ISSN No: 2309-4893

International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology

Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

MODELING & SIMULATION OF ROCKET NOZZLE

Nirmith Kumar Mishra , Dr S Srinivas Prasad, Mr Ayub Padania

Department of Aerospace Engineering
MLR Institute of Technology
Hyderabad, T.S

Abstract sufficient to reach sonic speeds, otherwise no

This project develops a computer code which uses
the Method of Characteristics and the Stream
Function to define high efficiency nozzle contours
for isentropic, inviscid, irrotational supersonic
flows of any working fluid for any user-defined exit
Mach number. The contours are compared to
theoretical isentropic area ratios for the selected
fluid and desired exit Mach number. The accuracy
of the nozzle to produce the desired exit Mach
number is also checked. The flow field of the
nozzles created by the code are independently
checked with the commercial Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) code ANSYS-FLUENT.
ANSYSFLUENT predictions are used to verify the
isentropic flow assumption and that the working
fluid reached the user-defined desired exit Mach
number.
Key Words: Method of characteristics, Supersonic
nozzle, Area ratio relation, Prandtl- Meyer
expansion wave
supersonic flow is achieved and it will act as a
Venturi tube; this requires the entry pressure to the
nozzle to be significantly above ambient at all
times (equivalently, the stagnation pressure of the
jet must be above ambient).
In addition, the pressure of the gas at the exit of the
expansion portion of the exhaust of a nozzle must
not be too low. Because pressure cannot travel
upstream through the supersonic flow, the exit
pressure can be significantly below ambient
pressure it exhausts into, but if it is too far below
ambient, then the flow will cease to be supersonic,
or the flow will separate within the expansion
portion of the nozzle, forming an unstable jet that
may 'flop' around within the nozzle, possibly
damaging it. In practice ambient pressure must be
no higher than roughly 2-3 times the pressure in the
supersonic gas at the exit for supersonic flow to
leave the nozzle.

1. Introduction
A de Laval nozzle (or convergent-divergent nozzle,
CD nozzle or con-di nozzle) is a tube that is
pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced,
asymmetric hourglass-shape. It is used to accelerate
a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a
supersonic speed, and upon expansion, to shape the
exhaust flow so that the heat energy propelling the
flow is maximally converted into directed kinetic
energy. Because of this, the nozzle is widely used
in some types of steam turbine, it is an essential
part of the modern rocket engine, and it also sees
use in supersonic jet engines. The nozzle was
developed by Swedish inventor Gustaf de Laval in
1888 for use on a steam turbine. This principle was Fig 1.1 Flow through C-D Nozzle
first used in a rocket engine by Robert Goddard.
Very nearly all modern rocket engines that employ The analysis of gas flow through de Laval nozzles
hot gas combustion use de Laval nozzles. A de involves a number of concepts and assumptions:
Laval nozzle will only choke at the throat if the
pressure and mass flow through the nozzle is

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014
• For simplicity, the gas is assumed to be an
ideal gas.
• The gas flow is isentropic (i.e., at constant
entropy). As a result the flow is
reversible (frictionless and no
dissipative losses), and adiabatic (i.e.,
there is no heat gained or lost).
• The gas flow is constant (i.e., steady)
during the period of the propellant
burn.
• The gas flow is along a straight line from
gas inlet to exhaust gas exit (i.e.,
along the nozzle's axis of symmetry)
The gas flow behavior is compressible since the
flow is at very high velocities.
1.1 ROCKET ENGINE
A rocket engine is a jet engine that uses specific
propellant mass for forming high speed propulsive
exhaust jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines
and obtain thrust in accordance with Newton's third
law. Since they need no external material to form
their jet, rocket engines can be used for spacecraft
propulsion as well as terrestrial uses, such as
missiles. Most rocket engines are internal
combustion engines, although non combusting
forms also exist. Rocket engines are in a group
have maximum exhaust velocities, are the lightest,
and are the least energy efficient of all types of jet
engines. The rockets are powered by exothermic
chemical reactions of the rocket propellant used.
1.3 Rocket Engine Nozzle
A nozzle is used to give the direction to the gases
coming out of the combustion chamber. Nozzle is a
tube with variable cross-sectional area. Nozzles are
generally used to control the rate of flow, speed,
direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the
exhaust stream that emerges from them. The nozzle
is used to convert the chemical-thermal energy
generated in the combustion chamber into kinetic
energy. The nozzle converts the low velocity, high
pressure, high temperature gas in the combustion
chamber into high velocity gas of lower pressure
and temperature. The general range of exhaust
velocity is 2 to 4.5 kilometre per second. The
convergent and divergent (also known as
convergent-divergent nozzle) type of nozzle is
known as DE-LAVAL nozzle. Throat is the portion
with minimum area is a convergent-divergent
nozzle. The divergent part of the nozzle is known
as nozzle exit area or nozzle exit.
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ISSN No: 2309-4893
2. Methodology
2.1 AREA MACH RELATION:
• For a subsonic flow (0 <= M < 1), as the
area increases the velocity decreases and
as the area decreases the velocity
increases.
• For a supersonic flow (M > 1), an increase
in velocity is associated with an increase
in area and a decrease in velocity is
associated with a decrease in area.
• For a sonic flow (M = 1) dA=0. This
corresponds to a local maxima or minima
in the area distribution. Physically it
corresponds to minimum area.
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑈
= (1 − 𝑀2 ) -------- 2.1
𝐴 𝑈
There it becomes clear that if one wants to
accelerate a gas at rest to supersonic speeds, it must
first be accelerated sub sonically in a convergent
duct. The minimum area of the duct is called the
throat. As soon as the sonic conditions are achieved
at the throat, it must further be expanded to
supersonic speeds in a divergent duct. The vice
versa is also actually true. If one wants to
decelerate a supersonic flow to subsonic speeds, it
must first be decelerated to a sonic speed at the
throat by means of a convergent duct and then be
further decelerated in a divergent duct.
Let us consider a duct as shown in the figure
below. The Mach number, area and velocity at
different stations in the duct are shown in the figure
below
Fig2.1 Geometry for Derivation of Area Mach
Relation
Here we assume that sonic flow exists at
the throat of the nozzle. Hence all the parameters at
the throat have an asterisk along with the notation
to denote the sonic conditions. Applying the
continuity equation to the above case
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 ISSN No: 2309-4893
International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

𝜌∗ 𝑢∗ 𝐴∗ = 𝜌𝑢𝐴--------- 2.2 are:- Contraction part, where the flow is entirely

𝐴 𝜌∗ 𝑎∗ 𝜌∗ 𝜌0 𝑎 ∗ subsonic the throat region, where the flow
= = -------2.3
𝐴∗ 𝜌 𝑢 𝜌0 𝜌 𝑢 accelerates from high subsonic to low subsonic
Where ρ0 is the stagnation density and is constant speeds. The initial expansion region, where the
throughout the flow. We have slope of the counter increases up to its maximum
value the straightening, or “busemann” region in
𝜌∗ 2 1/(𝛾−1)
=� � ------2.4 which the processor area increases but the wall
𝜌0 𝛾+1
1/(𝛾−1)
slope decreases to zero. The test section where the
𝜌0 𝛾−1
= �1 + 𝑀2 � ------ 2.5 flow is uniform and parallel to the axis.
𝜌 2
𝑢 2 [(𝛾+1)/2]𝑀2
� ∗� = 𝑀∗2 = 𝛾−1 2 -----2.6 2.3 Characteristics
𝑎 1+� �𝑀
2 Characteristics are unique in that the derivatives of
By performing certain mathematical manipulations the flow properties become unbounded along them.
we get On all other curves, the derivatives are finite.
Characteristics are defined by three properties as
𝐴 2 𝜌∗ 2 𝜌 2 𝑎∗ 2
� ∗ � = � � ∗ � 0 � ∗ � � ------ 2.7 detailed by John and Keith
𝐴 𝜌0 𝜌 𝑢 A characteristic in a two-dimensional supersonic
𝐴 2 1 2 𝛾−1 (𝛾+1)⁄(𝛾−1)
� ∗� = � �1 + 𝑀2 �� ----2.8 flow is a line along which physical disturbances
𝐴 𝑀2 𝛾+1 2
are propagated at the local speed of sound relative
to the gas.
The above equation is called the area-mach
A characteristics is a cut across which flow
number relation the equation tells us that the Mach
properties are continuous, although they may have
number at any location in the duct is a function of
discontinuous first derivatives, and along which
the local throat area to the sonic throat area. Also
the derivatives are indeterminate.
the equation yields two values for M for a given
A characteristic is a cut along which the governing
area ratio, a subsonic value and a supersonic value.
partial differential equations may be manipulated
into an ordinary differential equations.
“Fluid particles travel along our clients
2.2 Method Of Characteristics propagating information regarding the condition of
The physical conditions of a two-dimensional, the flow. In supersonic flow , the cost equates
steady, isentropic, irrotational flow can be travel along Mach lines propagating information
expressed mathematically by the nonlinear regarding flow disturbances. ” this is described in
differential equation of the velocity potential. The the first property. The second property says that
method of characteristics is a mathematical Macklin can be considered as an infinitesimally
formulation that can be used to find solutions to thin interface between two smooth and uniform,
the aforementioned velocity potential, satisfying but different regions. The line is a boundary
given boundary conditions for which the governing between continuous flows along the streamline
partial differential equations (PDEs) become passing through a field of these Mach waves, the
ordinary differential equations (ODEs). The latter derivative of the velocity and other properties may
only holds true along a special set of curves known be discontinuous. The third property speaks for
as characteristic curves, which will be discussed in itself. ordinary differential equations are often
the next section. As a consequence of the special easier to solve than partial differential equations.
properties of the characteristic curves, the original That is why this property is considered very
problem of finding a solution to the velocity important.
potential is replaced by the problem of
constructing these characteristic curves in the
physical plane. The method is founded on the fact
that changes in fluid properties in supersonic flows
occur across these characteristics, and are brought
about by pressure waves propagating along the
Mach lines of the flow, which are inclined at the
Mach angle to the local velocity vector.
The method of characteristics was first
applied to supersonic flows by prandtl and
Busemann in 1929 and has been much used since.
This method supersonic nozzle design made the
technique more accessible to engineers. In
supersonic nozzle design the conventional two-
dimensional nozzle is usually considered to consist Fig 2.2 Characteristics
of several regions as shown in the figure, these

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 ISSN No: 2309-4893
International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

2.4 Discretation of Equations, Boundary Condition calculate the nozzle contours. The list of variables
and Stream Function Analysis. required is described in Table 2.1 with description
Discretizing the Characteristic and Compatibility below.
Equations
To implement the characteristic and compatibility The program then passes the necessary input
equations into a computer code for designing variables to the subroutines that need them. All
supersonic nozzle contours, the equations for input variables are passed to subroutines. The
axisymmetric, irrotational, inviscid flow developed subroutines calculate the contour of an nozzle,
in Appendix A must be discretized with boundary respectively, as well as their truncated versions if
conditions defined and applied. The first step in applicable. Axisymmetric, the subroutine that
designing a computer code is to discretize the calculates the annular nozzle contour only requires
characteristic and compatibility equations. They are input variables Beta, DeltaVAeroD, Gamma and
rewritten below Mexit. A fourth subroutine, PMtoMA, is used in
calculating the Mach numbers of the points in the
dr flow field and will be discussed last. Once all
� � = tan(θ ∓ α) ------------ 2.9
dx char subroutines return their solutions, subroutine
1 dr
d(θ + α) = ------------- 2.10(a) Supersonic Nozzle plots their nozzle contours.
�M2 −1−cot θ r

(along C− Characteristic) Table 2.1

1 dr
d(θ − α) = ------------- 2.10 (b) Program Description
�M2 −1+cot θ r
Variable
(along C+ Characteristic)
𝑑𝑟 Beta The throat multiplier that will be
� � = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 − 𝛼) ------------ 2.10 (a)
𝑑𝑥 𝐶− used to calculate the radius of the
𝑑𝑟
� � = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 + 𝛼) ------------ 2.10 (b) arc used in the expansion region
𝑑𝑥 𝐶+
Using the Forward Difference Technique and for annular and internal-external
rearranging equations 2.10a and b yields
𝑟𝑖+1 − tan(𝜃𝑖 − 𝛼𝑖 ). 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑟𝑗 − tan(𝜃𝑖 − 𝛼𝑖 ). 𝑥𝑖 -- aerospike nozzles
-------- 2.11 (a) DeltaVAeroD The desired incremental step size

(along 𝐶− 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐) of the Prandtl-Meyer expansion

𝑟𝑖+1 − tan(𝜃𝑖 + 𝛼𝑖 ). 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑟𝑗+1 − tan(𝜃𝑖 + angle used in the calculation. It is
𝛼𝑖 ). 𝑥𝑖+1 -------2.11 (b)
also used as the x-space step
(along 𝐶+ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐) direction for determining the x-
Note that all variables with subscript i are known component of the starting point
quantities and variables with subscript i+1 are
for the "backward" C-
unknown quantities, the discretized characteristic
equations that will define the location in the x-r characteristic
space where the C- and C+ characteristics curves
intersect. This collection of points is called the Gamma Ratio of Specific Heats of the
Characteristic Net. working fluid
2.5 Computer Program Calculation Details Mexit Desired Exit Mach Number
The supersonic nozzle discussed above is combined
into one program that will calculate the nozzles' Percent The % of the ideal length the
contour using the Method of Characteristics and the user would like in the event they
Stream Function. A brief description of the
subroutines developed for this paper and their choose to calculate truncated
associated flow charts are included below. The versions of the aerospike nozzles
complete set Matlab source code and program
flowcharts are available in Appendix B. Since
nozzle type is based on isentropic relations, the
codes' error can be directly quantified using
isentropic area ratios for given desired exit Mach
number and ratio of specific heats.
The program begins by asking the user for all
necessary design variables the program will need to

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Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

3. CFD setup
3.1 Complex Chemical Equilibrium Composition
and Application Program
The Complex Chemical Equilibrium Composition
and Application (CEA) Program developed by
NASA uses the minimization of Gibb's Free
Energy to predict the composition of the exhaust
products of a combustion system. In doing so, the
properties of the exhaust fluid are predicted using
mass averaging of the species produced by the
Fig: 2.3The divergent curve obtained by running combustion system. The CEA program has
code in Matlab multiple subroutines to choose from for different
combustion systems. Since we are analyzing rocket
nozzles, the rocket subroutine was chosen to
x_cord y_cord predict the exhaust properties. Within the rocket
0.049979 1.00125 subroutine, the finite area combustion chamber was
utilized because the test chamber of the test
0.099833 1.004996 apparatus is small with an interior radius of 1.25
0.149438 1.011229 inches. To complete the simulation, the pressure at
the injector, chamber to throat area ratio, oxidizer
0.198669 1.019933 and fuel chemical formulas and amounts with
0.247404 1.031088 respect to the desired oxidizer to fuel ratio must all
be entered. Using conditions from a previous single
0.29552 1.044664 firing of the test apparatus, the CEA program was
used to predict the ratio of specific heats, chamber
0.342898 1.060627
pressure and temperature for the exhaust fluid. The
2.987181 1.905588 results from the CEA program give information for
three planes in the apparatus, at the injector, at the
4.797082 2.379298
end of the combustion chamber and at the throat of
6.954327 2.830017 the nozzle. The ratio of specific heats predicted at
the throat is used as the input for the supersonic
9.700147 3.26939 nozzle program discussed in Section 3.0. The
13.44639 3.695064 chamber pressure and temperature are used as
boundary conditions in the CFD simulations
18.73308 4.056261 discussed in the next few subsections. Table 3.1
26.82458 4.242104 gives the inputted data used for the CEA
simulation. All nozzles designed were assumed to
have the same combustion system and working
Table 2.2 Coordinates obtained by running the fluid.
code
Table 3.1
y_cord CEA Program Inputs
Subroutine Rocket
6 Combustion Finite Area
4 Chamber:
Chamber to 44.44
2 y_cord
Throat Area
0 Ratio:
0 10 20 30 Initial Pressure: 360 pisa
Combustion 3800 K
Temperature (estimate)
Fig 2.4 The graph obtained from table 2.2 Reactants Found N2O (Nitrous Amount: 320
in the Oxide) kg
Thermodynamic
Library:
Reactants with C224H155O27N Amount: 12
User-Provided (Papi 94) kg

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
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Names and C667H999O5 Amount: 88
Properties: (HTPB) kg
3.2 Annular Nozzle CFD Simulation
In order to run a simulation of the flow in
supersonic annular nozzles, the nozzles must be
built virtually so that a mesh can be generated in
the fluid region. The supersonic nozzle program
described in section 2 produces a set of points
which define the nozzle's contour. These points are
imported into Ansys. A mesh generating program
used to mesh the fluid domain of the simulation. It
is important to note that the points generated by the
supersonic nozzle program only yields points of the
wall contour after the throat. Since the fluid
experiences few losses in the convergent section of
a supersonic nozzle, the user can design the
convergent section of the nozzle given the known
geometry of the combustion chamber. All points
are connected to produce a 2D axisymmetric virtual
geometry. Figure 3,1 below shows the typical
geometry and boundary conditions used to simulate
an annular nozzle.
Fig: 3.1 Typical Annular Nozzle CFD boundary
conditions
Once the geometry of the nozzle has been virtually
created, the fluid region can be meshed. Fig 3.2
gives a typical the meshed geometry of an annular
nozzle.
Fig :3.2 Typical Annular Mesh
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ISSN No: 2309-4893
Since the nozzle contours were built on the
assumption of inviscid, irrotational, isentropic flow,
the CFD simulations need to reflect this. The
inviscid assumption was satisfied by selecting the
inviscid model for the simulations. The isentropic
assumption, which implies irrotationality, was
achieved by assigning the specific heat at constant
pressure as a constant property of the working
fluid.
4. Results & Discussion
4.1 Theoretical Accuracy of Computer Code
The first check of accuracy for the program was
comparing the desired exit Mach number with the
exit Mach number calculated by the program. Table
4.1 below shows the percent difference between the
desired and computer calculated exit Mach
numbers. Table 4.1 also shows how the code
becomes more accurate as a smaller change in
Prandtl-Meyer expansion angle is used during
calculations. Since the equations were based on
isentropic flow theory, the accuracy of the code
was also checked by calculating the exit to throat
area ratio using equation 4.1 substituting in the
user- defined ratio of specific heats and computer
calculated exit Mach number. This yields the
theoretical area ratio for the Mach number actually
calculated by the program.
𝐴 2 1 2 𝛾−1 (𝛾+1)⁄(𝛾−1)
� ∗� = � �1 + 𝑀2 �� ---- 4.1
𝐴 𝑀2 𝛾+1 2
The theoretical and computer calculated isentropic
area ratios for the desired exit Mach number were
also compared for a user-defined ratio of specific
heats in Table 4.1
Fig 4.1 Typical entropy contour for annular nozzle
it can be seen in fig 4.1 that the large majority of
the fluid domain demonstrates constant entropy
signifying that the isentropic flow assumption is
valid. The region near the wall contour where the
entropy is changing is a result of the discontinuities
in the wall contour. Since the wall contour was
defined by a set of points that were connected by
straight line segments, it is discontinuous at the
points that connect them. The change in entropy in
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 ISSN No: 2309-4893
International Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

the flow field is a propagation of these

discontinuities.

Table 4.1
Code Accuracy for 𝜸 = 𝟏. 𝟒 Ma = 3.0 𝜷 = 𝟏. 𝟎
rthroat =1.0 (Dimensionless)
∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
= = = = = =
0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.0025 0.001
Fig 4.3 Contours of Dynamic Pressure
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 5.6 5.5 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.3
� �
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑚 588 827 882 938 940 815
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2
� �
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 346 346 346 346 346 346
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 33. 31. 5,9 6.1 3.7 3.4
� �
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 %𝑒𝑟 63 84 9% 2% 6% 7%
% %
𝑀𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 0.3
489 455 289 323 093 1% Fig 4.4 Static Temperature contours
𝑀𝑎 %𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 8.3 8.1 0.9 1.0 3.0 0.2
0% 8% 6% 8% 067 2%
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 5.3 5.3 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.2
� �
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑚 635 463 527 668 722 617
𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 5.5 4.4 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.8
� �
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑚 1% 2% 1% 1% 5% 1%

The exit Mach number is checked by the Mach

contours of the simulation as well as having
Fig 4.5 Entropy Plot curve
ANSYS-FLUENT calculate the area-weighted
Mach number at the exit plane of the nozzle. The
area weighted Mach number calculated by
ANSYS-FLUENT is compared to the Mach
number calculated by the program in Section 2 and
the desired exit Mach number. Figure 4.2 shows the
typical Mach contours of an annular nozzle
designed for a Mach number of 3.0

Fig 4.6 Mach Plot curve

Fig: 4.2 Contours of Mach Number

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Vol-2, Issue-09,September 2014

5. Conclusions
The code developed in this project proves to be a
useful tool in creating annular and supersonic
nozzle contours for isentropic, irrotational, inviscid
flow. The program exhibits increasing accuracy in
the exit Mach number and exit area ratio as the
incremental Prandtl- Meyer expansion angle
decreases. This accuracy increase is independent of
fluid or desired exit Mach number. The exit Mach
number of the nozzles calculated with the program
described in Section 3 shows good agreement with
the ANSYS-FLUENT simulated density contour,
exit Mach numbers, dynamic pressure, static
temperature contour, entropy curve, mach plot
curve.
The code developed in this project will enable the
researchers to investigate other types of rocket
nozzles besides conical. It will further advance the
researchers in achieving their ultimate goal,
designing a supersonic convergent divergent nozzle
7. Design of supersonic wind tunnel using Method
of characteristics by Mr.Y D Dwivedi, Mr.
B.Parvathavadhani. K, Mr.Nirmith Kumar Mishra.
International Journal of Futuristic Science
Engineering and Technology Vol.1,Issue 04.ISSN
2320 – 4486
Authors Profile
First Author: Nirmith Kumar Mishra
received B.Tech Aeronautical Degree from
MLR Institute of Technology in
2012.Currently pursuing M.Tech in Aerospace
Engineering at MLR Institute of Technology,
Dundigal Hyderabad. Research interests are
Aerodynamics, Performance, Stability &
Control of aircraft.

6. Scope for Future Work Second Author: Dr. S.Srinivas Prasad

working as Professor & Head of Department
In pursuit of their ultimate goal of developing a
low-cost alternative launch platform for satellites, in Aerospace Engineering at MLR Institute of
the research continues. A comparison of the Technology, Dundigal Hyderabad.
theoretical and measured thrusts produced by each
nozzle has to be conducted. These tests will
validate the accuracy of the program for real-world Third Author: Mr.Ayub Padania working as
flows and also give an indication of the energy Assistant professor in Aerospace Engineering
losses observed in the nozzles. The testing will also at MLR Institute of Technology, Dundigal
enable the researchers to compare the Hyderabad
thrust/weight/cost ratios to develop the most cost
effective rocket engine.

References

1. Anderson, JD., 2001, Fundamentals of

Aerodynamics, 3rd Edition, pp. 532-537,
pp.555-585.
2. Anderson, JD., 1982, Modern Compressible
Flow with Historical Perspective, pp. 268-
270, pp. 282-286.
3. Shapiro, AH., 1953, The Dynamics and
Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol. I, pp. 294-295.
4. Shapiro, AH., 1954, The Dynamics and
Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol. II, pp. 694-695.
5. Sutton, GP, Rocket Propulsion Elements,
7th Edition
6. Design and Analysis of Rocket Nozzle Contours
for Launching Pico-Satellites By Brandon Lee
Denton

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