure 4. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker
lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features are quartz veins. The gray rock unit is basalt. Stereonets are equal area. Note
that Figure 5f is a photograph of section line 4-4'.

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 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA
brittle features, these structures also have extensive earlier
barren quartz veining and appear to have formed at an early
stage in the brittle deformation history. Tension veins in the
footwall of the Number 2 Flat indicate an early hanging-wall
transport to the northeast whereas later vein sets suggest a
top-to-the-east transport (Fig. 7). Shearing that has localized
along the basalt contact merges with the Number 1 and Num-
ber 2 Flats (Figs. 5f, 7). The net slip on the Number 1 and
Number 2 Flats is not substantial, and in general these faults
throw the basalt contact in the hanging wall between 1 and 30
m to the east. Although the flats are normally shown as a sin-
gle fault, in reality they commonly break into an array of faults
(a “horse tail” geometry), each of which has a small compo-
nent of the total displacement. This can make it difficult to
follow the flats between different levels of the mine and can
also result in marked apparent changes in offset of the basalt
contact. Where these flat faults have been identified in the
basalt, they have developed large tension gashes in their foot-
wall regions that suggest a hanging-wall transport to the
northeast (Fig. 7).
Deeper level mineralization
At deeper levels within the mine the overall geometry is
still that of a series of basalt noses and brittle faults (the Cen-
tral lode system). Compared to shallower levels (e.g., –145
RL) the basalt noses on the western flank of the major basalt
dome are narrower. Like the upper levels, the stratigraphic
heterogeneity within the system is accommodated by a series
of shears that splay off the Central lode (Fig. 8). However,
rather than cutting across the top of the basalt nose and off-
setting the adjacent basalt, like the Number 1 and 2 Flats,
these splay faults steepen and merge into a zone that is
termed the “basalt contact shear zone” (Fig. 8, lower panel).
Although these splay faults (links) are extensive in many
areas, this deformation is localized along one or two very dis-
crete shears in areas where the Magdala volcanogenic rocks
are only 5 m thick (Fig. 9).
Central lode: The Central lode at the deeper structural lev-
els is mainly localized along the contact between the Mine
schist and the Magdala volcanogenic rocks. In places where
the Magdala volcanogenic package is thick and contains units
with competency contrasts, the Central lode “steps” into the
Magdala volcanogenic rocks (e.g., along the top of silicified
pelite lenses; cf. Figs. 8, 9). The Central lode is defined by a
zone of brittle faulting with a marked variation in thickness
that can range from 50 cm to 5 m wide (Figs. 10, 11). Unlike
the shallower levels, large lenses of basalt occur in its hanging
wall. Whether these are fault-bounded basalt noses trans-
ported to their current position or represent a basalt flow
once positioned along the contact between the Mine schist
and Magdala volcanogenic rocks is uncertain.
Economic grades occur where the Central lode contains lam-
inated veins that range from 20 cm to a meter thick. These veins
contain 5 to 10 percent sulfides. Mapani and Wilson (1998)
identified three sulfide assemblages within the Central lode.
The first comprises an early assemblage on the interface be-
tween quartz veins and the host rocks (pyrrhotite-pyrite-chal-
cocite-sphalerite-galena-rutile-no gold). The second overprints
the first and is characterized by pyrite-pyrrhotite-magnetite-
sphalerite-gold-silver, pyrite-pyrrhotite-gold-tennanite, or
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
335
arsenopyrite-pyrite-pyrrhotite-stibnite-gold. The third assem-
blage within the Central lode consists of arsenopyrite-pyrite-
pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-gold, pyrite-pyrrhotite-bornite-chalcocite-
chalcopyrite, or galena-gold.
Early generations of veins are commonly buckled by later
deformation within the Central lode (Fig. 11) and there is
generally more than one generation of veining. Some veining
is typical of hydraulic fracturing due to fluid overpressure
(Fig. 12a). In some areas brecciated quartz is overprinted by
pyrite, arsenopyrite, or pyrite (Mapani and Wilson, 1998). In
other areas the Central lode is defined by early laminated
veins, with a thickness locally in excess of 5 m (Figs. 10, 12b),
that are overprinted by later smaller tension veins. Later min-
eralized veins are also commonly laminated (Fig. 12c). The
Central lode also exists as a series of discrete brittle shears as-
sociated with recrystallized pyrrhotite and pyrite (and gold).
In many cases duplexes have developed (Fig. 11). In nearly all
areas there is evidence of wall-rock alteration by fluids that
have traveled along the Central lode, as indicated by sulfida-
tion of wall rock adjacent to fault boundaries (Fig. 12d). Very
late brittle reactivation has resulted in the formation of fault
gouge (Fig. 12d), but this is rarely mineralized.
Linking structures: The location of linking shears between
the Central lode and the basalt contact is important as there
are higher gold grades where these structures intercept the
Central lode and the basalt contact (Figs. 8, 9). The major
control on the position of these links is the geometry of the
variable stratigraphic units within the Magdala volcanogenic
package and also that of the underlying basalt contact. There
are two major kinds of linking structures. The first type occurs
as accommodation structures that “wrap” over the top of the
basalt noses (Figs. 8, 9). These links are direct splays off the
Central lode or alternatively represent the merging of the
basalt contact shears on the flank of one basalt nose to an-
other (i.e., from the Dukes basalt across to the Extended
basalt). The intersection of these links with the Central lode
and the basalt contact is controlled by the underlying basalt
noses that plunge between 20° and 30° to the northwest. The
second type of linking shears localize along the boundaries of
stratigraphic units within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks
that have significant competency contrasts. One of the best
examples of these is a major link that develops below a large
silicified pelitic lens (Figs. 8, 9, 11, 12e, 12f). This link has a
dip that varies from 70° to 40° to west or southwest and cross-
cuts the earlier generations of veins and foliations. Like the
Central lode, the veining associated with it varies from lami-
nated veins to massive veins to hydraulic breccias. The pelitic
lens (below which the link localizes) is an irregular body, and
this results in an irregular intersection of the linking shear
with the Central lode and an irregular, patchy pattern of gold
enrichment. This is distinct from the more planar intersection
of the links controlled by the geometry of the basalt noses.
Basalt Contact shear zone: At depth the Magdala vol-
canogenic rocks close to the basalt contact commonly include
massive dark chloritic units that have acted as good hosts for
gold deposition. Similarily recrystallized pyrrhotite-rich inter-
flow units also contain high gold values. The Basalt Contact
shear zone that underlies the Central lode system is not al-
ways subparallel to the basalt contact but follows the inter-
section of numerous splays that have diverged from the
335
 ;;;;;;;
336 MILLER AND WILSON

;;;;;;;
Deeper Structural Levels
Surface
Surface
320 SECTION

;;;;;;;
Mine Schist rs
ine
Wonga Schist ar Eastern Schist
M
-250 RL

Scotchmans Flat

;;;;;;;
;
Scotchm
ans Fau
cal)

Basalt Magdala lt Zone

volcanogenic rocks
Verti
ans ult

-500 RL
(Sco tawell Fa

Basa la
Basalt

da
lt
Ha

Mag
sa ed v m
tchm

Ba end
v ps

;;;;;;;
lt
hi
S

de

t
Ex

-619 RL re -619 RL
Lo

Up Fa
pe ul
al

rS v Magdala Waterloo t
ntr

ou v
th
Ce

Fa 898058N section projected

ult
-750 RL v onto this section

Dukes Basalt v
v v

;;;;;;;
So
uth
Fa
ult v
v v
Drill Hole
Wonga Schist v
-1000 RL

;;;;;;;
v v v

100 metres v
v

;;;
-1250 RL

;;;
SW v v
NE

;;;
8200E

8250E
8225E
8150E

East
8175E

West

;;;
;;;
-600
nk
Mine Schist Li
r
ea

Magdala Grade
sh

volcanogenic enrichment Drive

10 10'

;;
; ;;
9 9'
ct

;;;
rocks
ta

619 Level
on

-620
tc

Pelite
l
sa

Pelite
nk
Li
Ba

Central Lode Drive along

Drive 6 6' 8 8'12 12' basalt contact

;;
633 Level Pelite
t em -640
S ys
e SCALE
od
lL 10m
tra 7
7'
n
Ce
653 Level
Lens of -660
tremolite schist 898058N SECTION
FIG. 8. Geologic profile of the Magdala antiform at the 320 section by senior gold exploration geologist Jon Dugdale (with
initial results from an under-the-South-fault drilling program added) and a more detailed profile at the 898058N section (by
mine geologist Karyn Trickey). The 320 section is marked in Figures 3 and 9, whereas the 898058N section is marked in Fig-
ure 9. Location of section lines for Figures 10, 11, and 13 are marked, as is the position of the Magdala Waterloo (section
line 13-13', Fig. 14). Grade enrichment above and below the Central lode is marked with a stipple pattern.

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;;;;
;;
;;;;
THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 337

;;
330 Section Wide band of Magdala

;;;;
volcanogenic rocks
18'

89 ec
19'

ks
80 tio
S

c
18

en la
ro
58 n
19

og gda

N
ic
N

;;
;; a
100m

M
an
Mine Schist

lc
10

vo
10' Extended
9

;;
Basalt

;;;;
325 Section
9'

;; e
lit
Pe
de
0E
25 322 section
Lo 65
8
al

N
ntr

89
55

80
Ce

;;
00

;;;;
320 Section
10m

55
Magdala
50
Mine Schist Shaft 35
Link and
mineralised veins 321 section
related to links

;;;;
315 Section 55 58

5 0E
82 40
65
15 15'
65
89

50 40 55
77
50

Oriental

;;;;
Shaft 320 section
310 Section

Dukes Extended 40
Basalt Basalt 16
16' Fault system
14 14' related to oblique
75 45 sinistral slip
11 11'

;;
305 Section
55
319 section
Key for blowout

Narrow band of Foliation

Magdala volcanogenic rocks 17 60
55 Fault
Stope
17'
Vein
SE-dipping veins 50 Massive dark chloritic lens within
related to oblique 318 section
sinistral slip Magdala volcanogenic rocks

Magdala volcanogenic rocks

55
Basalt

FIG. 9. Geologic map of the –618/619 RL (–619 RL = northern end of map, –618RL = southern end of map); section 320
and section 898058N are marked (note 320 = mine grid, 898058N = AMG grid). Modified from backs mapping by mine ge-
ologist Karyn Trickey. Note the strong correlation between underground stopes defining regions of economic grade (marked
with a stippled cross hatch) and the merging of linking structures with the Central lode or the basalt contact. This level con-
tains both the Dukes and Extended basalts and has a marked variation in the thickness of the Magdala volcanogenic rocks;
it contains a series of linking structures as well (one of which localizes under the pelitic lens occurring within the Magdala
volcanogenic rocks). Section lines for Figures 10, 11, 13, and 15 are also marked. The blow out is a detail of the basalt con-
tact ore zone. Linking structures and a zone of sinistral reactivation occur within this detail. Note that a massive dark Mag-
dala volcanogenic unit is a key host for southeast-dipping mineralized veins that formed during this sinistral oblique-slip re-
activation (Fig. 12k is a photograph of arsenopyrite selvages around a vein within this massive Magdala volcanogenic unit).

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338 MILLER AND WILSON

;;;;
Central Lode 1st generation
veins defined by Fault orientations
Dominant laminated veins and slickenlines Footwall foliation
Fault (thick) with foliation ("S2") from along drive
Veins within footwall tension veins
Central Lode Fault set
Joint set parallel
to faults

;;;;
Barren vein
6 -633 level 6'
255 Central Lode 075
SSW ENE

;;;;
7
255
7'
Mineralized vein

SSW 075
ENE

Pelite

-653 level
Fault with
slickenline
Central Lode

Faults

Late inclined Joint set

S1
vein set
Axial surface cleavages Axial surface cleavage & 2 metres Last joint set
and fold axes to "S3" folds fold axes to "S2" folds
SCALE
FIG. 10. Structural profiles from the –633 RL and –653 RL. Section lines depict the Central lode. At the –633 RL (sec-
tion line 6-6'), the Central lode is defined by a mineralized laminated vein; tension veins in the footwall region and slicken-
lines on fault planes show strong evidence of southeast-directed transport. In contrast, on the –653 RL the Central lode is
defined by a massive early quartz vein that is barren of gold and has tension veins and striations indicating a hanging-wall
transport of top-to-the-northeast and -east. Section lines are marked in Figure 8. Figure 12b is a photograph of section line
7-7'. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features are quartz veins. The
stippled rock unit is a pelitic unit within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks. Stereonets are equal area.

Central lode (Figs. 12g, 13). Not all of the basalt contact east basalt contacts on either side of a Waterloo can be min-
shears are mineralized and, apart from stratigraphic controls, eralized. The geometry of the Waterloos varies depending on
the highest grades occur adjacent to where linking structures the width of Magdala volcanogenic rocks between the two
have merged from the adjoining basalt nose (note stopes basalt units (Fig. 14). The Magdala volcanogenic rocks are
marked in Fig. 9). In general, the basalt contact contains less strongly foliated and isoclinally folded; particularly in areas
quartz veining than does the Central lode. Gold occurs where the package is very thin (<20 cm), there is also a strong
mainly within sulfide selvages at the edge of quartz-pyrrhotite foliation and a steeply plunging lineation developed (Wilson
shears, with extensive disseminated sulfides occurring within et al., 1992). Where the Magdala volcanogenic rocks within a
the wall rock (pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite). Arsenopy- given Waterloo lens out at depth, the structure is either de-
rite halos occur extensively around veins along the basalt con- fined by very narrow zones (<10 cm) of foliation development
tact. In other areas, the basalt contact is a conformable con- within the basalt or loses definition altogether. The rocks
tact that is overprinted by a series of north- to within a Waterloo contain extensive tension veins and these
northwest-dipping tension veins, suggesting a hanging-wall consist of two types. The early vein sets are ubiquitous in
transport of top-to-the-northeast or east (Fig. 13). In some chert-rich units and are folded by later deformation. These
areas a massive silicified unit defines the boundary of the are related to earlier northeast-southwest compression. Later
basalt contact, and this unit commonly contains fine-grained veins sets are host to gold mineralization and have dip direc-
pyrrhotite and disseminated euhedral crystals of arsenopyrite. tions to the north, northeast, and east.
Waterloo structures: The Waterloo structures represent The folded rocks within a given Waterloo are always over-
synformal keels of Magdala volcanogenic units wedged be- printed by later faults. These are more apparent in regions
tween two basalt buttresses (e.g., Fig. 4). Both the west and where the Magdala volcanogenic package is thinnest. These

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THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA

FIG. 11. Structural profiles from the –619 RL and –633 RL. Section lines depict the Central lode and the mineralized link that splays from it and localizes beneath a
pelitic lens within the mine schist. Figure 12e is a photograph of section line 10-10'; Figure 12f is a photograph of section line 8-8'. Note that the late southeast-dipping
tension veins that overprint the link on the –619 RL (section line 10-10'). Section lines are marked in Figures 8 and 9. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker
lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features are quartz veins. The stippled rock unit is a pelitic unit within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks. Stereonets are equal area.
339
340 MILLER AND WILSON

FIG. 12. a. Hydraulic breccia within the Central lode. Geologic hammer for scale. b. Massive barren vein defining the Cen-
tral lode on the –653 RL. Geologic hammer and clipboard for scale. c. Laminated veins parallel to the Central lode. d. Poorly
mineralized exposure of the Central lode on the –619 RL. Massive Magdala volcanogenic rocks in the footwall of the lode
show evidence for sulfidation. The light-colored flecks in the footwall of the Central lode are crystals of pyrite (marked by
the arrow). Lode also has also undergone late-brittle reactivation resulting in production of fault gouge. Pencil for scale,
photo is a mirror image of the original. e. Strongly mineralized linking structure on the –619 RL. Geologic hammer for scale,
photo is a mirror image of the original. f. Strongly mineralized linking structure on the –633 RL. Photo is a mirror image of
the original. g. Strongly mineralized quartz-pyrrhotite shear close to, but not subparallel to, the basalt contact. The envelop-
ing surface of bedding is marked (S0), which is subparallel to the basalt contact. Note tension veins within the Magdala vol-
canogenic rocks in the footwall of the lode. Base of photo approximately 2 m; photo taken by mine geologist Mike Gane. h.
Mineralized north-dipping tension veins associated with euhedral pyrite growth in the –681 RL Magdala Waterloo. Pen for
scale. i. Gold mineralization related to arsenopyrite and pyrite (smaller crystals) overgrowing wall rock. Lode style is associ-
ated with almost no quartz veining. Coin for scale. j. Southeast-dipping veins within the Magdala volcanogenic rocks close to
the basalt contact. k. Growth of arsenopyrite adjacent to southeast-dipping tension vein in the –618 RL, vein one of the vein
set depicted in Figure 15, section line 17-17'. Pencil for scale.

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 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 341

FIG. 13. Structural profiles from the –618 RL and –633 RL. Section lines depict the basalt contact. Section lines are
marked in Figures 8 and 9. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features
are quartz veins. The gray rock unit is basalt. Stereonets are equal area.

dip-slip faults are difficult to trace but are believed to merge
with the Central lode system at depth; many of the basalt
noses may represent detached fault-bounded units. The faults
are of two kinds: an earlier initial set of shears that are sub-
parallel to the stratigraphy, contain shear-parallel veining, and
appear to have localized along stratigraphic contacts; and a se-
ries of later noncoaxial shears that develop S-C fabrics indi-
cating a strong reverse component of movement (Fig. 14).
Hanging-wall transport along the later brittle faults ranges
from top-to-the-northeast to top-to-the-east. The later faults
have more gentle dips than the stratigraphy that bounds the
Waterloo, but they merge with the Waterloo structure where
the Waterloos are defined by narrow shears (Fig. 14). Ar-
senopyrite generally occurs along the later shears. In other
areas pyrite and arsenopyrite form alteration halos around
small tension gashes (Fig. 12h). Sulfides are also disseminated
throughout the rock, statically overgrowing the dominant fo-
liation (Fig. 12i). These euhedral sulfides commonly show no
evidence of later deformation (no pressure shadows or brittle
deformation of sulfides).
Sinistral reactivation of the system
The mineralized brittle structures have been reactivated by
oblique dip-slip transport with a sinistral component. Signifi-
cantly, veins related to this reactivation are commonly miner-
alized. This later deformation was also noted by Watchorn
and Wilson (1989), who argued that some mineralization was
associated with later sinistral wrench faulting (termed

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 342

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342
MILLER AND WILSON

FIG. 14. Structural profiles and a geologic map from the –618 RL and –681 RL. Section lines depict the structural style of the Waterloos. Section line 13-13' shows
the structure within a Waterloo where the Magdala volcanogenic rocks have a thickness in excess of 20 m whereas the –618 RL sections show the structural style within
a Waterloo when the Magdala volcanogenic package is thinner. For all of the sections the related faults have hanging-wall transports to the northeast or east. Section
lines are marked in Figures 8 and 9. Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker lines are veins or faults, gray infilled features are quartz veins. The gray rock unit
is basalt. Stereonets are equal area.
 THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 343

“early-D5” in fig. 9d of Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). The
oblique reactivation commonly forms fault geometries that
are indicative of the component of sinistral movement (Fig.
9).
The most obvious example of this deformation is a set of
southeast-dipping veins (Fig. 12j) that have formed in arrays
as a result of oblique sinistral slip along the basalt contact
(Figs. 9, 15). This deformation is most evident in regions of
large competency contrast, in particular along the contact be-
tween the Magdala volcanogenic rocks and the tholeiitic
basalt and occasionally along the contact between the Mine
schist and the Magdala volcanogenic rocks. These south-
east-dipping veins are not always mineralized, which reflects
the strong control that wall-rock chemistry has on mineraliza-
tion. Where they are mineralized, the veins have well-devel-
oped arsenopyrite halos in the surrounding wall rock (Fig.

FIG. 15. Structural profiles depicting later sinistral oblique-slip reactivation. Section lines are marked in Figure 9. For all
of the sections the reactivated faults have hanging-wall transports to the southeast. Striations on some of the fault planes sug-
gest they have undergone slip related to north-south shortening. This is probably as a result of deformation associated with
the Scotchmans fault zone (cf. Fig. 4). Faint lines depict cleavage traces or joints, thicker lines are veins or faults, gray in-
filled features are quartz veins. On section lines 16-16' and 17-17' the gray rock unit is a massive chloritic Magdala vol-
canogenic unit. Section lines 16 and 17 are on the same level (–619 RL); however, section line 16 is slightly northwest of sec-
tion line 17 and the projection illustrates their relative structural level and not geographic coordinates. On section line 19-19'
the gray rock unit is basalt. Stereonets are equal area.

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344 MILLER AND WILSON
12k). These veins normally occur within 5 m of the basalt con-
tact but can occur up to 10 m away (note in Fig. 9 the veins
extend away from the basalt contact within a massive lens of
Magdala volcanogenic rocks).
The southeast-dipping vein set is strongly developed within
the Magdala volcanogenic rocks and overprints earlier north-
and northwest-dipping veins. However, the southeast-dipping
veins are rarely found in the basalt (Fig. 15, sections 18-18' and
19-19'). The southeast-dipping veins have different deforma-
tion microstructures (multiple crack-seal events) compared to
the northwest-dipping sets which have massive vein textures
(Gane, 1998). In some areas northwest-dipping veins have
been reactivated as a slip surface which has facilitated shear
veining and produced apparent conflicting overprinting rela-
tionships between southeast- and northwest-dipping vein sets.
Structural and Fluid Flow Models for
the Stawell-Ararat Fault Zone
Gold mineralization at Stawell is clearly postpeak regional
metamorphism. Regional metamorphism occurred prior to
and during upright folding of all parts of the stratigraphy (i.e.,
pre- to syn-D2). Peak metamorphic assemblages are de-
formed by later ductile deformation (i.e., the S3 crenulation
cleavage in the Mine schist). All of these ductile structures
are crosscut by mesothermal gold lodes. The change to a brit-
tle deformation style reflects the progressive exhumation of
the sequence to shallower crustal levels via erosion during
crustal thickening and the downcutting into rocks previously
subjected to ductile deformation (Sibson et al., 1988). This
erosion eventually resulted in the deposition of detritus from
these sequences into the Melbourne trough (Melbourne zone
of Fig. 1; Gray and Foster, 1998; VandenBerg et al., 2000).
Cyclic variations in fluid-pressure and shear stress within the
seismogenic zone of the exhumed terrane (e.g., Sibson et al.,
1988) may have been important controls on the onset of brit-
tle deformation within the system. Rheology changes caused
by silicification and veining during early folding and fabric
formation may have been additional factors. Postmineraliza-
tion deformation is typified by cataclastic fault gouge (Fig.
12d) and indicates that the rocks were probably at higher
structural levels above the seismogenic zone where fluid pres-
sures do not approach lithostatic values (e.g., Sibson et al.,
1988).
The Magdala system of steeply dipping reverse faults is an
example of a structural setting that is unlikely to reactivate in
a compressional regime (cf. Sibson and Scott, 1998). These
faults have formed due to the localization of shear stress on
stratigraphic boundaries whose orientations are inherited
from earlier ductile deformation. Steeply dipping breaks that
are severely misoriented for slip within a compressional
regime require high fluid pressures to reactivate (Sibson and
Scott, 1998). Faults of this type in a compressional environ-
ment are potentially a key factor in promoting fault-valve ac-
tion characterized by large volume fluid discharge and cyclic
variations in fluid pressure and shear stress (Cox et al., 1986,
1991a; Sibson et al., 1988; Sibson and Scott, 1998). The local-
ization of mineralization appears to have been controlled by
upward flow of gold-bearing fluids along the flanks of antifor-
mal structures, with lateral flow culminating at the doubly
plunging “whaleback” represented by the Magdala antiform
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 344
(Fig. 16). The Magdala system does not form directly below an
identifiable permeability cap to rising gold-bearing fluids (e.g.,
an impermeable shale-rich layer such as that found at Bendigo;
cf. Cox et al., 1991a). However, permeability caps that can con-
strict fluid pathways producing lithostatic and supralithostatic
fluid pressures are inferred to form in part by the hydrothermal
sealing of fluid pathways by precipitation of quartz at shallower
crustal levels (e.g., Cox, 1995; Cox et al., 1995).
Major brittle structures appear to have developed in re-
gions of high shear stress, which at Stawell seem to have been
highest on the western flank of the basalt dome. The antifor-
mal geometry of the Magdala deposits has pinched out
stratigraphy within the Mine schist and Magdala volcanogenic
rocks and provided a locus for the development of extensive
mineralized extension veins, linking faults, and flats (Fig. 16).
These have developed in response to deformation and slip
along irregular stratigraphic boundaries, with the thickness of
the basalt noses being a key control on the fault geometry
(Fig. 16). The flats and linking structures documented at
Stawell are believed to be splay faults that steepen and merge
with the steeper dipping lodes. In areas where the basalt con-
tact shears merge into the Number 1 and Number 2 Flats
(e.g., Figs. 5f, 7), the net displacement of basalt marker beds
is not more than 30 m. Many of the mineralized brittle struc-
tures at Stawell appear to have had little overall displacement,
and in this sense, are similar to mineralized structures in the
Bendigo-Ballarat zone (e.g., Cox et al., 1995). In contrast to
all the other lode styles, the Waterloo structures are domi-
nated by mineralized tension veins indicative of low differen-
tial and effective mean stress (e.g., Etheridge, 1983).
Gold-bearing veins have formed very late in the brittle de-
formation history of the deposit, with early barren veins over-
printed by laminated veins (e.g., Fig. 5g) that have substantial
gold concentrations (Watchorn and Wilson, 1989). This rela-
tionship is also reflected in the early sulfide assemblages
(pyrrhotite-pyrite-chalcocite-sphalerite-galena-rutile) found
in the Central lode system which are barren of gold and are
overgrown by later sulfides related to gold mineralization
(Mapani and Wilson, 1998). High-grade quartz veins are
found in areas where there was the strongest likelihood of
failure and dilation during late brittle deformation, such as
warps along faults and also at the junction of shallowly dip-
ping shears (flats and links) with steeper dipping structures.
Much of the mineralization has occurred during later reac-
tivation of preexisting structures that formed during ductile
deformation within an environment of northeast-southwest
shortening (Wilson et al., 1992). This geometry may reflect
the stress distribution around the irregular craton boundary
to the west. Although the early brittle deformation is also as-
sociated with a northeast-directed transport direction in many
cases, adjacent to the major mineralized structures there ap-
pears to be later transport directed to the east (Figs. 6, 7).
The entire system has also undergone late reactivation associ-
ated with additional mineralization that is best described as
dip-slip with a sinistral component (Figs. 12j, 12k, 15).
Comparison with Major Deformation and
Mineralization in the Western Victorian Gold Fields
Gold-bearing reefs within the Bendigo-Ballarat zone are
hosted within chevron-folded Ordovician turbidite sequences;
 ;; ;;; THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 345

;; ;;;
@@@


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QQQ




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QQ



Fa s Hill
ult
Equivalent unit to

pe
Co
Hangingwall sandstone
(see Fig. 2) Erosion

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QQ



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;;;
QQQ




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;;
QQ



surface
SW NE Ararat -

;; ;;;
Small localised Au Au
lodes related to structurally
sinistral wrenching ? higher part

@@


;;
QQ



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;;;
QQQ






Q


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; @@


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of system
Stawell Fault has St Arnaud Beds
small localised

k
rea
lodes along strike

eB
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QQQQ







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;;
;;
;
Staw

nge
Hangingwall NW-plunge
ell
sandstone Ara

Coo
Au
SE
rat
Wide zone -p
Erosion surface lun
ge
~5 km

@@


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QQQQ





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;
Q


Au Au
lt

SW
au

Au NE
ll F

Au
Au Au
we

Coherent
Sta

Au Au
Au Volcanogenic
Stawell -

@@


;;
QQ



@@@@


;;;;
QQQQ






Q;@
Au
package
Fluid flow NE
Au Au
Au
Au structurally SW
lower part
Au
of system
Au
St Arnaud Beds

Narrow zone
FIG. 16. Structural summary of the key features at Stawell and Ararat. Stawell is located at a change in regional fold
plunge. The units at Ararat are at a higher structural-stratigraphic level with mineralization occurring within faults that have
localized on the stratigraphic contact between deformed mica schists and relatively planar basalt and Magdala volcanogenic
lenses. This planar geometry does not appear to provide the system the opportunity to dilate in a manner similar to that of
the strongly mineralized Magdala lode system. Domal culmination sketch is modified from Cox et al. (1991a).

major gold reefs dispersed throughout the Bendigo-Ballarat
zone show similar characteristics. These deposits have early
saddle reefs that have developed just prior to the folds “lock-
ing up” (Fig. 17). The saddle reefs form as a result of flexural
slip in anticlinal hinges combined with localized higher pore
fluid pressures (Cox et al., 1991a). These saddle reefs contain
about 10 percent of the total gold, with the bulk of gold oc-
curring in fault-related veins (Johansen, 1999). Most of the
gold is hosted in either modified saddle reefs (neck reefs) or
in jogs along faults that formed when bedding-parallel faults
slipped along the western side of an anticline and broke
across and disrupted a fold hinge (Cox et al., 1986, 1991a,
1995; Sharpe and MacGeehan, 1990; Glen, 1995; Schaubs
and Wilson, 2002; Fig. 17). In other cases gold occurs along
brittle faults on the eastern side of an antiformal closure as-
sociated with adjacent extension veins (spur reefs). The
largest deposit (Bendigo; ~540 mt Au from primary produc-
tion) is located within a domal culmination of shale-rich tur-
bidites (Cox et al., 1991a).
There also appears to be a stratigraphic control on mineral-
ization in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone, with nearly all of the de-
posits forming in, or directly below, the shale-rich part of the
stratigraphy. These shale-rich units probably acted as an im-
permeable barrier to fluids (Cox et al., 1991a). Major gold de-
posits are not found in regions where the sandstone-rich part
of the stratigraphy dominates (e.g., the westernmost part of
Bendigo-Ballarat zone and the eastern part of Stawell zone)
nor is mineralization normally found within the zone-bound-
ing reverse faults or within major intrazone reverse faults.
The slate-rich units are graphitic, and the precipitation of
gold is thought to be a result of the reaction between car-
bonaceous wall rocks and oxidized ore fluids released during
postfailure discharge (Cox et al., 1995).
Compared to the Bendigo-Ballarat zone, the Stawell-Ararat
fault zone is clearly a more structurally complex system. How-
ever, 40Ar/39Ar dating of major deposits in both zones yields
similar ages on vein sericites of approximately 440 Ma (Fig. 1;
Foster et al., 1998; Bierlein et al., 1999, 2001), which is sup-
ported by Re-Os age data from Bendigo (Arne et al., 2001).
Major brittle deformation in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone has
also been constrained to ~440 Ma (mica ages on the Whitelaw
and Avoca fault zones; Foster et al., 1998, 1999). Some earlier
vein sericite ages also exist in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone (e.g.,
455 Ma at Ballarat; Foster et al., 1998) and these are believed
to represent either early saddle reef formation, metamorphic
mica related to cleavage development that was incorporated
as fragments of wall rock in the laminated veins, or an early
stage of brittle faulting (Foster et al., 1998). A separate mini-
mum age constraint on gold mineralization at Magdala is ob-
tained from porphyry dikes that postdate the main stage of
mineralization. These dikes intrude along the Central lode
and have U-Pb zircon ages of 413 ± 3 Ma (Arne et al., 1998).
Mineralized veins formed late in the brittle deformation
history at Stawell, whereas the initial stages of mineralization

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346
Layer of lower
permiability
W E
Saddle reef development
455 Ma? just prior to fold lock up
FIG. 17. Models for the development of early saddle reefs in the Bendigo-Ballarat zones and the later neck and spur reefs.
Geologic ages from 40Ar/39Ar dating by Foster et al. (1998) and Bierlein et al. (1999, and 2001).
occurred within saddle reefs in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone
that predate fold lock up. This suggests that the Stawell-
Ararat fault zone had a much longer history of deformation
than did the rocks in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone. Deformation
appears to have initiated in the Stawell region and propagated
to the east (Fig. 18a), with major gold mineralization occurring
at the same time (~440 Ma) in both gold fields but at different
stages in their structural evolution. While folding was occur-
ring in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone, the rocks in the Stawell-
Ararat zone were deforming via brittle faulting, with deforma-
tion partitioned into intrazone faults (Fig. 18b). This would
also explain why the folded units in the Stawell zone have
strikes that are oblique to and, in fact, are truncated by the
Avoca fault, whereas the units in the adjacent Bendigo-Bal-
larat zone are not (Fig. 1). The migration in deformation is also
mimicked by the shift from Early Devonian plutonism in the
west to Late Devonian plutonism in the east (Fig. 1). These
observations support the interpretation of Foster et al. (1996,
1998) and Gray and Foster (1997) who also argued that defor-
mation initiated in the west and migrated to the east. Whether
this migration was part of a continuum or a series of discrete
orogenic events is still a very contentious and unresolved issue
(cf. VandenBerg, 1999, 2000; Foster and Gray, 2000). Fur-
thermore, the timing of the initiation of ductile deformation
in the Stawell-Ararat fault zone (i.e., D1 to D3) is problemati-
cal. Published 40Ar/39Ar age spectra are discordant with age
steps ranging between 500 and 400 Ma (Foster et al., 1999).
Evidence for gold deposits associated with
sinistral wrenching
The40Ar/39Ar age populations on the Landsborough and
Heathcote faults suggest reactivation at ~426 to 420 Ma (Fos-
ter et al., 1998; Foster and Gray, 2000). Influxes of coarse
clastics into the Melbourne trough (Melbourne zone of Fig.
1) at approximately 430 to 425 Ma have been correlated with
this reactivation in western Victoria (VandenBerg, 1999; Van-
denBerg et al., 2000). Auriferous structures related to sinis-
tral wrenching (Fig. 18c) have been identified within the
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MILLER AND WILSON
Saddle reef
W E
"Neck" reef
Dilatation
(modified
saddle reef)
along jog
Fault slips
parallel
to layering
Major reef development
440 Ma synchronous with brittle faulting
Stawell zone itself (e.g., the Percydale fields with ~12 mt of
Au primary production; Sandiford and Keays, 1986) and in
the Bendigo-Ballarat zone at Tarnagulla (~14 mt Au primary
production; Cuffley et al., 1998). Bierlein et al. (2001) have
argued for a distinct stage of mineralization between 420 and
400 Ma—a time span which overlaps the sinistral wrenching
and also the younger, and mineralogically distinct, Wonga de-
posit at Stawell (Wilson et al., 1999). Of the mineralizing
events, the absolute ages on sinistral wrenching are the most
uncertain. Multiple alteration events, partial resetting from
plutonism, and 39Ar recoil have complicated the interpreta-
tion of the age data. At Stawell sinistral wrenching predates
the intrusion of the Early Silurian porphyry dikes. Sericites
separated from mineralized veins from the Tarnagulla gold
fields have produced 40Ar/39Ar ages of 420 to 419 Ma (Foster
et al., 1998; Bierlein et al., 2001), with some younger ages
(~415–410 Ma) on more discordant spectra. A 413 ± 3 Ma
40
Ar/39Ar age has also been obtained on sericite from within
the Percydale fields (Fiddlers reef; Bierlein et al., 2001).
Compared to the major 440 Ma gold deposits at Stawell,
Bendigo, Ballarat, and Castlemaine, the gold deposits related
to sinistral wrenching have smaller endowments and younger
40
Ar/39Ar ages on vein sericite. The younger 40Ar/39Ar ages for
these (Fig. 1) are consistent with the observed overprinting
relationships at the Magdala mine where sinistral oblique slip
postdates the main stage of mineralization.
Implications for Gold Mineralization in
the Western Lachlan Fold Belt
Most models for the Bendigo-Ballarat zone argue for the
progressive evolution of the terrane during crustal thickening
starting with early folding and metamorphism followed by
brittle faulting and release of gold-bearing fluids derived
from units undergoing deeper level metamorphism (e.g., Cox
et al., 1991a, b, 1995; Stüwe, 1998). A fluid source external to
the current level of exposure is suggested by the discrepancy
in the timing of major gold lode formation and earlier re-
gional metamorphism (Sandiford and Keays, 1986; Cox et al.,
346
;;
;;;;;;;;
THE MAGDALA LODE SYSTEM, STAWELL, SOUTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA 347

;;
;;;;;;;
st )
at a
Ea
al l 5 M
Early Deformation

a)
E

CB

(B 45
3M
(45 F

ar
W

PF

AF
a.
a)
M
57
(4
Large veins within Saddle reefs HF

;;
;;;;;;;
brittle faults are barren not mineralized

Deformation at 440 Ma - Main Phase of gold mineralisation

High permiability sand-rich layers Start of shale Permiability cap
Stawell
stratigraphic &
structural trap Maldon Castlemaine
CB

WF
Bendigo

CF

MF
LF

PF

AF

HF
W

;;
;;;;;;;
E
b.

High grade Low Grade Ballarat Deposition of

Siluro-Devonian
Strong Progressively Melbourne Zone Units
polydeformation simpler structural history Extensive alluvial leads
(cf. Fig. 1) Daylesford

;;
;;;;;;;
Oblique slip on basalt Oblique sinistral slip
contact & Central Lode Current erosion Percydale
surface Fields Tarnagulla

WF
CF

MF
CB

LF

AF

HF
W E

c.
Influx of coarse
clastics into
Stawell Zone structures Melbourne trough
truncated against Avoca Fault

Intrusion of early Silurian porphyry dykes is post oblique sinistral slip

FIG. 18. Schematic model for the evolution of the gold fields within the western Lachlan fold belt. See text for discussion.
Note that the initial section is not to scale (Fig. 18a), because there is at least 70 percent shortening inferred in the Bendigo-
Ballarat zone during upright folding and cleavage development (Gray and Willman, 1991). The locations of all deposits are
marked in Figure 1, and the abbreviations are the same as those for Figure 1.

1995). Some authors have argued that the consistency of the
fluid compositions and the relative correlation between the
ages of gold mineralization with the surficial expressions of
deeper level thermal events point to a common deep crustal
and/or mantle source of fluids (e.g., Phillips and Hughes,
1996). However, across the Stawell, Bendigo-Ballarat, and
Melbourne zones there is an overall eastward younging in the
age of deformation, major orogenic gold deposits, and plu-
tonism (Fig. 1). There is a clear discrepancy between the
structural evolution and complexity of the Stawell and
Bendigo-Ballarat zones, despite the similar age of major gold
mineralization (~440 Ma; cf. Figs. 1, 18). The exact cause of
this is as yet unresolved, but the effects of eastward-migrating
deformation that progressively (or episodically?) thickened
and metamorphosed a turbidite pile and underlying substrate
(of potentially variable composition; cf. VandenBerg et al.,
2000) must be incorporated into existing models for meso-
thermal gold mineralization in western Victoria.
Acknowledgments
This project has been funded by an Australian Research
Council SPIRT grant and by Stawell Gold Mines Pty. Ltd.
The directors of Mining Project Investors Pty. Ltd. are
thanked for allowing publication prior to the expiration of a
confidentiality agreement. We acknowledge the great help
provided by numerous company staff, in particular, D. Fred-
ericksen, J. Dugdale, G. McDermott, J. Moncrieff, K.
Trickey, and M. Gane. Constructive reviews by Stephen Cox,
an anonymous reviewer, and comments from the editorial
board improved the manuscript.
February 1, November 21, 2001
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