Sci. Mat. Lab Script 2013-2014 From Allan Edited AM PDF

CHNG1003/MENG1012 SCIENCE OF MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL 2013-2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1
FORMAT OF LABORATORY REPORTS 2

 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 2
 REPORT MARKING 2
 GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING 3
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY 6
EXPERIMENT E
 THE THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM 7
EXPERIMENT R1
 CREEP MEASUREMENT 11
EXPERIMENT T
 THE TORSION TESTING OF SEVERAL MATERIALS 16
EXPERIMENT CC
 CORROSION CHAMBER 23
EXPERIMENT CS
 CORROSION STUDIES 27
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FORMAT OF LABORATORY REPORTS
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
i) Laboratory reports are to be submitted in folders. The following information should be
provided on the folder cover:
University / Faculty / Department / Course / Year
Name of Experiment / Date Conducted / Date Submitted
Name of Student / Student ID / Lab Group
ii) All lab reports should be prepared by word processor using a 12 point font and 1.5 line
spacing. Calculations should be done by spread sheet.
iii) All data collected in the lab should be recorded in pen. At the end of the lab period, the
demonstrator must sign the data sheet which is to be included as an appendix to the
laboratory report. (One student should use the original, and the other members a
photocopy.)
2. REPORT MARKING
Lab reports are not to exceed ten (10) pages, excluding tables, graphs, results and
appendices. The grading of the laboratory reports will be done according to the following
allocations:
 Presentation (including JSA, Lab Performance & Referencing) – 10%
 Abstract – 10%
 Introduction – 5%
 Apparatus, Procedure – 5%
 Results, Calculations, Graphs – 30%
 Discussion – 30%
 Conclusions, Recommendations – 10%
Note: During the writing up of the report, always remember to be precise, brief and
complete. Marks will be deducted for reports that are too long.
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3. GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING:

A report, even one produced during a University course, is made for the purpose of
conveying information. The information to be transmitted in these reports is intended to
embrace:
 Your understanding of the underlying principles behind the experiment, and how the
experiment tests them.
 Your ability to plan and conduct an experiment so as to obtain significant results in a
reasonable time.
Any time you spend on writing material that does not serve the above purpose is wasted.
Copying or re-hashing sections of textbooks, or other students‟ reports, is a mere exercise
in word processing and could constitute academic dishonesty.
You are recommended to use the following headings:

i. Abstract: This is the most important section. It conditions the attitude of your reader.
When you are working for a living this is the only part of your report which will be read
by the people who matter. This section should summarize the whole project – what you
set out to do, what you actually did, and the results you achieved. Be specific, and include
numbers wherever possible. For instance, do not say that „high efficiencies were
obtained‟ but that „the measured efficiency was 72  4%‟. Pack as many facts as possible
into not more that 6 sentences or 100 words.
ii. Introduction: This section should begin by stating the aim of the experiment. A brief
summary containing background information and some theory on the subject of the
experiment should also be included.
iii. Apparatus / Procedure: Give such sketches as are necessary to define the flowsheet or
to describe essential features of the apparatus. Do not waste time on artistic flourishes but
produce properly labelled line diagrams, which befit an engineer. Include significant
dimensions, and identify the most important items of equipment. Describe the
experimental procedure giving due prominence to those aspects which are crucial and
omitting reference to those which could be regarded as self-evident to your reader
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(assuming him to be a chemical engineer who has not seen the particular rig you are
using).
iv. Results: In general it is best to present these in tabular form; the title should appear at the
top of the table. Any observations that impact on the accuracy, validity or repeatability of
the measurements should be noted and errors should always be stated. Line graphs and
other graphical representations should also be properly labelled, with indication of scales
where necessary. An informative title (not equivalent to “y versus x”) must be displayed
at the bottom of the figure.
v. Calculations: Sample calculations must be shown for all calculated results. Assumptions
or simplifications used must be clearly stated, and justifications for their use provided.
References should be included where applicable.
vi. Discussion: Firstly note any interesting observations on the raw results - trends, scatter,
anomalies etc. Then analyze the results in terms of the theory previously presented and
discuss the outcome. Do not waste many words stating the obvious, but do your best to
account for significant discrepancies. Try to do this specifically, if possible using
numbers, and not by woolly arguments. Accuracy and errors should again be stated. The
following aspects should also be considered:
 Discussions on the equipment used: Is it appropriate for the nature of the experiment?
How does it contribute to the accuracy of the results? How could the equipment be
improved?
 Are the results in agreement with the theory on which the experiment is based, or with
similar work by other investigators? What are the main discrepancies, and what are
the probable reasons for these discrepancies? (Where possible, theoretical curves
should be included for comparative purposes.)
 How useful is the experiment as a means of illustrating the relevant engineering
principles? How could it be improved?
 What are your recommendations for improving the relevance of this experiment?
How could the results be used for practical or industrial applications?
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vii. Conclusions: These should be numbered and brief. In general you should not introduce
new material here. Suggestions for improvements or further work could be included.
viii. References: References should be indicated in the relevant section of the text as shown
below:
Citations should be listed in the References section in some standard format, e.g.
King, C.J. (1971). Separation Processes. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Lundstrom, P. and S. Skogestad (1995). Opportunities and difficulties with 5x5
distillation column control. Journal of Process Control, 5, 249-261.
Rademaker, O.J. Rijnsdorp, J.E. and A. Maarleveld (1975). Dynamics and Control
of Continuous Distillation Columns. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
General Points:
 It is better to write a few words that can be understood, than many that cannot.
 Report in the past tense and impersonally. An occasional personal note can enliven a report,
but do not write it all in the first person. Be interesting and brief.
Note:
 Attendance will be recorded at each laboratory session; Reports will not be marked
for sessions not attended. Students should read the experiment before the scheduled
laboratory session.
 Do not arrive for a laboratory session more than ten (10) minutes late.
 Written reports are to be given up two (2) weeks after the date of performance. Lab
reports should be given to the Science of Materials Technician or placed in the box
provided. A penalty of 5 marks will be deducted from the mark obtained in the lab
for each day the lab is submitted after the due date, until to lab mark has been
reduced to zero.
 CHNG students are required to perform and submit reports for three (3) laboratory
sessions, while MENG students perform two (2) lab sessions. This course requires
that each student obtain a separate pass mark for each of these laboratory reports.
(Revised by A. Lim Choy, Sept. 2012; and by Dr. Andres Marquez, Sept. 2013)
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SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
To greatly lessen the occurrence of a major accident, students must know the
rules of safety, and diligently practice these rules at all times.
GENERAL SAFETY RULES FOR THE LABORATORY
1. No student may begin any experimental work without the knowledge of the Laboratory
Supervisor.
2. Experimental work is not permitted outside regular laboratory hours without specific
permission.
3. Students must know the locations and use of all first-aid and emergency equipment (fire
extinguishers, safety showers), and know emergency telephone numbers to summon
emergency assistance (these are posted on the Notice Board).
4. Sandals, slip-ons, open-toed shoes, slippers, or high-heeled shoes are not permitted in the
laboratory. Only sneakers and steel tipped boots are allowed. Long pants and shirts
must be worn. Shorts, skirts and sleeveless tops, open jackets and loose ties are not
permitted.
5. No food or drinks may be brought into the laboratory. Use of tobacco products and gum
chewing are not allowed.
6. Students should conduct themselves in a professional manner when in the laboratory,
since horseplay, joking and teasing are distractions and considered hazardous. Visitors to
the laboratory while students are conducting experimental work are discouraged.
7. All injuries, accidents, spills and near misses must be reported as soon as possible to the
Laboratory Technician / Laboratory Supervisor.
8. Personal protective equipment such as safety glasses, lab coats, earplugs, gloves and
aprons must be worn when specified by the Laboratory Supervisor.
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EXPERIMENT: E – THE THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

.
1. OBJECTIVE
To investigate the properties of heating / cooling of different alloy samples, plot temperature
curves for the binary systems studied and compare them with the corresponding phase diagrams.
2. INTRODUCTION / THEORY
In general, metals do not melt at any one temperature, except for pure metals and certain other
precise compositions called "eutectics". The engineer or metallurgist needs to know in what state
a piece of metal will be, at any temperature, before successfully starting to improve its
properties. There is not only the question of melting, however, because some metals and alloys
rearrange the way their atoms are put together when the temperature to changes, and this fact can
be very useful, for example in making strong alloys. Such changes are called "solid state phase
changes" because the atoms are rearranged even though the metal is solid.
Metals can exist in three different states – solid, liquid and gas. All metals are solid if the
temperature is low enough, and in this state the metals atoms are in a "low energy state". In the
liquid state, the metals have more energy – they move about more and generally, the liquid
occupies a greater space than the solid from which it was formed. The extra energy to form the
liquid from the solid is taken in as HEAT, and is called the Latent Heat of Fusion. Similarly,
when a liquid metal is cooled, the latent heat is released. This fact provides a means of following
liquid – solid transformations, merely by measuring temperature at equal intervals of time as a
liquid metal cools.
Graphical plots are called cooling curves, and if carefully done, can tell the temperature at which
solidification starts and the temperature at which it finishes. If the apparatus is particularly
sensitive, the temperature at which solid state changes occur can also be determined.
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solid starts to form
Temp. Temp. Temp.

alloy
mushy
eutectic temperature
1. 2. 3.
Time Time Time
Above are shown some cooling curves for different alloy compositions. The first curve is
characteristic of a pure metal. When a pure metal freezes, all the atoms are the same and all
behave in the same way. Freezing thus takes place at one single temperature, which is always the
same for that particular pure metal.
Generally, for alloys composed of two or more constituents (different atoms), freezing does not
take place at one single temperature. Instead, some of the metal forms solid crystals, while the
remaining liquid continues to cool. What effect will this have on the cooling curve? Some latent
heat is released as the solid forms but this is not enough to arrest the cooling entirely. Instead, the
rate of cooling slows, causing the cooling curve to change its slope. This is shown in the second
cooling curve.
The third cooling curve is representative of eutectic formation. Some binary and ternary alloys –
those made up of two or three types of atoms respectively – form eutectics. These are alloys of a
single composition, in the case of Lead – Antimony (Pb – Sb) where the composition is 11% Sb,
which freezes at a single temperature. Another example is the Lead – Tin system and this
property is used in solders. The product of freezing is composed of two different sorts of crystals.
In the present case, one is lead – rich and the other antimony – rich, and these form alternately
from the melt. As the liquid is depleted in lead (as lead crystals are formed) it gets richer in
antimony, and so the antimony crystals start to form. This causes the liquid to be rich in lead
again, and the process is repeated. (Note that in the second cooling curve, eutectic also forms, as
well as, some solid at higher temperature.)
By recording the temperature at which these changes take place, it is possible to construct a
diagram for a binary (two – component) system showing the effect of temperature on any alloy
from 100% A to 100% B, or any composition between. Such a diagram is called an
EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM or a PHASE DIAGRAM, and is constantly used by metallurgists
and materials engineers. It is called an equilibrium diagram because the changes it describes are
supposed to occur under equilibrium conditions – that is, very slowly. If a liquid metal is not
cooled slowly, it will appear to freeze at a temperature well below its true melting temperature.
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The Pb – Sb phase diagram is shown above schematically. The line AEB, above which all alloys
are in the liquid state, is called the LIQUIDUS. The line CED, below which all alloys are solid,
is called the SOLIDUS.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
a) There are four crucibles containing the following compositions:
 lOO% Pb
 90% Pb – lO% Sb
 70% Pb – 30% Sb
 30% Pb – 70% Sb
b) Heat the crucibles by burners until the metal is melted. Turn off the burner and record
the temperature from the thermocouple at equal intervals of time (about every 30
seconds).
NOTE ON APPARATUS:
A thermocouple is a very common device in engineering. The wires are composed of
different metals and have the property of developing a potential difference between their
hot and cold ends. The instrument is hence a calibrated millivoltmeter, since the voltage
difference is in the millivolt range.
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4. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
a. Plot a cooling curve from the temperature – time values obtained for each of the
samples. Compare this information with accurately plotted phase diagrams, which can
be obtained from textbooks.
b. Suggest reasons for any errors or inaccuracies in the results.
c. Describe in words and diagrams what is happening to the 70% Pb alloy as it

transforms from liquid to solid.
d. List three types of thermocouples and briefly describe how a thermocouple works.
e. What is the powdery metal on the surface of the metal samples and why is it there?
f. A 12 gram piece of aluminum (cp = 0.215 cal/goC) is at 70oC. It is placed in a beaker

that contains 35 grams of 15 oC water. At what temperature will they come to thermal
equilibrium?
SAFETY NOTE:
Liquid metals are hot and can give very nasty burns. Be very careful!
Even solid metals can do the same thing!
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EXPERIMENT: R1 – CREEP MEASUREMENT
1. OBJECTIVE
a. To measure and investigate the creep characteristics of the material provided.
b. To analyze the implications of the creep characteristics with respect to the selection
of the material for engineering applications.
2. INTRODUCTION
When a material like steel is plastically deformed at ambient temperatures, its strength is
increased due to work hardening. This work hardening effectively prevents any further
deformation from taking place if the stress remains approximately constant. Annealing the
deformed steel at an elevated temperature removes the work hardening and restores the steel to
its original condition. If the steel, however, is plastically deformed at an elevated temperature,
then both work hardening and annealing can take place simultaneously. A consequence of this is
that steel under a constant stress at an elevated temperature will continuously deform with time;
that is, it is said to 'creep'.
Creep in steel is important only at elevated temperatures. Generally, creep becomes significant at
temperatures above O.4Tm where Tm is the absolute melting temperature. Materials having low
melting temperatures, however, will exhibit creep at ambient temperatures. Good examples
include lead and various types of plastics. For example, lead has a melting temperature of 326°C
(599K) and at 20°C (293K, or about O.5T m), it exhibits similar characteristics to those of iron at
650°C.
CREEP IN METALS
A creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a specimen and observing the increase
in strain (or extension) with time. A typical plot of extension versus time is illustrated below:
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Page 12
Three regions can be readily identified on the above curve:

 1 to 2: Primary Creep
o Creep proceeds at a diminishing rate due to work hardening of the metal.
 2 to 3: Secondary Creep
o Creep proceeds at a constant rate because a balance is achieved between the work
hardening and annealing (thermal softening) processes.
 3 to 4: Tertiary Creep
o The creep rate increases due to necking of the specimen and the associated
increase in local stress.
 Failure occurs at point 4.
When in service, an engineering component should never enter the tertiary stage of creep. The
secondary creep rate is hence of prime importance as a design criterion. Components, which are
subject to creep, spend most of their lives in the secondary stage, so it follows that the metals or
alloys chosen for such components should have as small a secondary creep rate as possible. In
general, the secondary creep rate determines the life of a given component. The secondary creep
rate for a particular metal or alloy depends on several variables, the most important of which are
stress and temperature.
The most commonly used expression for relating secondary creep rate “ε” to stress “σ” and
absolute temperature T has the form:

where: A and n are constants
ε – is the creep rate.
E – is the activation energy for creep in the metal.
R – is the universal gas constant (8.31 J / molK).
The equation shows that the creep rate is increased by raising either the stress or the temperature.
Taking the natural logarithms gives:
 ln ε = ln A + n ln σ -
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CREEP IN PLASTICS
Plastics also creep at ambient temperatures but, compared to lead, they are able to sustain much
greater extensions before failure. The creep curves for plastics are similar to those for metals but
the deformation is quite different mainly because of the difference in the structure of the
material. A polymer consists of long chain-like molecules in a tangled and coiled arrangement;
creep occurs by chains untangling and slipping relative to one another.
It is quite difficult to quote an equation that describes the creep behaviour of all polymers since
many complex processes occur during creep. Numerous empirical equations have been proposed
and one, which applies to some of the common engineering plastics, has the form:

where ε is the tensile creep strain after a time t, σ is the applied creep stress, ε0 is the
instantaneous or initial strain produced on loading, and β, m, k are constants for a given polymer.
The elastic component of the initial strain can be calculated by dividing the creep stress by the
tensile modulus of the polymer, which for polypropylene is 1250 N/mm2. In many polymers this
initial strain is very small and can be ignored, so that in these cases:

In cases where the stress exponent m is close to unity, the situation arises where σ / ε is a
constant as k  o. In other words, the material is behaving in an elastic manner. Alternatively,
with the high values of k, for example k  1, then (σ / ε)t is a constant and the material is
behaving as a viscous fluid. The value of k obtained from creep data is therefore a measure of the
relative contribution of elastic and viscous deformation to the creep process.
Finally, it should be noted that with polymer materials the primary creep stage, where the creep
rate is decreasing, is largely recovered when the creep load is removed. This behaviour is unlike
that in most metallic systems, and the effect can be easily demonstrated using the SMI06
apparatus by removing the load after the polymer has been creeping for 20 to 30 minutes and
continuing to take strain readings. It will be found that the elastic strain is removed
instantaneously, however, further recovery of strain takes place over a period of several minutes.
This time – dependent effect is due to the recovery of the visco – elastic component of the creep
strain. For the stress levels used in the SMI06 apparatus – typically 19 N/mm2 – approximately
40 % of the creep strain is recovered after in five (5) minutes.
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Note:
When testing specimens at temperatures other than the ambient temperature, the
thermometer does not indicate the true specimen temperature. It has been shown by
careful calibration of the module that the specimen temperature (T) is given by:
 T = Ta + 0.4(Tt – Ta)
where: Ta is ambient temperature.

Tt is temperature measured by the thermometer.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
Design and carry out a laboratory experiment to determine the creep characteristics of the
specimen(s) provided:
a) Deduce and discuss how to operate the creep measuring apparatus, SMI06, provided.
b) Discuss your experimental plans with the demonstrator.
c) Discuss your results, calculations and analysis of these with the demonstrator before and
the leaving the laboratory. (A grade out of 25% of the lab will be awarded before leaving
the lab).
 Show results and calculations.
 Discuss the effects of increasing and decreasing the temperature on the different samples
over a period of time.
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EXPERIMENT: T2 – THE TORSION TESTING OF VARIOUS

TEST MATERIALS
1. OBJECTIVE
a. To find some mechanical properties of the various test materials.
a) Notation
Symbol Description Units
A Area m2
M Applied Moment Nm
F Force N
L Total Length of Specimen m
l Test Length m
T Torque Nm
J Polar Moment of Inertia m4
G Shear Modulus Nm-2
D Diameter of Specimen m
r Radius of Specimen m
 Shear Stress Nm-2
 Shear Strain
 Angle of Twist Radians
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b) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)

The Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity is a measure of the rigidity of the material when
in „shear‟ – when it is twisting. It is a ratio of the shear stress and the shear strain of the
material:

(1)
Note well: This formula only works when the material is stressed in its elastic region.
Torsional Stress and Strain

c) Polar Moment of Inertia (J)
This is an equation that shows the ability of a circular cross-section beam or specimen to
resist torsion (twisting). A higher polar moment of inertia shows that the beam or specimen
can resist a higher torsion or twisting force. The diameter of the beam determines polar
moment of inertia. A large diameter gives a larger polar moment of inertia.

(2)
The general equation for the torque in a circular cross-section beam or specimen is:

(3)
d) Torque (T) (Twisting Force)
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The twisting force (torque) at the end of a specimen is the moment of force on the torque
arm:
 T = F x Torque Arm Length (m) (4)
e) Shear Stress ()

The theoretical shear stress for a solid circular bar is:

(5)
f) Shear Strain ()

The theoretical shear strain for a solid circular bar is:

(6)
A rearrangement of the Shear Modulus therefore gives:


(7)
Elasticity and Plasticity (or Elastic and Plastic Deformation)
Figure above showing the Stress / Strain curves
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A material is perfectly elastic if it can be compressed or stretched (deformed) by any amount,

and then return to its original shape when the stress is removed. Its atoms have not moved,
but the bonds between them have stretched, then returned to their original position.
A material is plastic if it can be compressed or stretched (deformed) by a small amount, and
then not return to its original shape when the stress is removed. Its atoms have actually
moved and will not return.
Most materials have both elastic and plastic properties. When stressed by a small amount,
they behave like an elastic material, up to their elastic limit or yield point. When stressed by
a large amount (that takes them past their elastic limit), they behave like a plastic material.
Rubber and flexible materials usually have more elasticity than more brittle materials like
metal or ceramics.
Nominal and True Stress

The maximum shear stress ( max) in torsion occurs at the surface of the material in torsion,
and we know that the material diameter determines the maximum stress.
However, as a specimen is stressed, its diameter actually becomes smaller, so its stress level
is actually higher than predicted and is a 'nominal stress'. This effect is hardly noticeable
when the specimen is in its elastic region, but increases as the specimen moves through its
plastic region. However, it is acceptable to assume a nominal stress during normal tests.
Upper and Lower Yield Point – Normalized Low Carbon Steel
Figure above showing the Upper and Lower Yield Strengths

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Normally, materials have a yield point, at the limit of their elastic region. Normalized mild
steel (low carbon content) has an upper and lower yield strength.
The figure above shows this. The specimen yields at point A and the stress immediately falls
to a lower value, point B. The stress and strain curve then follows a similar shape to other
materials.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
a) Accurately measure and record the dimensions of your specimen.
b) Check the distance across the flats at the ends of your specimen, then choose the correct
sockets to fit your specimen (12 mm or 3/16" Whitworth).
c) Fit the sockets to the torque head and the gearbox output, and fit the specimen to the
sockets. Slide the gearbox output shaft along so that the specimens ends fit fully into each
socket as shown below.
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d) Switch on both Digital Meters, and press their 'Press to zero' buttons.
e) Fit the clear guard around the specimen.
Note well: You cannot fit the guard when you use the Torsiometer.
f) To remove any mechanical error (or 'backlash'), slowly turn the Gearbox Hand Wheel
until the load display starts to show a small value of torque, then use the 'Press to zero'
buttons to set all displays to zero.
g) If you are to use the Torsiometer, carefully press its button that sets its display to zero.
h) Create a table of results similar to the table below:
Specimen Material:
Specimen Dimensions:
Angle (degrees) Torque (Nm) Angle (degrees) Torque (Nm)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
i) Press the 'Peak Hold' button of the Load Meter so that it records the maximum torque in
the test. If you are to use VDAS, the software records the Peak Torque value and the
normal torque value.
j) For the first part of the test the specimen will be stressed in its elastic region, so you must
increase the angle of twist in small steps of 1 degree.
Note Well: For best results, turn the hand wheel at a constant rate in one direction only.
If you turn it backwards by even a small amount, your results for the test will be wrong.
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k) At each angle, record the angle and the torque value. If you are to use VDAS, press the
'record data' button at each step.
l) After approximately 10 degrees, the specimen has passed its upper yield point. You can
now increase the angle size between measurements to larger increments.
m) You may now continue to increase the angle until the specimen breaks.
n) Repeat the test on specimens of different material.
 Plot a chart of torque (vertical axis) against the angle of twist in degrees (horizontal
axis).*
 On your chart, mark the yield point (upper and lower yield point for some steel
specimens).
 Use Equation 2 to find the polar moment of inertia for your specimen.*
 Use Equation 5 to find the shear stress* at the yield point.
 Compare the results for each type of specimen material.
 If you have the brass specimen, measure its final length and diameter to show the
effects of torsional stress. What can you state about the 'nominal stress' assumption?
 If you have all the optional specimens:

o Which materials give the highest torque, and corresponding stress levels?
o Which materials fracture quickest (need the least turns of the gearbox)?
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EXPERIMENT: CC – CORROSION CHAMBER
1. OBJECTIVE
To examine the effect of an aqueous solution atomized on the corrosion of aluminum and the
effect of internal stresses on the corrosion rate of aluminum.
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material as a result of reaction with its environment,
especially with oxygen. Although the term is usually applied to metals, all materials,
including ceramics, plastics, rubber, and wood, deteriorates at the surface to some extent
when they are exposed to certain combinations of liquids and/or gases. Common examples of
metal corrosion are the rusting of iron, the tarnishing of silver, the dissolution of metals in
acid solutions, and the growth of patina on copper. Most research into the causes and
prevention of corrosion involves metals, since the corrosion of metals occurs much faster
under atmospheric conditions than does the corrosion of nonmetals.
Perhaps the best known of all corrosion types is galvanic corrosion, which occurs at the
contact point of two metals or alloys with different electrode potentials. An example of this
might be brass detail in contact with copper hot-water pipes. The brass becomes anodic and
suffers the loss of its zinc atoms. Brass in contact with galvanized steel is protected, while the
zinc coating on the steel is first dissolved, leaving the steel open to attack for the same
reason. An obvious area of concern is the use of one type of metal as bolts, screws, and welds
to fuse together pieces of another metal. The combination to be desired is the large anode-
small cathode combination. Bolts, screws, and so on should be made of the metal less likely
to be oxidized so that the bolt or weld is cathodically protected.
Of great importance is the conductivity of the corroding solution. When large areas of the
surface are in contact with a water solution of high conductivity, such as seawater, the attack
on the anodic metal may spread far from its contact point with the cathodic metal. This is a
less severe situation than that which occurs in soft water or under atmospheric conditions in
which the attack is localized in the vicinity of the contact. In the absence of dissolved oxygen
or hydrogen ions to maintain the cathode process, galvanic corrosion does not occur. It is
possible to combine different metals such as copper and steel in closed hot-water systems
with little corrosion.
The first step in preventing material corrosion is understanding its specific mechanism. The
second and often more difficult step is designing a type of prevention. Some metals produce
corrosion products that are insoluble, about the same size molecularly as the parent metal,
and that crystallize in the same type of lattice structure. These are often able to become
Page 23
attached to the metal surface and form a protective coat against further corrosion. The patina
that forms on copper is an example of this type of coating.
Other preventive measures involve the use of protective coatings and modification of the
environment. Some trace impurities can significantly reduce the rate of corrosion and can be
added in low concentration to the surrounding medium. Paint is the most common coating
used to slow the rate of atmospheric corrosion. Many other materials, such as plastics,
ceramics, rubbers, and even electroplated metals, can be used as protective coatings. The
corrosion resistance of a metal can be greatly increased by the proper choice of alloys. For
example, aluminum added to brass will increase its corrosion resistance.
Uses of the Technology
One of the large and economically important groups of industries that commit a considerable
amount of time and money to corrosion prevention is the chemical process industry.
Chemical process industries are found in such sectors as pulp and paper products, chemical
and food processing, pharmaceuticals, metals, and semiconductor manufacture. Since these
industries are characterized by widely varying service and environmental conditions, the
selection of a corrosion-resistant process involves a complex analytical process.
Some of the generic classes of coatings used in recent years, such as pure vinyls or
chlorinated rubbers, can no longer be formulated in compliance with regulations. Coal tar,
which has long been used as an extending resin, is increasingly being regarded as
carcinogenic and is less in demand. Similarly, products with large amounts of styrene are in
decreasing usage because of reported toxicity. All of these facts indicate a strong future for
the developers of new types of industrial paints.
The workhorse of the protective coatings industry is epoxies. These are resins that use a
curative or hardening agent. Epoxies can be used to protect almost any substrate, including
concrete and steel. Most tank linings are epoxies. Epoxies are relatively inflexible and are
sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet exposure degrades the outer surface layer to a
chalky patina, which is an appearance effect only and does not change the corrosion-control
capabilities.
The best of both worlds is available in the form of plastic-lined pipes. These systems provide
the corrosion-resistant plastic as the inner lining and the physically strong stainless steel as
the exterior where the pipes are not in contact with the corrosive fluids. Their low cost
(compared to high-alloy metals), ease of installation, and long service life make these pipes
an important development in the field of corrosion technology.
Page 24
3. EXPERIMENTAL
a) Using the emery sand paper provided, sand down all six (6) samples.
b) Label each of the samples by etching numbers from one (1) to six (6) into them.
c) Measure the length, width and thickness of each of the six (6) samples.
d) Weigh each of the six (6) samples.
e) For the samples from one (1) to three (3):
 Stress the samples by scratching the surfaces, filing notches in the edges, drilling
holes or deforming them in any way.
 Put each of the samples into the 500 ml beaker.
 Pour 200ml of the aqueous solution provided into the 500 ml beaker.
 All of the steel test area must be below the liquid surface inside the beaker.
f) For the samples from four (4) to six (6):
 Repeat last three steps.
f) Place the beaker into the Corrosion Chamber, and the demonstrator will start it.
g) Observe / examine the samples for any visible rusting after 2 to 3 hours when the
Corrosion Chamber shuts down.
h) After the experiment has been completed, each sample needs to be removed from the
beaker, washed thoroughly under running water to remove all loose deposit, or acid.
i) Thoroughly dry the samples preferably in a warm oven or using paper towels, and then
repeat steps c) and d).
j) Compare the rate of corrosion between the stressed and unstressed samples.
a) Discuss the effect of the atomized salt solution spraying on the samples, also temperature
changes occurring within the Corrosion Chamber.
b) You will be given a quiz to do during the lab while you wait for the Corrosion Chamber‟s
test run to finish. You must answer all questions and submit the quiz along with your
answers to the demonstrator or lab technician before you leave the lab. (It will be graded
out of 40%, which will go towards the final mark of the lab.)
Page 25
EXPERIMENT: CS – CORROSION STUDIES
1. OBJECTIVE
To examine the effect of HCl (hydrochloric acid solution) with the presence of oxygen, on
the corrosion of aluminum and the effect of internal stresses on the corrosion rate of
aluminum.
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material as a result of reaction with its environment,
especially with oxygen. Although the term is usually applied to metals, all materials,
including ceramics, plastics, rubber, and wood, deteriorates at the surface to some extent
when they are exposed to certain combinations of liquids and/or gases. Common examples of
metal corrosion are the rusting of iron, the tarnishing of silver, the dissolution of metals in
acid solutions, and the growth of patina on copper. Most research into the causes and
prevention of corrosion involves metals, since the corrosion of metals occurs much faster
under atmospheric conditions than does the corrosion of nonmetals.
Perhaps the best known of all corrosion types is galvanic corrosion, which occurs at the
contact point of two metals or alloys with different electrode potentials. An example of this
might be brass detail in contact with copper hot-water pipes. The brass becomes anodic and
suffers the loss of its zinc atoms. Brass in contact with galvanized steel is protected, while the
zinc coating on the steel is first dissolved, leaving the steel open to attack for the same
reason. An obvious area of concern is the use of one type of metal as bolts, screws, and welds
to fuse together pieces of another metal. The combination to be desired is the large anode-
small cathode combination. Bolts, screws, and so on should be made of the metal less likely
to be oxidized so that the bolt or weld is cathodically protected.
Of great importance is the conductivity of the corroding solution. When large areas of the
surface are in contact with a water solution of high conductivity, such as seawater, the attack
on the anodic metal may spread far from its contact point with the cathodic metal. This is a
less severe situation than that which occurs in soft water or under atmospheric conditions in
which the attack is localized in the vicinity of the contact. In the absence of dissolved oxygen
or hydrogen ions to maintain the cathode process, galvanic corrosion does not occur. It is
possible to combine different metals such as copper and steel in closed hot-water systems
with little corrosion.
The first step in preventing material corrosion is understanding its specific mechanism. The
second and often more difficult step is designing a type of prevention. Some metals produce
Page 26
corrosion products that are insoluble, about the same size molecularly as the parent metal,
and that crystallize in the same type of lattice structure. These are often able to become
attached to the metal surface and form a protective coat against further corrosion. The patina
that forms on copper is an example of this type of coating.
Other preventive measures involve the use of protective coatings and modification of the
environment. Some trace impurities can significantly reduce the rate of corrosion and can be
added in low concentration to the surrounding medium. Paint is the most common coating
used to slow the rate of atmospheric corrosion. Many other materials, such as plastics,
ceramics, rubbers, and even electroplated metals, can be used as protective coatings. The
corrosion resistance of a metal can be greatly increased by the proper choice of alloys. For
example, aluminum added to brass will increase its corrosion resistance.
Uses of the Technology
One of the large and economically important groups of industries that commit a considerable
amount of time and money to corrosion prevention is the chemical process industry.
Chemical process industries are found in such sectors as pulp and paper products, chemical
and food processing, pharmaceuticals, metals, and semiconductor manufacture. Since these
industries are characterized by widely varying service and environmental conditions, the
selection of a corrosion-resistant process involves a complex analytical process.
Some of the generic classes of coatings used in recent years, such as pure vinyls or
chlorinated rubbers, can no longer be formulated in compliance with regulations. Coal tar,
which has long been used as an extending resin, is increasingly being regarded as
carcinogenic and is less in demand. Similarly, products with large amounts of styrene are in
decreasing usage because of reported toxicity. All of these facts indicate a strong future for
the developers of new types of industrial paints.
The workhorse of the protective coatings industry is epoxies. These are resins that use a
curative or hardening agent. Epoxies can be used to protect almost any substrate, including
concrete and steel. Most tank linings are epoxies. Epoxies are relatively inflexible and are
sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet exposure degrades the outer surface layer to a
chalky patina, which is an appearance effect only and does not change the corrosion-control
capabilities.
The best of both worlds is available in the form of plastic-lined pipes. These systems provide
the corrosion-resistant plastic as the inner lining and the physically strong stainless steel as
the exterior where the pipes are not in contact with the corrosive fluids. Their low cost
(compared to high-alloy metals), ease of installation, and long service life make these pipes
an important development in the field of corrosion technology.
Page 27
3. EXPERIMENTAL
a) Using the emery sand paper provided, sand down all six (6) samples.
b) Label each of the samples by etching numbers from one (1) to six (6) into them.
c) Measure the length, width and thickness of each of the six (6) samples.
d) Weigh each of the six (6) samples.
e) For the samples from one (1) to three (3):
 Stress the samples by scratching the surfaces, filing notches in the edges, drilling
holes or deforming them in any way.
 Fit each of the samples through the vessel lid with a space between each sample and
individually clamp by means of the nylon screws.
 Pour 200ml of the acid solution provided into the 500 ml beaker and insert the vessel
lid on top of the beaker.
 All of the steel test area must be below the liquid surface inside the vessel.
f) For the samples from four (4) to six (6):
 Fit each of the samples through the vessel lid with a space between each sample and
individually clamp by means of the nylon screws.
 Pour 200ml of the acid solution provided into the 500 ml beaker and insert the vessel
lid on top of the beaker.
 All of the steel test area must be below the liquid surface inside the vessel.
f) Place the two (2) vessels into the Corrosion Studies kit, and the demonstrator will start it.
g) Observe / examine the samples for any visible rusting after 2 to 3 hours when the
Corrosion Studies kit is operating.
h) After the experiment has been completed, each sample needs to be removed from the
vessel, washed thoroughly under running water to remove all loose deposit, or acid.
i) Thoroughly dry the samples preferably in a warm oven or using paper towels, and then
repeat steps c) and d).
j) Compare the rate of corrosion between the stressed and unstressed samples.
Page 28
a) Discuss the effect of the lack of oxygen on both sets of samples, also the differences
between the stressed & the unstressed samples occurring within the Corrosion Studies
Kit.
b) You will be given a quiz to do during the lab while you wait for the Corrosion Studies Kit
test run to finish. You must answer all questions and submit the quiz along with your
answers to the demonstrator or lab technician before you leave the lab. (It will be graded
out of 40%, which will go towards the final mark of the lab.)
Page 29

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CHNG1003/MENG1012 SCIENCE OF MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL 2013-2014

FORMAT OF LABORATORY REPORTS 2

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY 6

FORMAT OF LABORATORY REPORTS

3. GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING:

You are recommended to use the following headings:

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

GENERAL SAFETY RULES FOR THE LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT: E – THE THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

solid starts to form

Temp. Temp. Temp.

b. Suggest reasons for any errors or inaccuracies in the results.

c. Describe in words and diagrams what is happening to the 70% Pb alloy as it

f. A 12 gram piece of aluminum (cp = 0.215 cal/goC) is at 70oC. It is placed in a beaker

Even solid metals can do the same thing!

EXPERIMENT: R1 – CREEP MEASUREMENT

Three regions can be readily identified on the above curve:

 Failure occurs at point 4.

where: Ta is ambient temperature.

b) Discuss your experimental plans with the demonstrator.

EXPERIMENT: T2 – THE TORSION TESTING OF VARIOUS

b) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)

Torsional Stress and Strain

d) Torque (T) (Twisting Force)

e) Shear Stress ()

f) Shear Strain ()

A rearrangement of the Shear Modulus therefore gives:

Elasticity and Plasticity (or Elastic and Plastic Deformation)

Figure above showing the Stress / Strain curves

A material is perfectly elastic if it can be compressed or stretched (deformed) by any amount,

Nominal and True Stress

Upper and Lower Yield Point – Normalized Low Carbon Steel

Figure above showing the Upper and Lower Yield Strengths

e) Fit the clear guard around the specimen.

h) Create a table of results similar to the table below:

n) Repeat the test on specimens of different material.

 Use Equation 5 to find the shear stress* at the yield point.

 Compare the results for each type of specimen material.

 If you have all the optional specimens:

EXPERIMENT: CC – CORROSION CHAMBER

Uses of the Technology

EXPERIMENT: CS – CORROSION STUDIES

Uses of the Technology

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