ENVIRONMENTAL FORENSICS

Edited by R.D Morrison and B.L. Murphy

Summary by:

VAL JASON G. LAGRADA

BS Chemistry – 4

Submitted to:

DR. LORDINO G. CABIGON

Subject Teacher

JANUARY 14, 2013

MERCURY

Mercury (Hg) is a natural occurring element that mostly

exists in 3 oxidation states. Out of the 3 forms, only 2, the

elemental mercury and mercuric mercury, are found in the nature

and contribute to the global mass,

Both manmade and natural sources contribute to the level of

mercury in terrestrial and aquatic environments. There is a

limited application on the investigation of mercury in an

environmental forensic context. Several methods are available for

assessing mercury vapour concentrations such as the use of

radioisotopes which is the most developed method. Lastly,

different involved agencies have set different rules and laws to

limit or regulate mercury concentration.

ASBESTOS

Asbestos is a term used to define a group of naturally

occurring minerals that have grown in a specific form and that

exhibit characteristics of flexibility or tensile strength, large

surface area, and is resistance to heat and chemical degradation.

Some asbestos can be woven into fabrics, ropes, braids, while

others can be used as filler in molded products. Asbestos

minerals includes six regulated minerals like chrysotile,

crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite asbestos, tremolite asbestos,

and actinolite asbestos.

 Studies revealed the adverse effect of asbestos in the body

and is known to cause asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.

Due to the implementation of asbestos bans in various countries,

standardized procedures are needed for determining low levels of

asbestos fibers in imported raw materials as well as soils and

sediments which needs to certify the absence of asbestos.

SEWAGE

Sewage is a term used for all human wastes, like fecal

waste. It is a mixture of both chemicals and biological

components. These are inorganic and organic compounds and

bacteria and viruses. The nature of the environment and

catchment should be considered in disposing wastes. Care must

also be exercised in regions where the nature of the environment

leads to rapid changes in the viability of biological and

chemical components. Several biological and chemical analysis and

tests are performed, depending on the availability and costs, to

monitor the area on contamination.

LEAD

Lead (Pb), which is derived from the Latin word

“plumbumin”, is a dense, bluish gray, soft, malleable and ductile

metallic element that was one of the first known metals. Lead is

rarely found in elemental form and it usually occurs in ores.

 Lead never decompose and accumulates where it is deposited.

Although Lead has no known biological use to humans, it is very

useful in industry as alloy with other compound. In addition,

Lead is used in pottery and toys.

Several analytical techniques are developed in lead

detection and analysis. These analytical techniques are useful in

the regulation of lead usage set by the environmental laws and

involved agencies.

CHROMIUM

Chromium (Cr) is a hard, steel-grey metallic element and its

name was derived from greek word “chroma” meaning color. It is

the 6th most abundant element in the earth’s crust where it is

found associated with other metals. Chromium is usually used in

metallurgical, chemical, and refractory industries.

Chromium is identified by USEPA as one of the 129 priority

pollutants and included in the 25 hazardous substances that pose

potential threat to human health by superfund sites. Chromium is

a common groundwater and soil contaminant due to leaching of

chromium from land disposal of solid wastes. Geochemical controls

determine the speciation, transport, and fate of chromium in the

environment where hydrolysis and precipitation are the most

important processes.
METHANE

The study of methane (CH4), a colorless, odorless gas, is an

environmental concern because of the fact that is a greenhouse

gas and it increase rapidly at a rate of 1% per year. The

determination of its origin is very important for environmental

liability and to the selection of appropriate mitigation measures

because of its ability to explode at a concentration of 5-15%.

Recognizing its potential hazard, some municipalities have

included assessment and mitigation procedures in their building

codes.

Both anthropogenic and natural activities contributes to the

source of methane. However, it is often necessary to integrate

site specific geological, land use and forensics geochemical data

to confidentially identify the source of methane. Spatial trends

in geochemical data are especially important.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

Radioactive materials that might cause potential danger to

humans is the concern of nuclear forensic science which includes

the identification of man-made radionuclides or concentrations of

naturally occurring radionuclides, which is a product of human

activity. The job of a nuclear forensic analyst is to distinguish

anthropogenic activities from natural processes, which can

redistribute both natural and anthropogenic radionuclide.

Different techniques and instruments are readily available in

such analyses.

Aside from its potential harm to humans, extensive

researches on radioactive materials are done which is also used

in treating different diseases like cancers and others.

PESTICIDES

A chemical agent used to destroy or control pests is known

as pesticide. These apply to a wide array of chemicals including

insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides, biocides, and

similar chemicals. Pesticides have been extensively investigated

since the 1960s, and their chemical properties, toxicological

properties, and fate and transport are well known. Along with the

different pesticides synthesized and its known properties,

analytical considerations and forensic techniques are readily

available to age date and identify the source of the pesticide

release into the environment. The purpose of this chapter is to

provide a brief overview of the types of pesticides, their fate

in their environment, analytical considerations and forensic

techniques available

PERCHLORATE

Perchlorate (ClO4)is a contaminant whose presence in the

environment and its origin is catching more attention in

environmental forensics. Perchlorate, an emerging chemical of

concern, is found out to be present in many drinking-water

aquifers throughout the United States and its potentially

deleterious toxicological properties is known lately. At low

concentration, perchlorate is toxic by replacing Iodine in

thyroid gland, thus, impairing its function in the body.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are group of related

chemicals belonging to a class of chlorinated organic chemicals

that potentially harmful to humans for it accumulates in adipose

tissues. Although no longer produced, PCB is still found in the

nature because of the fact that they are lipophilic and do not

degrade, thus, making it a contaminant. The analysis of PCB

requires broad knowledge of PCB chemistry along with the clues

like its relative proportion.

MICROBIAL FORENSICS

Microbial forensics is a means by which a microbial

signature is used to trace a contaminant source, similar to the

use of DNA in criminal forensics. It is a combination of

microbiology, virology, biochemistry, and molecular biology for

use in environmental forensic investigations. In the

investigation of microbial forensics, the soil relationship,

traditional microbial techniques, and the emerging microbial

techniques will be take into consideration.

CHLORINATED SOLVENTS

Chlorinated solvents are one of the contaminants most

frequently encountered in environmental forensic investigations.

These compounds include Trichloroethylene, Perchloroethylene,

1,1,1-Trichloroethane, Carbon tetrachloride and Methylene

chloride. The degradation pathways, as well as the forensic

techniques are the things that environmental used to identify its

source. The detection of additives that are associated with a

particular compound or time period, isotopic analysis and molar

ratio analysis of the degradation products of these chlorinated

solvents are the primary forensic techniques presented in this

chapter.

ARSENIC

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element and the increase of

its concentration in the soil is caused primarily by human

activities. The diverse sources of arsenic complicate forensic

analysis of arsenic sources. Arsenic is also used as poison

because of its difficulty to trace the source of arsenic. Today

murder by arsenic is easier to recognize, but identifying sources

of arsenic in the environment has become the new forensic

challenge.

DIOXINS AND FURANS

Dioxin refers to chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs) and

“furans” to chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs) and are among the

most studied chemicals in terms of their formation processes,

environmental occurrence and toxicity. They are not created

intentionally, but a product of man-made and natural activities.

Different analytical techniques like Chemical fingerprinting

studies have been published for the purposes of identifying

potential sources of CDD/CDFs in air, soil, sediments, water, and

tissue samples.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is class of organic

compounds consisting of two or more fused aromatic rings. USEPA

considered PAH as one of the priority pollutant posing potential

harm to the humanity. PAH that usually encountered consists of 2

to 7 fused benzene rings and are usually a straight chain

attached to the rings. The choice of analysis of PAH depends on

the end uses which depend on determining the specific target PAH

analytes of focus or concern and then determining the

concentrations of these PAHs compounds.

CRUDE OIL AND REFINED PRODUCT FINGERPRINTING: PRINCIPLES

Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that exist

naturally in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. It came from

variety of organic materials that are converted over long period

of time under different geological and thermal conditions. Crude

oil is refined, thus, separating different components based on

their boiling temperatures.

Over the years, oil spill become rampant in some countries

that pose potential danger to the living organisms. To identify

the source of spills, unique fingerprints of oil samples, the

biomarkers are used to distinguish them from other types.

CRUDE OIL AND REFINED PRODUCT FINGERPRINTING: APPLICATIONS

Significant development in identifying the source of oil

spills is identified and has a great help in the field of

environmental forensics. This include the use of biomarker

parameters. Along with its unique fingerprint and considering the

diagnostic ratios of biomarkers and cross-plots of biomarkers,

unique biomarkers, weathering effects on biomarker distribution,

and application of biomarker fingerprinting techniques for spill

source identification, oil correlation and differentiation using

univariate and multivariate methods, identifying the source of

oil spills made possible.

AUTOMOTIVE GASOLINE

The most common objective of environmental forensics is its

attempt to determine the criminal and civil liabilities

associated with gasoline derived contamination. This is because

of the fact that gasoline is one of the most widely consumed man-

made products and it is widely distributed to selected places

and lastly gasoline pose threat to the health of human beings.

Environmental forensics seeks to identify what type of gasoline

contaminate certain area and to know what possible solution could

be done. Different modifications were already done in the

petroleum refinery, the blends and additives added, considering

the health of humans, as well as the environment.