~NTI O NSO FA RGUM ENT

CHA PTE R 17 FALLACI ESO FA RGUM ENT @

family values to be a faithful spouse. But it's fallacious to
tby uncovering the foibles of its advocates or by attacking
backgrounds, or unchangeable traits.

Logical Argument

:er a problem in any argument when the claims, warrants,

/idence in it are invalid, insufficient, or disconnected. In
.roblems seem easy enough to spot, but in practice, they
flaged by a skillful use of words or images. Indeed, logical
a challenge to civil argument because they often seem
d natural, especially when they appeal to people's self-
ile industries (such as online psychics) depend on one or
sica! fallacies for their existence. Political campaigns, too,
o prop up the current staple of democratic advertising-
ond TV spot.

lization

fallacies, only faulty causality might be as prevalent as

:ation. A hasty generalization is an inference drawn from
dence: Because my Honda broke down, then all Hondas must
orms the basis for most stereotypes about people or ínstí-
;e a few people in a large group are observed to act in a
members of that group are inferred to behave similarly.
:onclusions are usually sweeping claims of little merit:
::lrivers; men are slobs; Scots are stingy; Italians are lecherous;
,re nitpicky; scientists are nerds. You could, no doubt, expand
ereotypes by the hundreds.
I inferences, you must always have sufficient evidence-a
! of a population, a selection large enough to represent
ts of your study, ~n objective methodology for sampling
or evidence, and so on (see Chapter 16). And you must
ims appropriately. After all, people do need generaliza-
easonable decisions in life. Such claims can be offered
laced in context and tagged with appropriate qualifiers-
1y, most, occasionally, rarely, possibly, in some cases, under
'Ices, in my limited experience.
"Google must be anti-American because the company decorates its famous logo
for occasions such as the anniversary of Sputnik, Earth Day, and Persian New
Year but not Memorial Day in the United States." A hasty generalization? Check
"holiday logos" at Google, and decide for yourself.
You should be especially alert to the fallacy of hasty generalization
when you read reports and studies of any kind, especially case studies
that are based on carefully selected populations. Be alert for the fallacy
in the interpretation of poll numbers, too. Everything from the number
of people selected to the time the poll was taken to the exact wording of
the questions may affect its outcome.
Faulty Causality
In Latin, the fallacy of faulty causality is described by the expression post
hoc, ergo propter hoc, which translates as "after this, therefore because of
this." Odd as the translation may sound, it accurately describes what
faulty causality is-the fallacious assumption that because one event or

J
 § CONVENTIONS OF ARGUMENT
Chapter 26 includes several editorial action follows another, the first causes the second. Consider a lawsuit
cartoons that comment on commented on in the Wall Street Journal in which a writer sued Coors
affirmative action. Notice that several (unsuccessfully), claiming that drinking copious amounts of the com-
rely on accusations of faulty causality pany's beer had kept him from writing a novel.
to make their case. Some actions do produce reactions. Step on the brake pedal in your
LINK TO P. 917
car, and you move hydraulic fluid that pushes calipers against disks to
create friction that stops the vehicle. If you are the chair of the Federal
Reserve Board, you drop interest rates to lower the cost of borrowing to
increase the growth of the economy in order to reduce unemployment-
I you hope. Causal relationships of this kind are reasonably convincing
because one can provide evidence of relationships between the events
sufficient to convince most people that an initial action did, indeed,
cause subsequent actions.
In other cases, however, a supposed connection between cause and
; I
i
I effect turns out to be completely wrong. For example, doctors now
I
I believe that when an elderly person falls and is found to have a broken
leg or hip, the break usually caused the fall rather than the other way
i be an A student when he just earned a C? How can th:
around. And as the Federal Reserve example suggests, causality can be
especially difficult to control or determine when complex economic,
I political, or social relationships are involved.
That's why suspiciously simple or politically convenient causal claims
should always be subject to scrutiny. By mid-2008, it was apparent that
the military situation in the long-running Iraq War had changed signifi-
cantly, with American casualties down dramatically and violence through-
out the still-occupied country significantly reduced. The Bush admin-
istration credited that improvement to a military strategy called the
surge-which involved a change in counterinsurgency tactics of American
troops and a temporary increase in their numbers. Critics of the war,
however, claimed that the surge only appeared to work because it had
occurred just as Sunni tribal leaders decided to tum against Al Qaeda and
support the Iraqi government. Whose causal claim was right? Perhaps
that of both camps, as a writer for the Washington Post explains:
The arrival of additional U.S. forces signaled renewed resolve. Sunni
tribal leaders, having glimpsed the dismal future in store for their peo-
ple under a regime controlled by al-Qaeda in Iraq and fearful of aban-
donment, were ready to throw in their lot with the coalition. The surge
did not create the first of the tribal "awakenings," but it was the cata-
lyst for their expansion and eventual success. The tribal revolt took off
CHAPTER 17 FALLACIESOFARG
after the arrival of reinforcements and as U.S. and Iraqi u:
make the Iraqi people secure.
-Peter Mansoor, "How the S
The final word on this complicated causal relationship ,
written by military historians decades from now when
known and can be interpreted with fewer partisan pressi
Begging the Question
There's probably not a teacher in the country who hasn'
lowing argument: You can't give me a C in this course; I'm an
member of Congress accused of taking kickbacks, a I
makes a version of the same argument: Representative X
accepting such bribes; she's an honest person. In both case
with the claim is that it's made on grounds that cannot
true because those grounds are in doubt. How can the s
taker defend herself on the grounds of honesty when
now suspect? Setting such arguments in Toulmin terms
the fallacy:
Claim You can't give me a e in this course ...
Reason . . . because I'm an A student.
Warrant An A student is someone who can't receì-
Claim Representative X can't be guilty of accept
Reason ... because she's ari honest person.
Warrant An honest person cannot be guilty of acct
With the warrants stated, you can see why begging
assuming as true the very claim that's disputed-is a f
argument that is divorced from reality. If you assume th
can't receive Cs, then the first argument stands. But no,
dent by definition; that standing is earned by performan-
courses. Likewise, even though someone with a recor-
unlikely to accept bribes, a claim of honesty isn't an ad
against specific charges. An honest person won't ace
merely claiming that someone is honest doesn't make h
on Toulmin argument, see Chapter 7.)
IJTIONS OF ARGUMENT
mother, the first causes the second. Consider a lawsuit
in the Wall Street Journal in which a writer sued Coors
), claiming that drinking copious amounts of the com-
kept him from writing a novel.
, do produce reactions. Step on the brake pedal in your
rve hydraulic fluid that pushes calipers against disks to
hat stops the vehicle. If you are the chair of the Federal
rou drop interest rates to lower the cost of borrowing to
wth of the economy in order to reduce unemployment-
li relationships of this kind are reasonably convincing
1 provide evidence of relationships between the events
wince most people that an initial action did, indeed,
1t actions.
5, however, a supposed connection between cause and
: to be completely wrong. For example, doctors now
n an elderly person falls and is found to have a broken
.eak usually caused the fall rather than the other way
he Federal Reserve example suggests, causality can be
ult to control or determine when complex economic,
I relationships are involved.
spiciously simple or politically convenient causal claims
~ subject to scrutiny. By mid-2008, it was apparent that
.tion in the long-running Iraq War had changed signifi-
ican casualties down dramatically and violence through-
ipied country significantly reduced. The Bush adrnin-
:i that improvement to a military strategy called the
olved a change in counterinsurgency tactics of American
iporary increase in their numbers. Critics of the war,
l that the surge only appeared to work because it had
unni tribal leaders decided to tum against Al Qaeda and
government. Whose causal claim was right? Perhaps
s, as a writer for the Washington Post explains:
dditional U.S. forces signaled renewed resolve. Sunni
aving glimpsed the dismal future in store for their peo-
me controlled by al-Qaeda in Iraq and fearful of aban-
ready to throw in their lot with the coalition. The surge
1e first of the tribal "awakenings," but it was the cata-
iansion and eventual success. The tribal revolt took off
CHAPTER 17 FALLACIESOFARGUMENT @
after the arrival of reinforcements and as U.S. and Iraqi units fought to
make the Iraqi people secure.
-Peter Mansoor, "How the Surge Worked"
The final word on this complicated causal relationship will probably be
written by military historians decades from now when more facts are
known and can be interpreted with fewer partisan pressures.
Begging the Question
There's probably not a teacher in the country who hasn't heard the fol-
lowing argument: You can't give me a C in this course; I'm an A student. For a
member of Congress accused of taking kickbacks, a press secretary
makes a version of the same argument: Representative X can't be guilty of
accepting such bribes; she's an honest person. In both cases, the problem
with the claim is that it's made on grounds that cannot be accepted as
true because those grounds are in doubt. How can the student claim to
be an A student when he just earned a C? How can the accused bribe
taker defend herself on the grounds of honesty when that honesty is
now suspect? Setting such arguments in Toulmin terms helps to expose
the fallacy:
Claim You can't give me a C in this course ...
Reason . . . because I'm an A student.
Warrant An A student is someone who can't receive Cs.
Claim Representative X can't be guilty of accepting bribes ...
Reason . . . because she's ari honest person .
Warrant An honest person cannot be guilty of accepting bribes.
With the warrants stated, you can see why begging the question-
assuming as true the very claim that's disputed-is a form of circular
argument that is divorced from reality. If you assume that an A student
can't receive Cs, then the first argument stands. But no one is an Astu-
dent by definition; that standing is earned by performance in individual
courses. Likewise, even though someone with a record of honesty is
unlikely to accept bribes, a claim of honesty isn't an adequate defense
against specific charges. An honest person won't accept bribes, but
merely claiming that someone is honest doesn't make her so. (For more
on Toulmin argument, see Chapter 7.)
@) CONVENTIONS OF ARGUMENT CH A PTE R 1 7 FALLACIES OF ARG UM

A wannabe resists believing "I'm a writer because I say I am." Begging the truth" (5.5.43-44). An equivocation is an argument that g
question can deceive ourselves as well as others. honest appearance; it's a half-truth.
Equivocations are usually juvenile tricks of language. C

/
-· plagiarist who copies a paper word for word from a sour
declares (honestly, she thinks) that "I wrote the entire pap
meaning that she physically copied the piece on her own. Br
rist is using wrote equivocally-in a limited sense-and knox
people understar
to mean both co
well as mere copyi
Many public fìgui
of parsing their ·
fully so that no c€
ing emerges. In tr
Clinton's "I never l
that woman" cla
notorious when
president defined
row way. In the fir
the twenty-first e
ics of the Bush ad
.5ÌffU..5) said its many den
ture was being u
''I don't usually tellpeople I'm a writer because prisoners abroad ,
I've never actually written anything." a long series of eq
© The New Yorker Collection 2002 David Sipress from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved.

Non Sequitur
Equivocation
A non sequitur is ;
The finest definition of equivocation and its most famous literary exam- in which claims,
ples come from Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth. In the drama, three warrants fail to c
witches, representing the fates, make prophecies that favor the Baseball star Alex Rodriguez admitted that
he had taken performance-enhancing
cally; one point dc
ambitious Macbeth but that prove disastrous when understood more from another. As
drugs during the 2003 season, but said
fully. He's told, for example, that he has nothing to fear from his enemies that "I don't know exactly what" and fallacies, children
"till Birnamwood/ Do come to Dunsinane" (Mac. 5.5.44-45). Although it hinted that they may have been legal adept at framing
seems impossible that trees could move, they indeed appear to move substances. Some expert observers think turs. Consider tl
when enemy soldiers cut down branches from the forest of Birnam for that's an equivocation-a dishonest play
on the word know-since he tested
form: You don't lou
camouflage and march on Macbeth's fortress. Catching on to the game, buy me that bicyc
positive for drugs that can't be obtained
Macbeth starts "to doubt the equivocation of the fiend/ That lies like legally in the United States. be more evident
ITIONS OF ARGUM ENT
CHAPTER 1 7 FALLACIES OF ARGUMENT 8
believing "I'm a w riter because I say I am ." Begging the
ive ourselves as well as others.
truth" (5.5.43-44). An equivocation is an argument that gives a lie an
honest appearance; it's a half-truth.
Equivocations are usually juvenile tricks of language. Consider the
~
¡-· --- -·.-
"
. 7111¿1 plagiarist who copies a paper wordfor word from a source and then
declares (honestly, she thinks) that "I wrote the entire paper myself'-

l /~
~
I
meaning that she physically copied the piece on her own. But the plagia-
rist is using wrote equivocally-in a limited sense-and knows that most
people understand the word
to mean both composing as
well as mere copying of words.
~-~~· j~ Many public figures are fond
of parsing their words care-
fully so that no certain mean-
ing emerges. In the 1990s, Bill
Clinton's "I never had sex with l.
that woman" claim became
notorious when the then-
president defined sex in anar-
I
row way. In the first decade of
the twenty-first century, crit-
il I
ics of the Bush administration
> ieeess: said its many denials that tor-
ture was being used on U.S.
m't usually tellpeople I'm a writer because
prisoners abroad amounted to
Tue never actually written anything."
a long series of equivocations.
tion 2002 David Sipress from cartoon bank.com. All rights reserved.

Non Sequitur
A non sequitur is an argument
on of equivocation and its most famous literary exam- in which claims, reasons, or
hakespeare's tragedy Macbeth. In the drama, three
nting the fates, make prophecies that favor the Baseball star Alex Rodriguez admitted that
warrants fail to connect logi-
cally; one point doesn't follow
I
h but that prove_ disastrous when understood more he had taken performance-enhancing
drugs during the 2003 season, but said from another. As with other
exampls, that he has nothing to fear from his enemies
1 that "I don't know exactly what" and fallacies, children are notably
Do come to Dunsinane" (Mac. 5.5.44-45). Although it hinted that they may have been legal adept at framing non sequi-
that trees could move, they indeed appear to move substances. Some expert observers think turs. Consider this familiar
ers cut down branches from the forest of Birnatn for that's an equivocation-a dishonest play 11¡
form: You don't love me or you'd
arch on Macbeth's fortress. Catching on to the game, on the word know-since he tested
positive for drugs that can't be obtained buy me that bicycle! It might
doubt the equivocation of the fiend/ That lies like be more evident to harassed
legally in the United States.

1/1
111li
 @ CONVENTIONS OF ARGUMENT CHAPTER 17 FALLACIESOFI

parents that no connection exists between love and Huffys if they were leading. Also in his inaugural speech, Obama said, ",
to consider the implied warrant: afford indifference to suffering outside our borders.'
indifferent? Not in Obama's lifetime.
Claim You must not love me ...
-Fred Barnes, "Oba
Reason . . . because you haven't bought me that bicycle.
Warrant Buying bicycles for children is essential to loving them . A lot of "straw-man" arguments have been advai
debates over evolution and intelligent design. Some
A five-year-old might endorse that warrant, but no responsible adult
intelligent design say that its advocates attribute life
would because love doesn't depend on buying bicycles. Activities more
white-haired deity in the sky. Some who argue agains
logically related to love might include feeding and clothing children, tak-
ory allege that its adherents hold that evolution is all
ing care of them when they're sick, providing shelter and education, and
that a structure as complicated as the human eye cs
so on.
randomly. But in both instances, such speakers are r
Non sequiturs occur when writers omit a step in an otherwise logical
that their opponents haven't actually made. At least ÌI
chain of reasoning, assuming that readers agree with what may be a
ical or legal statements, supporters of intelligent e
highly contestable claim. For example, it's a non sequitur simply to argue
claims about who or what the "intelligent designer" is
that the comparatively poor performance of American students on inter-
evolution contend that the process is driven by ran
national mathematics examinations means that the country should
genes but that organisms evolve only if such mutatio:
spend more money on math education. Such a conclusion might be justi-
ter adapted to their environment (such as by increas
fied if a correlation were known or found to exist between mathematical
detect light) and thus more likely to reproduce. Both ·
j;
¡!
ability and money spent on education. But the students' performance
weak arguments that their opponents aren't actually r
might be poor for reasons other than education funding, so a writer should
both sides are ignoring the tougher issues.
first establish the nature of the problem before offering a solution.

Faulty Analogy
The Straw Man
Comparisons give ideas greater presence; they also r
Those who resort to the "straw-man" fallacy attack an argument that
one concept by measuring it against another that
isn't really there. It's much weaker or more extreme than the one that
Consider how quickly you make a judgment about B
the opponent is actually making. The speaker or writer "sets up a straw
reading this comparison with Madonna:
man" in this way to create an argument that's easy to knock down, pro-
ceeds to do so, and then claims victory over the opponent-whose real (R]egardless of how hard she tries, Britney's not Mad
argument was quite different. In a February 20, 2009, Weekly Standard col- Madonna wasn't Madonna at first either, but emu
umn, Republican political commentator Fred Barnes suggests that else-even if they're as successful as Madonna-usm
President Obama is fond of the device: in the end.

Obama may not be eloquent, but he is glib and clever and at times
persuasive. One of his favorite rhetorical devices is setting up a straw
man, then knocking it down. He invoked this classic ploy subtly in his
inaugural address, crudely in his press conference. "We will restore
science to its rightful place," Obama said at his inauguration. Really?
Where had science been? "We are ready to lead once more," he said,
as if we-America-hadn't been. He may have disapproved of the prior
administration's policies in the world, but that doesn't mean it wasn't
When comparisons are extended, they become <
understanding unfamiliar ideas by comparing them wiì
already known. People understand the world around th
comparisons, metaphors, and analogies. But useful as
are, they may prove false either taken on their own am
taken too seriously. At this point, they become faulty an
or inconsequential comparisons between objects or con
 NTIONS OF ARGUMENT CH A PTE R 1 7 FALLACIES OF ARGUMENT @
) connection exists between love and Huffys if they were leading. Also in his inaugural speech, Obama said, "we can no longer
implied warrant: afford indifference to suffering outside our borders." When were we
indifferent? Not in Obama's lifetime.
{ou must not love me ...
-Fred Barnes, "Obama's First Month"
.. because you haven't bought me that bicycle.
suyíng bicycles for children is essential to loving them. A lot of "straw-man" arguments have been advanced in the recent
debates over evolution and intelligent design. Some who argue against
I might endorse that warrant, but no responsible adult
intelligent design say that its advocates attribute life to the actions of a
love doesn't depend on buying bicycles. Activities more
white-haired deity in the sky. Some who argue against evolutionary the-
i to love might include feeding and clothing children, tak-
ory allege that its adherents hold that evolution is all chance-implying
n when they're sick, providing shelter and education, and
that a structure as complicated as the human eye came into existence
randomly. But in both instances, such speakers are refuting arguments
rs occur when writers omit a step in an otherwise logical
that their opponents haven't actually made. At least in their public polit-
aing, assuming that readers agree with what may be a
ical or legal statements, supporters of intelligent design don't make
ble claim. For example, it's a non sequitur simply to argue
claims about who or what the "intelligent designer" is. And supporters of
ratively poor performance of American students on inter-
evolution contend that the process is driven by random mutations in
ernatics examinations means that the country should
genes but that organisms evolve only if such mutations make them bet-
.ney on math education. Such a conclusion might be justi-
ter adapted to their environment (such as by increasing their ability to
ion were known or found to exist between mathematical
detect light) and thus more likely to reproduce. Both sides are attacking
1ey spent on education. But the students' performance
weak arguments that their opponents aren't actually making. As a result,
>r reasons other than education funding, so a writer should
both sides are ignoring the tougher issues.
te nature of the problem before offering a solution.

1
Faulty Analogy
Comparisons give ideas greater presence; they also may help to clarify
ort to the "straw-man" fallacy attack an argument that
one concept by measuring it against another that is more familiar.
·e. It's much weaker or more extreme than the one that
Consider how quickly you make a judgment about Britney Spears after
: actually making. The speaker or writer "sets up a straw
reading this comparison with Madonna:
ty to create an argument that's easy to knock down, pro-
' and then claims victory over the opponent-whose real (R]egardless of how hard she tries, Britney's not Madonna. To be fair,
[uite different. In a February 20, 2009, Weekly Standard col- Madonna wasn't Madonna at first either, but emulating someone
an political commentator Fred Barnes suggests that else-even if they're as successful as Madonna-usually doesn't work
.a is fond of the device: in the end.
-Erik J. Barzeski
not be eloquent, but he is glib and clever and at times
ne of his favorite rhetorical devices is setting up a straw When comparisons are extended, they become analogies-ways of
ocking it down. He invoked this classic ploy subtly in his understanding unfamiliar ideas by comparing them with something that's
:lress, crudely in his press conference. "We will restore already known. People understand the world around them largely through
rightful place," Obama said at his inauguration. Really? comparisons, metaphors, and analogies. But useful as such comparisons
:ience been? "We are ready to lead once more," he said, are, they may prove false either taken on their own and pushed too far, or
sríca-c-hadn't been. He may have disapproved of the prior taken too seriously. At this point, they become faulty analogies-inaccurate
, n's policies in the world, but that doesn't mean it wasn't or inconsequential comparisons between objects or concepts. For instance,
'
 -- ---- -

s CONVENTIONS OF ARGUMENT

Russian deputy foreign minister Sergei Ivanov startled observers on

CH A PTE R 1 7 FALLACIES OF

3. Choose a paper you've written for this or another

August 13, 2008, when he justified his country's military incursion into the
tiny neighboring country of Georgia by claiming a comparison to the 9/11
terrorist attacks:
We just reacted because we didn't have any other option. Any civilized
country would act the same way. I may remind you, September the
11th, the reaction was similar. American citizens were killed. You
know the reaction. -Sergei Ivanov
RESPOND•
l. The following list of political slogans or phrases may be examples of
logical fallacies. Discuss each item to determine what you may know
about the slogan. Then decide which, if any, fallacy might be used to
describe it.
"Leave no child behind." (George Bush policy and slogan)
"It's the economy, stupid." (sign on the wall at Bill Clinton's cam-
I·
! paign headquarters)
"Nixon's the one." (campaign slogan)
"Remember the Alamo." (battle cry)
"Make love, not war." (antiwar slogan during the Vietnam War)
"A chicken in every pot." (campaign slogan)
"No taxation without representation." (American colonial slogan)
"Loose lips sink ships." (slogan from World War II)
"Guns don't kill, people do." (NRA slogan)
'! "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen." (attributed to
Harry S. Truman)
"We are the ones we've been waiting for. We are the change that we
seek." (Obama campaign statement)
carefully for signs of fallacious reasoning. Once Y·
your own prose, find an editorial, a syndicated co
speech, and look for the fallacies in them. Whic
common in the four arguments? How do you ace
lence? Which are the least common? How do y
absence? What seems to be the role of audience iJ
a fallacy and what isn't?
4. Arguments on the Web are no more likely to cont
arguments in any other medium, but the fallacie
ent forms. The hypertextual nature of Web argun
including visuals with text make certain fallacie:
there. Find a Web site that is sponsored by an org
of Music Coalition, perhaps), business (Coca-e
group (the Democratic or Republican National C
lyze the site for fallacious reasoning. Among c
look at the relationship between text and graphi
vidual pages and the pages that surround or are
does the technique of separating information
affect the argument? Then consider sending an E
site's creators, explaining what you found and
arguments in the site could be improved.
S. Political blogs such as wonkette.com, andrewsi
.com, and InstaPundit.com typically provide qui
events and detailed critiques of material in othe
ing national newspapers. Study one active politic
to determine whether and how the blogger crir
or she links to. Does the blogger point to fallacie
does he or she explain them or just assume reac
or will figure them out? Summarize your findin
your class.

¥!- 0
,.
e don't want you to argue fallaciously, but it's fun and good practice
frame argumentative fallacies in your own language. Pick an argu-
mentative topic-maybe one that you've used for a paper in this
class-and write a few paragraphs making nothing but fallacious
arguments in each sentence. Try to include all the fallacies of erno-
tional, ethical, and logical argument that are discussed in this
chapter.
,I